UNIT - III: TYPES OF CONCRETE AGGREGATES AND CONCRETE:

Lightweight Aggregate:

• Lightweight aggregates are used to make lightweight concrete.

• Lightweight aggregates can be processed natural materials (for example expanded clay or expanded shale),
processed by-products (for example foamed slag or sintered pulverized fuel ash) or unprocessed materials (for
example pumice).

• Lightweight aggregate is a type of coarse aggregate that is used in the production of lightweight concrete
products such as concrete block, structural concrete, and pavement.

• Most lightweight aggregate is produced from materials such as clay, shale, or slate. Blast furnace slag, natural
pumice, vermiculite, and perlite can be used as substitutes.

Applications where lightweight aggregates are used include:

• Lightweight concrete masonry, 
• Structural lightweight and semi-lightweight cast-in-place concrete ,
• Low-density precast concrete units, 
• Low-density mortars for radiant heat floor and refractory,
• Geotechnical low-density engineered fill,
• Insulating concrete fill,
• Concrete roofing tile and ballast and
• Ground cover and soil-less mix.

Advantages:
• Minimizing the need for repair and replacement of the Infrastructure
• Reduced heat island effect in urban areas :
The magnitude of the heat island effect is the temperature difference between a city’s hot built-up core and its
surrounding cool rural areas which can amount to 6ºC or more.
• By incorporating vesicular aggregates into the soil, the tiny pores act as reservoirs that hold and release as
needed water and soluble nutrients for the vegetation to absorb.
• The porous cellular lightweight aggregates help manage water by acting as a moisture flywheel absorbing
moisture during wet periods and slowly releasing it along with soluble nutrients during dry spells.
• In addition to minimizing the need for irrigation, it also reduces the amount of runoff. As in wastewater
treatment plants a gravel bed can be an important component in improving the quality of the groundwater.
• Horticulture uses such as green roofs.
• Usage of recycled by products :
By-products such as fly ash and bottom ash from power generating plants can be processed into lightweight
aggregates.
• Filter beds:
In the treatment of municipal waste, filter beds are used where a bacterial film anchors and develops on
aggregate surfaces. The surface of lightweight aggregates provides an ideal medium for the development of this
bacterial growth and is particularly effective in lowering the phosphates content. With a vesicular aggregate
even more surface area is available for the beneficial organisms to form as compared to normal weight
aggregates.

Examples: Litex brand lightweight aggregate is well suited for concrete masonry,
structural and non-structural concrete, soil stabilization, and horticulture and
landscaping applications.
True Lite Lightweight Aggregate™ brand aggregate ("True Lite") is a co-product of the iron production process. 
It is well suited for lightweight concrete masonry, lightweight structural and non-structural concrete, and
lightweight engineered fill applications.  True Lite offers excellent fire resistance, thermal insulating, and sound
absorption capabilities.

 In cement, Vitrex brand pelletized slag offers:

Low moisture content.  Vitrex brand pelletized slag typically has a moisture content of less than 8 percent. 
Some cement producers grind Vitrex brand pelletized slag directly without further drying. 

A magnified view shows the pores of autoclaved aerated

concrete
Advantages:

AAC has been produced for more than 70 years, and it offers
advantages over other cementitious construction materials,
one of the most important being its lower environmental
impact.
AAC’s improved thermal efficiency reduces the heating and
cooling load in buildings.
AAC’s workability allows accurate cutting, which minimizes
the generation of solid waste during use.
AAC’s resource efficiency gives it lower environmental impact
in all phases of its life cycle, from processing of raw materials
to the disposal of AAC waste.
AAC’s light weight also saves cost & energy in transportation.
AAC's light weight saves labour
 Autoclaved aerated concrete block with a sawn surface to show the
cellular pore structure
Environmental benefits of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete

The use of autoclaved aerated concrete has a range of

environmental benefits:

Insulation: most obviously, the insulation properties of aircrete

will reduce the heating costs of buildings constructed with
autoclaved aerated concrete, with consequent fuel savings over the
lifetime of the building.

Materials: lime is one of the principal mix components and

requires less energy to produce than Portland cement, which is
fired at higher temperatures. Sand requires only milling before use,
not heating, and PFA is a by-product from electricity generation.
NB: lime may require less energy to manufacture compared with
Portland cement but more CO2 is produced per tonne (cement
approx. 800-900 kg CO2/tonne compared to lime at 1000 kg
CO2 per tonne).

Carbonation: less obviously, the cellular structure of aircrete

gives it a very high surface area. Over time, much of the material is
likely to carbonate, largely offsetting the carbon dioxide produced
in the manufacture of the lime and cement due to the calcining of
limestone.
No fines concrete
It is common for no fines concrete to be used as external walls in
houses because rains falling on the surface of external walls can only
penetrate a short horizontal distance and then falls to the bottom of
the walls. The use of no fines concrete guarantees good thermal
insulation of the house.

Plastering walls :
NFC has a rough surface texture for plastering. Normal plaster mixes
are used and the surface of the NFC must be dry when applying the
plaster. Plastered NFC walls have some excellent qualities, but one
drawback is that neither conventional wall plugs nor masonry nails can
be used for attaching fixtures.

Screeding :
When used in underfloor drainage, roof insulation and domestic floors,
NFC should be screeded within 72 hours of placing. Particular attention
must be paid to wet curing the screed.

NFC therefore has large interconnected voids and a much lower density
than conventional dense concrete. The structure of NFC makes it ideal
for use as a drainage layer under reservoir and basement floors. It can
also serve as an insulating layer and as a damp-proofing material.

NFC is NOT suitable for drainage purposes where the

water is soft or aggressive to concrete.
Uses
The low permeability of polymer concrete allows it to be used in
swimming pools, sewer pipes, drainage channels, electrolytic cells
for base metal recovery, and other structures that contain liquids.
It can also be used as a replacement for asphalt pavement, for
higher durability and higher strength.
Advantages:
Advantages of polymer concrete include:
Rapid curing at ambient temperatures
High tensile, flexural, and compressive strengths
Good adhesion to most surfaces
Good long-term durability with respect to freeze
and thaw cycles
Low permeability to water and aggressive solutions
Good chemical resistance
Good resistance against corrosion
Lightweight

Disadvantages
Some safety issues arise out of the use of polymer concrete. The
monomers can be volatile, combustible, and toxic. Initiators, which are
used as catalysts, are combustible and harmful to human skin. The
promoters and accelerators are also dangerous.
Polymer concretes also cost significantly more than conventional
concrete.
 Intended use of POLYMER CONCRETE

Due to its properties, polymer concrete is nowadays used in many

applications:
Production of prefabricated products for bridge drainage system (bridge
edge beams, bridge kerbs, bridge drainage inlets, gutters),
Production of prefabricated products for linear drainage systems
(channels, linear drainage channels, linear drainage silt boxes)
Production of industrial tanks, intended for electrolysis of non-ferrous
metals,
Production of catch basins and channels to drain aggressive industrial
wastewater, water meter chambers, sewage pump stations,
Production of storage tanks to store corrosive substances, e.g. acids,
bases,
execution of chemical resistant cladding as chemical resistant coats
made of laminates or resin composites.
Reinforced cement concrete:

 Reinforced cement concrete is a composite material made

up of cement concrete and reinforcement in which the
concrete resists compression with reinforcement resisting
the tension and shear. It is the most versatile building
material available and is extensively used in the construction
industry ranging from small structural elements such as
beams and columns to massive structures like dams and
bridges.
 The idea of reinforcing concrete with steel has resulted in a
composite material, having the potential of resisting
significant tensile stresses. The steel bars are embedded in
the tensile zone of concrete to compensate the poor tensile
resistance of concrete.
 The bond between steel and the surrounding concrete
ensures strain compatibility. Moreover, the reinforcing steel
imparts ductility to this composite material.
 The reinforcing steel also supplements concrete in bearing
compressive forces, as in the case of columns. Here the bars
are confined with lateral ties, in order to maintain their positions and to prevent their local buckling. In addition,
the lateral ties also serve to confine the concrete, thereby enhancing its compression load bearing capacity.

 One of the serious limitation of reinforced cement concrete is the cracking which is a natural phenomenon for concrete
constructions. Once cracks occur they do not disappear even after removal of load. If the width of these cracks is to be
kept within permissible limits, the steel stress has to be kept low.
 Presence of cracks lowers the capacity of structure to bear reversal of stresses, impact vibration and shocks. Also, the
reinforcing bars may get corroded in due course of time and the concrete deteriorates. Besides these disadvantages, the
presence of cracks makes theory of reinforced concrete quite irrational.

Prestressed concrete:
 Efforts were made to eliminate the cracking of concrete by artificially introducing in it either before or simultaneously
with the application of external loads, a compressive force of permanent nature. This force is so applied that it causes
compressive stresses in that zone of the member where tensile stress will be caused by external loads. The tensile stress
in concrete will thus be neutralized and it will not crack.
 A prestressed concrete may thus be defined as a concrete in which stresses of suitable magnitude and distribution are
introduced to counteract, to a desired degree, the stresses resulting from external loads. The concept of prestressing
concrete was first used by Mandl of France in 1896. In prestressed concrete high strength concrete and steel are
desirable.
 The former is required because of following:
1. The use of high strength concrete results in smaller cross-section of member and hence smaller self weight; longer
spans become technically and economically practicable.
2. High bearing stresses are generated in anchorage zones.
3. The shrinkage cracks are reduced, with higher modulus of elasticity and smaller creep strain resulting in smaller loss
of prestress.
 The loss of prestress at the initial stages is very high and for this reason high strength steel is required. High tensile
strength wires with ultimate tensile strength up to 2010 N/mm2 are the choice. For prestressed concrete members, the
high tensile steel used generally consists of coires, bars or strands.
 Prestressing is achieved by either pre-tensioning or post-tensioning. In the former the wires or cables are anchored,
tensioned and concrete is cast in the moulds. After the concrete has gained strength the wires are released. This sets up
compression in concrete which counteracts tension in concrete because of bending in the member.
 In the post-tensioning prestressing force is applied to the steel bars or cables, after the concrete has hardened
sufficiently. After applying the full prestress the cable passages are grouted. The minimum 28-day cube compressive
strength for concrete is 40 N/mm2 for pre-tensioned members and 30 N/mm2 for post-tensioned members.
Advantages:
1. The cracking of concrete is eliminated enabling the entire cross-section of the member to take part in resisting
moment.
2. As dead load moments are neutralized and the shear stresses are reduced, the sections required are much smaller than
those for reinforced concrete. This reduces the dead weight of structure.
3. In ordinary reinforced concrete (RCC) the economy is not as pronounced as in prestressed concrete (PSC). The
prestressing force in most cases is computed strictly from dead load of the structure; consequently, a weight reduction of
25% results in a substantial reduction in the weight of prestressing tendons. It is widely used for construction of precast
units such as beams, floors, roofing systems, bridges, folded plate roofs, marine structures, towers and railway sleepers

Fibre reinforced concrete:

 Conventional concrete is modified by random dispersal of short discrete fine fibres of asbestos, steel, sisal, glass,
carbon, poly-propylene, nylon, etc. Asbestos cement fibres so far have proved to be commercially successful. The
improvement in structural performance depends on the strength characteristics, volume, spacing, dispersion and
orientation, shape and their aspect ratio (ratio of length to diameter) of fibres. A fibre-reinforced concrete requires a
considerably greater amount of fine aggregate than that for conventional concrete for convenient handling.
 For FRC to be fully effective, each fibre needs to be fully embedded in the matrix, thus the cement paste requirement is
more. For FRC the cement paste required ranges between 35 to 45 per cent as against 25 to 35 per cent in conventional
concrete.
 The first flexural cracking load on a FRC member increases due to crack arresting mechanism of the closely spaced
fibres. After the first crack fibres continue to take load provided the bond is good. Thereafter the fibres,reaching the
breaking strain fracture. The neutral axis of the section shifts and the fibres of adjacent layers fracture on reaching the
breaking strain. Failure occurs when the concrete in compression reaches the ultimate strain.
 Advantages:
1. Strength of concrete increases.
2. Fibres help to reduce cracking and permit the use of thin concrete sections.
3. Mix becomes cohesive and possibilities of segregation are reduced.
4. Ductility, impact resistance, tensile and bending strength are improved.
 Disadvantages:
1. Fibres reduce the workability of a mix and may cause the entrainment of air.
 2. Steel fibres tend to intermesh and form balls during mixing of concrete.
Types of Frc’s:
 Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete (SFRC)
 Aspect ratios of 30 to 250
 Diameters vary from 0.25 mm to 0.75 mm
 Hooks are provided at the ends to improve bond with the matrix

Introduction of steel fibres

modifies:
1. Tensile strength
2. Compressive strength
3. Flexural strength
4. Shear strength
5. Modulus of Elasticity
6. Shrinkage
7. Impact resistance
8. Strain capacity/Toughness
9. Durability
10. Fatigue

Applications:

Fibre reinforced concrete is useful in hydraulic structures, airfield pavements, highways, bridge decks, heavy duty floors,
and tunnel linings.

 Highway and airport pavements

 Refractory linings
 Canal linings
 Industrial floorings and bridge-decks
 Precast applications - wall and roof panels, pipes, boats, staircase steps & manhole covers
 Structural applications.
Polypropylene Fibre Reinforced Concrete (PFRC) :

 Glass Fibre Reinforced Concrete (GFRC)

Ready mixed concrete:

 Ready mixed concrete (RMC) is a concrete, delivered at site or into the purchaser’s vehicle, in plastic condition and
requires no further treatment before being placed in a position in which it is to set and harden.
 It is a high quality concrete of required grade produced under strictly controlled conditions in a centralised automatic
batching plant and supplied to the customer in a transit mixer truck for its placement at site.
 The concrete can be mixed either dry at the batching plant, loaded into agitator truck mixers and water added during
transportation; or it can be mixed wet at the batching plant, discharged into the agitator truck mixers and transported
to site.
 Use of RMC to its full advantage requires more careful planning on the site as compared to the site mixing. Due to better
quality control measures adopted, RMC can be considered to be almost a factory-made product, yet it is not. It is
advantageous not only for mass concreting but also for small quantities of concrete to be placed at intervals.
 RMC is extremely useful on congested sites or in road construction where limited space is available for aggregate stock
piling and mixing plant.
 The major setback to the use of RMC is its cost. Though a little bit expensive, the increasing emphasis on quality, with
skilled labour becoming expensive, and its inherent advantages outweigh the cost.
Admixtures in RMC:
 Generally RMC is transported to sites which are located at long distances from the batching plants. At the delivery point,
concrete should be workable and plastic. The transit period is sometimes four to five hours. The ordinary concrete will
suffer slump loss due to the time lost in transit and evaporation of water due to atmospheric conditions such as high
temperature. Therefore, admixtures will be required to extend the setting time and, retention of specified slump of
concrete.
 Two types of admixtures are in use—the high performance water reducing admixtures and a high range water-reducing
super-plasticizers.
 The advantages of using high performance water reducing admixtures are:
1. Improved cohesion and reduced bleeding and segregation.
2. Makes the mix cohesive even if the aggregates are of slightly poor grading.
3. Since chloride free it is safe for use in reinforced and prestressed concrete.
4. Improved workability and workability retention with controlled extended setting time and hence ideal for use in hot
weather condition.
5. Workability increases without extra water addition.
6. Assists in producing dense, close textured, low permeability concrete thus enhancing durability.
7. Water reduction helps in improvement of compressive strength at all ages.
 The advantages of using high range water-reducing super plasticizers are:
a) Speedy construction.
b) Increased workability and reduced segregation.
c) Longer placing time.
d) Improved pumpability.
e) Chloride free.
f) Safe for use in prestressed and marine structures.
g) Safe for use with sulphate resisting cement and marine aggregate.
h) Higher ultimate strength.
i) Improved workability.
 Advantages of using RMC:
1. Enhanced quality and durability resulting in lower maintenance costs and increased speed of construction.
2. Ready mix concrete is consistently of the same quality and provides a high quality of construction material;
construction time is also reduced.
3. It reduces congestion at the site and prevents traffic jams.
4. It hastens infrastructure development and thus provides more employment opportunities.
5. It is an environmentally safer alternative.
6. With ready mixed concrete, modern construction techniques can be followed.
7. Convenience—Ready Mix Concrete is delivered at the site with minimum logistical hassles.
8. Different types of concretes can be made for different applications.
9. Use of RMC obviates the need to set up the infrastructure required for site manufactures of concrete. This also
reduces the working capital to be invested by the customers, as they will not be required to maintain stock of
aggregates, cement, plant and machinery etc .