Chapter 6 - Societies to Social Networks

SUMMARY

 Groups are the essence of life in society. We become who we are by our membership in groups. Essential
features of groups are that members have a sense of belonging and interact with one another. Society is
the largest and most complex group that sociologists study.

 On the way to postindustrial society, humans passed through four types of societies, each due to a social
revolution that was linked to new technology. The societies that have existed are (1) hunting and
gathering; (2) pastoral and horticultural, the result of the domestication revolution; (3) agricultural, the
result of the invention of the plow; and (4) industrial, the result of the Industrial Revolution.

 Today’s postindustrial society, based on information, services, and technology, has emerged with the
invention of the computer chip. Another new type of society, the bio-economic society, may be emerging,
which will center on applying and altering both plant and animal genetic structures.

 As new technology continues to be developed, the line between fantasy and reality can become blurred.
Virtual reality games and cloning may become a more routine part of the future.

 The following types of groups exist within society: primary groups, secondary groups, in-groups and out-
groups, reference groups, and social networks. Changing technology has given birth to a new type of
group—the electronic community.

 Group dynamics examine the ways in which individuals affect groups and how groups affect individuals.
Group size is a significant aspect of group dynamics. As a group grows larger, it becomes more stable but
the intensity or intimacy of the group decreases.

 Leaders can be either instrumental (task-oriented) or expressive (socio-emotional); both are essential for
the functioning of the group. The three main leadership styles are authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-
faire. Different situations require different styles of leadership.

 The Asch experiment demonstrates the influence of peer groups over their members, while the Milgram
experiment shows how powerfully people are influenced by authority.

 Groupthink, which occurs when political leaders become cut off from information that does not support
their opinion, poses a serious threat to society’s well-being. The circulation of independent research
conducted by social scientists is ones of the keys to preventing groupthink.

OUTLINE

I. The Transformation of Societies

A. The first societies were hunting and gathering societies.

 Their survival depended on hunting animals and gathering plants. Since an area could only support a
limited number of people who obtained food this way, the groups were small in size and nomadic, moving
elsewhere when the supply of food ran out.
 They had few social divisions beyond that based on sex. There was usually a shaman, an individual
thought to be able to influence spiritual forces, but whose status was generally not much higher than that
of everyone else.

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  The family was the basic unit—distributing food, educating the children, nursing the sick, etc.
 Because what they gathered was perishable, they did not accumulate possessions. Of all societies, they
were the most egalitarian.

B. Hunting and gathering societies were transformed into pastoral (characterized by the pasturing of animals) and
horticultural (characterized by the growing of plants) societies as a result of the domestication revolution.
 The domestication of plants and animals is called the first social revolution, although the process was
extremely gradual.
 The resulting societies created food surpluses that allowed for increased population size and some
specialized division of labor.
 Increased trade and interaction between groups developed, and people began to accumulate objects they
considered valuable.
 As families or clans acquired more goods than others, feuds and wars erupted.
 Leaders began to accumulate more of these possessions than other people did, and to pass these
advantages along to their descendants. As a result, simple equality began to give way to inequality.

C. The agricultural revolution (the second social revolution) occurred with the invention of the plow about 5,000 to
6,000 years ago. Pastoral and horticultural societies were transformed into agricultural societies.
 Since plows pulled by animals were used instead of hoes and digging sticks, a much larger food surplus
was produced. This allowed people to engage in activities other than farming.
 Sometimes referred to as the dawn of civilization, this period produced the wheel, writing, and numbers.
Cities developed, and groups were distinguished by their greater or lesser possessions. An elite gained
control of the surplus resources.
 Social inequalities became a fundamental feature of social life. This concentration of resources and
power, along with the oppression of the powerless, was the forerunner of the state.
 Females became subjugated to males; Elise Boulding suggests that this change occurred because men
were in charge of plowing and the cows.

D. The Industrial Revolution (the third social revolution) began in 1765, when the steam engine was first used to
run machinery in Great Britain. Agricultural societies were transformed into industrial societies.
 The industrial societies developed and harnessed many mechanical power sources, resulting in a dramatic
shift from agriculture to manufacturing as the major sources of power, wealth, and prestige.
 Initially, social inequality increased greatly, as did the size of the population. The individuals who first
utilized the new technology accumulated great wealth, controlling the means of production and dictating
the conditions under which people could work for them. A huge surplus of labor developed, as masses of
people were thrown off the land their ancestors had farmed.
 Initially denied the right to unionize or strike, workers eventually won their demands for better living
conditions. The consequence was that wealth spread to larger segments of society.
 As industrialization continued, the pattern of growing inequality was reversed. Indicators of greater
equality include better housing, a vast increase in consumer goods, the abolition of slavery, and more
representative political systems.

E. Industrial societies are being transformed into postindustrial societies; these social changes are linked to the
new technology of the microchip.
 Postindustrial societies are moving away from production and manufacturing to service industries. The
basic component of this new society is information.
 The United States was the first country to have more than 50 percent of its work force employed in
service industries. Australia, New Zealand, Western Europe, and Japan soon followed.
 Social analysts are suggesting that we are witnessing a fourth social revolution because our way of life has
been radically transformed by the microchip.

F. Some social analysts believe that another new type of society, called biotech society, is emerging.

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  Its origins go back to either the identification of the double-helix structure of DNA or the decoding of the
human genome. Its chief characteristic will be an economy that centers around the application of genetic
structures.
 Biotechnology is already replacing botany and biochemistry is replacing chemistry.
 It is not clear whether this is a society that will replace postindustrial society or simply be another aspect
of this information-based society. Regardless, we can look forward to revolutionary changes in health care
and maybe even the human species.

G. As society is transformed, so are we. These changes even affect the way we think about ourselves and the way
we live our lives. Not all societies go through all the stages; many societies today reflect a mixture of the different
types.

II. Social Groups and Societies

A. Groups are the essence of life in society; the groups to which we belong help determine our goals and values,
how we feel about ourselves, and even how we feel about life itself.

B. An essential element of a social group is that its members have something in common and that they believe
what they have in common makes a difference.

C. Society is the largest and most complex group that sociologists study.

III. Groups within Society

A. Groups are viewed as buffers between individuals and society.

 Durkheim believed that small groups serve as a sort of lifeline that helps prevent anomie.
 Sociologists distinguish between aggregates, categories, and groups. An aggregate is made up of
individuals who temporarily share the same physical space but do not have a sense of belonging together.
A category is a collection
 of people who have similar characteristics. Unlike groups, the individuals who make up aggregates or
categories do not interact with one another or take each other into account.

B. Sociologist Charles H. Cooley used the term “primary group” to refer to groups characterized by cooperative,
intimate, long-term, face-to-face relationships.
 The group becomes part of the individual’s identity and the lens through which to view life.
 It is essential to an individual’s psychological well-being, as humans have an intense need for associations
that promote feelings of self-esteem.

C. Secondary groups are larger, relatively temporary, more anonymous, formal, and impersonal than primary
groups, and are based on some interest or activity.
 Members are likely to interact on the basis of specific roles, such as president, manager, worker, or
student.
 In industrial societies, secondary groups have multiplied and become essential to our welfare.
 Secondary groups tend to break down into primary groups within the larger group, such as friendship
cliques at school or work. The primary group serves as a buffer between the individual and the needs of
the secondary group.

D. Groups toward which individuals feel loyalty are called in-groups, while those toward which they feel
antagonisms are called out-groups.
 The division is significant sociologically because in-groups provide a sense of identification or belonging,
which often produce rivalries between groups.

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  In-group membership can lead to discrimination. Sociologist Robert K. Merton identified a double
standard produced by this: the behaviors by members of an in-group are seen as virtues, while the same
behaviors by members of an out-group are viewed as vices.
 Dividing the world into “we” and “them” can sometimes lead to acts directed against the out-groups.

E. Reference groups are the groups we use as standards to evaluate ourselves, whether or not we actually belong
to those groups.
 They exert great influence over our behavior; people may change their clothing, hair style, speech, and
other characteristics to match what the reference group would expect of them.
 Having two reference groups that clearly conflict with each other can produce intense internal conflict.

F. Social networks consist of people linked by various social ties. Clusters or factions that form within large groups
are called cliques.
 Interaction takes place within social networks that connect us to the larger society.
 One of the ways in which people are expanding their social networks is through face-book, an electronic
way to meet “friends.”
 Stanley Milgram did an experiment that demonstrated how small our social world really is; he found that
social networks are so interrelated that almost everyone in the United States is connected by just six links.
 Judith Kleinfeld found problems with Milgram’s research when she tried to replicate his study.

G. In the 1990s, due to technology, an entirely new type of human group made its appearance—the electronic
community.
 Through the Internet, people around the world interact with one another in news groups.
 While most news groups are a new and interesting way of communicating, some meet our definition of a
group, because the people who use them have established relationships and think of themselves as
belonging together.

IV. Group Dynamics

A. How individuals affect groups and groups affect individuals is known as group dynamics.
 The study of group dynamics focuses on group size, leadership, conformity, and decision making.
 Sociologists recognize a small group as one that is small enough for everyone in it to interact directly with
all the other members.

B. As Georg Simmel (1858-1918) noted, the size of the group is significant for its dynamics.
 A dyad is a social group containing two members. It is the smallest and most fragile of all human
groupings. Marriages and love affairs are examples: if one member loses interest, the dyad collapses.
 A triad is a group of three persons—a married couple with a first child, for example. Triads basically are
stronger than dyads but are still extremely unstable. It is not uncommon for coalitions to form in which
there is alignment of some members of the group against another.
 As more members are added to a group, intensity decreases and stability increases, for there are more
linkages between more people within the group. The groups develop a more formal structure to
accomplish their goals.
 Research by Darley and Latané found that as groups grow larger, they tend to break into smaller groups,
people are less willing to take individual responsibility (diffusion of responsibility), and they interact more
formally toward one another.

C. A leader may be defined as someone who influences the behavior of others.

 There are two types of group leaders. Instrumental (task-oriented) leaders are those who try to keep the
group moving toward its goals. Expressive (socio-emotional) leaders are those who are less likely to be
recognized as leaders but help with the group’s morale.

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  There are three types of leadership styles. Authoritarian leaders are those who give orders and frequently
do not explain why they praise or condemn a person’s work. Democratic leaders are those who try to gain
a consensus by explaining proposed actions, suggesting alternative approaches, and giving “facts” as the
basis for their evaluation of the members’ work. Laissez-faire leaders are those who are very passive and
give the group almost total freedom to do as it wishes.
 Psychologists Ronald Lippitt and Ralph White discovered that the leadership styles produced different
results when used on small groups of young boys. Under authoritarian leaders the boys became either
aggressive or apathetic; under democratic leaders they were more personal and friendly; and under
laissez-faire leaders they asked more questions, made fewer decisions, and were notable for their lack of
achievement.
 Different situations require different leadership styles.
 Sociologists would disagree that people are born to be leaders. Rather, they find that people with certain
characteristics are more likely to become leaders—those who represent the group’s values, are seen as
capable of leading the group out of crisis, are more talkative, express determination and self-confidence,
are taller or are judged better looking.

D. A study by Dr. Solomon Asch indicates that people are strongly influenced by peer pressure. Asch was interested
in seeing whether individuals would resist the temptation to change a correct response to an incorrect response
because of peer pressure.
 Asch held cards up in front of small groups of people and asked which sets of cards matched; one at a
time, they were supposed to respond aloud. All but one of the group members was a confederate, having
been told in advance by the researcher how to answer the question.
 After two trials in which everyone answered correctly, the confederates intentionally answered
incorrectly, as they had previously been instructed to do.
 Of the fifty people tested, 33 percent ended up giving the incorrect answers at least half of the time, even
though they knew the answers were wrong; only 25 percent always gave the right answer despite the
peer pressure.

E. Dr. Stanley Milgram sought to determine why otherwise “good people” apparently participated in the Nazis’
slaughter of Jews and others.
 He conducted experiments in which one person (the “teacher”) was instructed to administer an electric
shock to the other person (the “learner”) for each wrong answer given to certain questions and to
increase the voltage of the shock after each wrong answer.
 In fact, the “learner” was playing a role, intentionally giving wrong answers but only pretending to be
receiving an electrical shock.
 Since a person in apparent authority (scientist, white coat, university laboratory) continually stated that
the experiment had to go on, most of the “teachers” gave in to that authority and continued to administer
the “shocks” even when they appeared to produce extreme pain.
 The scientific community was disturbed not only by Milgram’s findings, but also by his methods.
Associations of social researchers accordingly adopted codes of ethics to require that subjects be
informed of the nature and purpose of social research, and almost all deception was banned.

F. Cascades are similar to Asch’s experiments. In a cascade someone gives the wrong answer and others agree with
it. Eventually the “wrong answer” becomes the truth. Cascades are especially common in medicine.

G. Sociologist Irving Janis coined the word “groupthink” to refer to situations in which a group of people think alike
and any suggestion of alternatives becomes a sign of disloyalty. Even moral judgments are put aside for the
perceived welfare of the group.
 The Asch and Milgram experiments demonstrate how groupthink can develop.
 U.S. history provides examples of governmental groupthink: presidents and their inner circles have
committed themselves to a single course of action (e.g., refusal to believe the Japanese might attack Pearl
Harbor; continuing and expanding the war in Vietnam; the Watergate scandal; and the use of torture after

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 9/11) even when objective evidence showed the course to be wrong. The leaders became cut off from
information that did not coincide with their own opinions.
 Groupthink can be prevented only by insuring that leaders regularly are exposed to individuals who have
views conflicting with those of the inner circle.

Short Answer Questions

1) What are the two qualities that members of a society must share?
Answer: a) a culture; b) a territory

2) In the hunting and gathering society, what were the major social divisions on which social stratification
was based?
Answer: Hunting and gathering societies have few social divisions. The only major social division is the
award of prestige to labor done by males. Some, but not all, of these societies have a division
of labor by sex, in which men do the hunting and women do the gathering.

3) In order of their historical occurrence, what are the seven types of societies?
Answer: a) hunting and gathering society; b) horticultural society; c) pastoral society; d) agricultural
society; e) industrial society; f) postindustrial or information society; g) biotech society

4) What is the major difference in technology between the horticultural and agricultural societies?
Answer: The horticultural society used simple hand tools to work the soil, while the agricultural society
used the plow.

5) What was the most obvious result of social inequality as some families and clans acquired more goods
and wealth than others?
Answer: Wars and feuds occurred when one group attempted to acquire the goods of the other.

6) Why postindustrial society also called the information society?

Answer: Its basic component is the acquiring and passing on of knowledge and technology, not the
production of a material product.

7) What is the earliest explanation for the advent of the biotech society?
Answer: the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA by Crick and Watson in 1953

8) Why don't aggregates and categories qualify as social groups?

Answer: Members of aggregates and categories do not interact in a meaningful way. They either have
nothing in common (aggregate) or are separated physically even though they may share a
characteristic (category).

9) Why are secondary groups essential to the functioning of society?

Answer: Secondary groups allow societies to get important things done, such as educating the masses,
making a living, acquiring needed possessions, and engaging in leisure activities.

10) What is the difference between a primary and secondary group?

Answer: A primary group is a group characterized by intimate, long-term, face to face association and
cooperation. A secondary group is larger than a primary group, relatively temporary, more

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 anonymous, formal, and impersonal. In the secondary group, interaction is based on specific
statuses.

11) What are some of the dysfunctions of an in-group?

Answer: unhealthy rivalries, discrimination, hatred, and even murder

12) What is the difference between a social network and a clique?

Answer: A social network refers to people who are linked to one another where the social ties radiate
outward from the self that link people together. A clique is a cluster of people within a larger
group who choose to interact with one another.

13) What is the "small world phenomenon"?

Answer: The "small world phenomenon" is the belief that, on average, just six individuals separate
everyone in the United States.

14) Why is the electronic community classified as being a new group?

Answer: The electronic community could not appear until the technology made it possible. The
technology for this to happen was introduced in the 1990s.

15) In what group is a coalition impossible?

Answer: a dyad

16) What is the relationship between group size, intimacy, and stability?
Answer: As a small group grows larger, it becomes more stable, but its intensity or intimacy decreases.

17) What are the two types of leaders?

Answer: a) instrumental leaders; b) expressive leaders

18) What are the three leadership styles?

Answer: a) authoritarian leader; b) democratic leader; c) laissez-faire leader

19) What leadership style is best?

Answer: No single leadership style is best. The situation, the time allotted to accomplish a task, the
number of people involved, and other factors determines which leadership style should be
used.

20) Why is groupthink dangerous to an organization?

Answer: It discourages alternative points of view, stifles creativity, and promotes blindly following
leaders, regardless of their competence.

Medium Range Questions

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1) Discuss the five social revolutions and their causes.
Answer: a) The first social revolution created the pastoral and horticultural societies because of the domestication
of plants and animals. It was the beginning of social inequality, greater divisions of labor, and the
establishment of permanent and semi-permanent communities. b) The second social revolution created
the agricultural society because of the invention of the plow. It was considered the "dawn of civilization"
because it permitted people to devote time to careers other than growing food and led to the
establishment of cities. c) The third social revolution created the industrial society because of the
invention of the steam engine. In the industrial society both inequality and the separation of the social
classes increased. d) The fourth social revolution created the postindustrial society because of the
invention of the microchip. In this society the emphasis shifted from manufacturing to information and
technology. e) The fifth social revolution created the biotech society after the discoveries of the DNA
double helix and the decoding of the human genome system. In this society the economy centers on
applying and altering genetic structures to produce food, medicine, and materials.

2) Briefly explain how social inequality is linked to the transformation of society.

Answer: Greater social equality was found in hunting and gathering societies. Social inequality emerged as people
learned to domesticate plants and animals which allowed people to produce and accumulate a food
surplus. This food surplus resulted in a more complex division of labor, permitted trade among groups,
and led to the accumulation of material goods. This surplus also resulted in the subordination of females
by males, the development of the state, and the rule by a small elite group over the others in the society.
The development of the agricultural society created a greater degree of inequality, partially due to the
feudal system where land ownership was in the hands of a small number of royal and religious elites. As
society industrialized, a rising middle class, the production of a vast amount of affordable consumer
goods, the abolition of slavery, and the transformation of monarchies to democracies helped distribute
wealth more equitably than it was done in the agricultural society. There still exists a great deal of
difference between classes in all industrial societies but the differences are in degrees of inequality among
many classes.

3) Compare and contrast aggregate, category, and social group. Give examples of each.
Answer: Aggregates are individuals who temporarily share the same physical space but do not see themselves as
belonging together. An aggregate might be a group of people waiting for a bus or a group of people in an
elevator car of a high rise going to different floors for different reasons. A category refers to people who
share a common characteristic, regardless of where they may physically located. Examples of categories
include all Pittsburgh Steelers fans, all left-handed people, and all university women. A social group
requires two or more people interacting with one another who have something in common and believe
what they have in common is significant. Aggregates do not share a common interest and do not interact
in a meaningful way. A category may share an interest but fail to interact because of physical separation.

4) Define a group and explain the differences between primary and secondary groups.
Answer: Groups are people who interact, have something in common and who believe that what they have in
common is significant. Primary groups are small, relatively permanent groups that are characterized by
intimate face-to-face interaction and cooperation. These groups fill the emotional needs of people by
providing feelings of high self-esteem, a sense of belonging and being appreciated, and sometimes love.
Secondary groups are larger, relatively temporary, more anonymous, formal and impersonal. These
groups are based on some interest or activity, and people usually interact on the basis of specific roles.

5) Describe the social changes that resulted from the invention of the plow.
Answer: a) The use of animals to pull plows resulted in more efficient farming practices. With plows, fewer people
could farm more land, allowing even more people to engage in other activities. b) With more people
engaging in activities other than farming, cities and culture (philosophy, art, music, literature, and
architecture) developed. c) Social inequality also became a fundamental feature of social life as some

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 people managed to gain control of the surplus resources and establish themselves in power. d) Those in
power levied taxes on others and protected themselves by hiring armed men. e) During this period,
females became subjugated to males and the status of women became inferior to males.

6) Did equality among the masses increase or decrease following the Industrial Revolution? Provide evidence
to support your answer.
Answer: Equality among the masses increased. Although there was a rising middle class, the distance between the
"haves" and the "have-nots" became greater. Slavery flourished for the first hundred years of the
Industrial Revolution. People who could afford them demanded more and more consumer goods while
vast numbers of workers remained destitute and at the mercy of the capitalists.

7) Discuss the consequences of dividing our world into in-groups and out-groups.
Answer: In-groups exert a high degree of social control over their membership. This often leads members to do
things they may not otherwise do and some things they may even dislike. In-groups also foster
ethnocentrism. As a member of an in-group begins to judge his or her own accomplishments and
characteristics, a sense of superiority over others develops. This can result in prejudice and discrimination
and create a double standard. Traits and behaviors that are a part of one's in-group are seen as virtues
while the same traits are viewed as vices in out-groups. Dividing the world into "us" and "them" can result
in acts against the out-groups, ranging from friendly rivalries to very destructive or violent acts.

8) What is the electronic community? Discuss why this is considered the new type of human group.
Answer: The electronic community is the new type of human group that evolved during the 1990s. Members of
this type of group regularly interact with one another on the Internet and think of themselves as
belonging together. For example, people meet online to talk about any type of topic, which often occurs
in chat rooms, Face-book, Twitter, or LinkedIn. These types of groups pride themselves on the distinctive
nature of their interests and knowledge that give them a common identity and bind them together.

9) What is the "small world phenomenon"? How does this phenomenon relate to social networks?
Answer: The "small world phenomenon" refers to the closeness that all members of a society share, even one as
extensive as the population of the United States. In the "small group phenomenon" experiment, Milgram
showed there are only six degrees of separation among total strangers who have never met. The "small
group phenomenon" demonstrates the potential vastness of a social network. While we may interact
within relatively small groups composed of friends and family, one's potential social network is almost
limitless. In many cases, the linkages that are possible between ourselves and our immediate social
groups can connect us to persons who are both geographically and socially distant.

10) Discuss group dynamics and the variables that affect it.
Answer: Group dynamics refer to how groups influence us and how we affect groups. The smallest group possible
is a dyad, composed of two people. There is no maximum number of participants in a "large" group. But
as a small group grows larger, it becomes more stable, but its intensity or intimacy decreases. When some
members of a group align themselves against other members of the group, it creates a coalition. At least
a triad is required for a coalition to exist. As the number of members of a group increases the number of
relationships increases at an accelerated rate. In a two person group there is one relationship, in a dyad
three relationships, in a four person group six relationships, in a seven person group twenty-one
relationships, and so on. As groups increase in size there is also a diffusion of responsibility or a lack of
personal accountability by each member of the group to the overall welfare of the group.

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11) List three leadership styles and briefly describe the characteristics of each. Which style is the best one to
adopt?
Answer: The three leadership styles are authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire. A democratic leadership style
tries to lead by building a consensus among group members. An authoritarian leadership style leads by
giving orders to group members. A laissez-faire leadership style emphasizes a permissive approach, which
allows group members to choose their own options with minimum input from the actual leader. A laissez-
faire leader is actually relinquishing power to his or her subordinates. No single leadership style can be
considered "best". All other factors remaining equal, the "best" style is dependent upon the situation and
the immediate and long-term objectives of the group. In a life-threatening or emergency situation, an
authoritative style would be most effective. If new products are being developed, a more democratic or
laissez-faire style will foster greater insight and creativity. Democratic and laissez-faire styles also
encourage the development of staff.

12) Discuss groupthink. Although usually criticized, in what situations would the concept of groupthink be
beneficial?
Answer: Groupthink is the narrowing of thought by a group of people, leading to the perception that there is only
one correct answer. To even suggest alternatives becomes a sign of disloyalty. Usually a group looks to
explore alternatives in every situation, but there are situations when there is simply not time to explore or
discuss alternatives. Although such situations are rare, they do occur during emergencies and when time
and resources are severely limited. In addition, some organizations have a member who opposes any
option decided upon by the group leader. There are occasions when the choice made is the best choice
and for everyone to agree is not a sign of weakness or submission to authority, but simply sound
management.

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. After summarizing the fundamental social changes that resulted from each of the different social
revolutions, evaluate the degree to which the new technology of the microchip is contributing to a similar
level of fundamental change.

2. Discuss how primary, secondary, and reference groups are similar and different from one another.
Provide examples of each type of group and why they are important to an individual’s well-being.

3. Explain the three different leadership styles and suggest reasons why the democratic leader is the best
style of leader for most situations.

Matching Questions
Match the term with the definition.
1) social group A) the social ties radiating outward from the self that link
people together
2) pastoral society B) the alignment of some members of a group against
others
3) horticultural society C) a society based on large-scale food production using
plows drawn by animals
4) agricultural society D) a narrowing of thought by several people leading to
the perception that there is only one correct answer
5) primary group or solution
E) a group that is relatively large, temporary, anonymous
6) secondary group and formal; based on some interest or activity

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 F) an individual who increases harmony and minimizes
7) social network conflict in a group
G) individuals who regularly interact with one another on
8) electronic community the Internet and who think of themselves as belonging
together
9) group dynamics H) a group characterized by intimate, long-term, face-to-
face association and cooperation
10) coalition I) an individual who leads by being highly permissive
J) people who interact with one another, have
11) instrumental leader something in common and believe that what they
have in common is significant
12) expressive leader K) an individual who tries to keep the group moving
toward its goals
13) authoritarian leader L) an individual who leads by giving orders
M) the ways in which individuals affect groups and the
14) laissez-faire leader
ways in which groups influence individuals
N) a society based on cultivating plants by the use of
15) groupthink
hand tools
O) a society based on the pasturing of animals

1) J; 2) O; 3) N; 4) C; 5) H; 6) E; 7) A; 8) G; 9) M; 10) B; 11) K; 12) F; 13) L; 14) I; 15) D

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