UNIT I REQUIREMENTS OF INGREDIENTS FOR MORTAR/ CONCRETE:

Ordinary Portland Cement:

Definition of OPC

Cement can be defined as the bonding material having cohesive & adhesive properties which
makes it capable to unite the different construction materials and form the compacted assembly.

Ordinary/Normal Portland cement is one of the most widely used type ofPortland Cement.

The name Portland cement was given by Joseph Aspdin in 1824 due to its similarity in colour and
its quality when it hardens like Portland stone.Portland stone is white grey limestone in island of
Portland, Dorset.

Composition of OPC

The chief chemical components of ordinary Portland cement are:

1. Calcium
2. Silica
3. Alumina
4. Iron

Calcium is usually derived from limestone, marl or chalk while silica, alumina and iron come from
the sands, clays & iron ores. Other raw materials may include shale, shells and industrial
byproducts.

Basic Composition:

Contents %

CaO 60-67
SiO2 17-25

Al2O3 3-8
Fe2O3 0.5-6.0

MgO 0.5-4.0
Alkalis 0.3-1.2

SO3 2.0-3.5
 The chief compound which usually form in process of mixing:

 1-triclcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2)
 2-Dicalcium silicate (2CaO.SiO2)
 3-tricalcium aluminates (3CaO.Al2O3)
 4-tetracalcium aluminoferrite (4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3)

Production & Manufacturing:

Manufacturing

Raw Materials

1. Calcareous (material having content of lime)

2. Argillaceous (material having contents of silica & alumina)
3. Gypsum

Process

Cement is usually manufactured by two processes:

1. Wet process
2. Dry process

These two processes differ in operation but fundamentals of both these processes are same.

There are five stages in manufacturing of cement by wet process:

1. Crushing and grinding of raw material

2. Mixing the material in proportion
3. Heating the prepared mixture in rotary kiln
4. Grinding the heated product known as clinker
5. Mixing and grinding of cement clinker with gypsum

Crushing and Grinding:

In this phase, soft raw materials are first crushed into suitable size. This is done usually in
cylindrical ball or tube mills containing the charge of steel balls

Mixing the Material:

In this part, the powdered limestone is mixed with the clay paste in proper proportion (75%=lime
stone; clay=25%)
The mixture is then grounded and made homogeneous by mean of compressed gas. The resulting
material is known as slurry having 35-40% water.
Heating the slurry in rotary kiln:

Slurry is then introduced in rotary kiln with help of conveyor. The rotary kiln consists of large
cylinders 8 to 15 feet in diameter & height of 300-500 feet. It is made with steel & is usually lined
inside with firebricks.

Kiln rotates at the rate of 1-2 revolution per minute. In rotary kiln, slurry is passed through
different zones of temperature. This whole process in kiln usually covers 2 to 3 hours.

Different temperature zones are as under:

Preheating Zone

In this zone, temperature is kept at 500 degree Celsius & usually the moisture is removed & clay is
broken into silica, aluminum oxide, iron oxide.

Decomposition Zone

Temperature is raised up to 800 degree Celsius. In this zone lime stone decomposes into lime and
CO2.

Burning Zone

In this zone temperature is maintained up to 1500 degree Celsius and the oxides formed in above
zones combine together and form respective silicate, aluminates & ferrite.

Cooling Zone

This is last stage where the whole assembly cooled is up to 150 to 200 degree Celsius.
Clinker Formation

The product which is obtained from the rotary kiln is known as the cement Clinker. Clinker is
usually in the form of greenish black or grey colored balls.

Grinding the Clinker with Gypsum

The Cement Clinker is then air cooled. The required amount of Gypsum (5 %) is ground to the fine
powder, and then mixed with the Clinker. Finally cement is packed in bags and then transported to
the required site.

Setting and Hardening:

When ordinary Portland cement is mixed with water its chemical compound constituents undergo
a series of chemical reactions that cause it to set. These chemical reactions all involve the addition
of water to the basic chemical compounds. This chemical reaction with water is called "hydration".
Each one of these reactions occurs at a different time and with different rates. Addition of all these
reactions gives the knowledge about how Ordinary Portland cement hardens and gains strength.
Those compounds and their role in hardening of cement are as under:

1. Tricalcium silicate (C3S): Hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial

set and early strength. Ordinary Portland cements with higher percentages of C3S will exhibit
higher early strength.
2. Dicalcium silicate (C2S): Hydrates and hardens slowly and is largely responsible for
strength increases beyond one week.
3. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A): Hydrates and hardens the quickest. It liberates a large
amount of heat almost immediately and contributes somewhat to early strength. Gypsum is
added to Ordinary Portland cement to retard C3A hydration. Without gypsum, C3A hydration
would cause ordinary Portland cement to set almost immediately after adding water.
4. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF): Hydrates rapidly but contributes very little to
strength. Most ordinaryPortland cement color effects are due to C4AF.

Rotary Kiln

Ball Mill
Cement Manufacture-Dry Process
Cement Manufacture-Wet Process
Uses of OPC (Ordinary Portland cement):

It is used for general construction purposes where special properties are not required. It is
normally used for the reinforced concrete buildings, bridges, pavements, and where soil conditions
are normal. It is also used for most of concrete masonry units and for all uses where the concrete
is not subject to special sulfate hazard or where the heat generated by the hydration of cement is
not objectionable. It has great resistance to cracking and shrinkage but has less resistance to
chemical attacks.

Tests on Ordinary Portland cement

1. Fineness test
2. Soundness test
3. Setting time test
4. Strength tests
1. Compressive strength test
2. Tensile strength test
3. Flexural strength test
5. Specific gravity test
6. Consistency test
7. Heat of hydration test
8. Loss of ignition test

Fineness Test:
The degree of fineness of cement is the measure of the mean size of the grains in it. There are
three methods for testing fineness: the sieve method—using 90 micron (9 No.) sieve, the air
permeability method— Nurse and Blains method and the sedimentation method— Wagner
turbidimeter method. The last two methods measure the surface area, whereas the first
measures grain size. Since cement grains are finer than 90 micron, the sieve analysis method
does not represent true mean size of cement grains. Also, the tiny cement grains tend to
conglomerate into lumps resulting in distortion in the final grain size distribution curves.
Considering these demerits, fineness is generally expressed in terms of specific area, which is
the total surface area of the particles in unit weight of material.

Conditions Affecting Fineness: The chemical composition and the degree of calcination influence
the hardness of the clinker and consequently the fineness to which the cement is ground.
Clinker, high in iron or silica, is apt to be hard and difficult to grind. The same is true with a
hard-burned clinker. Fineness is also influenced by the time of grinding and the character of the
pulverizing machinery. It has been found that cement becomes finer with age provided it does
not absorb too much moisture. This is probably due to the decrepitation of the coarser grains
resulting from the hydration of the embedded lime particles.

Importance: Finer the cement, more is the strength since surface area for hydration will be
large. With increase in fineness, the early development of strength is enhanced but the ultimate
strength is not affected. An increase in the fineness of the cement increases the cohesiveness of
the concrete mix and thus reduces the amount of water which separates to the top of a lift
(bleeding), particularly while compacting with vibrators. However, if the cement is ground
beyond a certain limit, its cementative properties are affected due to the prehydration by
atmospheric moisture. Finer cement reacts more strongly in alkali reactive aggregate. Also, the
water requirement and workability will be more leading to higher drying shrinkage and
cracking.
Soundness
Test:
It is essential that the cement concrete does not undergo large change in volume after setting.
This is ensured by limiting the quantities of free lime and magnesia which slake slowly causing
change in volume of cement (known as unsound). Soundness of cement may be tested by Le-
Chatelier method or by autoclave method. For OPC, RHC, LHC and PPC it is limited to 10 mm,
whereas for HAC and SSC it should not exceed 5 mm.

Importance: It is a very important test to assure the quality of cement since an unsound cement
produces cracks, distortion and disintegration, ultimately leading to failure.

Conditions Affecting Soundness: The main cause for unsoundness in Portland cement is the
hydration of the uncombined lime encased within the cement particles. Exposed, finely ground,
free lime in small percentages, hydrates before the cement sets and produces no injurious
effect. The uncombined lime in cement is a result of either underburning the clinker or of excess
lime in the raw materials. Freshly ground cement is often unsound due to the presence of
uncombined lime. Cement is thus allowed to aerate for two to three weeks, allowing the lime to
hydrate, to overcome unsoundness.
Fine grinding of the raw material and clinker help to produce a sound cement. By grinding
fine the raw materials, it is possible to produce a homogeneous mixture before burning where
the lime is uniformly distributed. The coarse grains of cement may imprison minute particles of
uncombined lime which do not hydrate. These lime particles on hydralion produce
disintegration.

StrengthTest:
Cement hydrates when water is added to it and cohesion and solidity is exhibited. It binds
together the aggregates by adhesion. The strength of mortar and concrete depends upon the
type and nature of cement. So, it should develop a minimum specified strength if it is to be used
in structures. Cement is tested for compressive and tensile strengths.

Conditions Affecting Strength: Cement is very strong at early ages if a high lime or high
alumina content is there. Gypsum and Plaster of Paris in small percentages also tend to
increase the strength slightly, but when present in quantities larger then 3 per cent, these
substances provide variable effects. The effect of the clinker compounds on strength have
already been discussed in Sec 5.4. In addition to the effect of composition, the strength of
cement is greatly influenced by the degree of burning, the fineness of grinding, and the
aeration it receives subsequent to final grinding. An underburnt cement is likely to be deficient
in strength.
Compressive Strength: Compressive strength is the basic data required for mix design. By this
test, the quality and the quantity of concrete can be cotrolled and the degree of adulteration can
be checked. The test specimens are 70.6 mm cubes having face area of about 5000 sq. mm.
Large size specimen cubes cannot be made since cement shrinks and cracks may develop. The
temperature of water and test room should be 27°± 2°C. A mixture of cement and standard
sand in the proportion 1:3 by weight is mixed dry with a trowel for one minute and then with
water until the mixture is of uniform colour. Three specimen cubes are prepared. The material
for each cube is mixed separately. The quantities of cement, standard sand and water are 185 g,
555 g and (P/ 4) + 3.5, respectively where P = percentage of water required to produce a paste of
standard consistency. The mould is filled completely with the cement paste and is placed on the
vibration table. Vibrations are imparted for about 2 minutes at a speed of 12000± 400 per
minute.
The cubes are then removed from the moulds and submerged in clean fresh water and are
taken out just prior to testing in a compression testing machine. Compressive strength is taken
to be the average of the results of the three cubes. The load is applied starting from zero at a
rate of 35 N/ sq mm/ minute. The compressive strength is calculated from the crushing load
divided by the average area over which the load is applied.The result is expressed in N/
mm2. The minimum specified strength for some of the cements is given in Table 5.4.

Tensile Strength: The tensile strength may be determined by Briquette test method or by split
tensile strength test.

Importance: The tensile strength of cement affords quicker indications of defects in the cement
than any other test. Also, the test is more conveniently made than the compressive strength
test. Moreover, since the flexural strength, is directly related to the tensile strength this test is
ideally fitted to give information both with regard to tensile and compressive strengths when
the supply for material testing is small.

Briquette Method: A mixture of cement and sand is gauged in the proportion of 1:3 by weight.
The percentage of water to be used is calculated from the formula (P/ 5) + 2.5, where P =
percentage of water required to produce a paste of standard consistency. The temperature of
the water and the test room should be 27° ± 2°C. The mix is filled in the moulds of the shape
shown in Fig. 5.11.
After filling the mould, an additional heap of mix is placed on the mould and is pushed
down with the standard spatula, until the mixture is level with the top of the mould. This
operation is repeated on the other side of the mould also. The briquettes in the mould are
finished by smoothing the surface with the blade of a trowel. They are then kept for 24 hours at
a temperature of 27° ± 2°C and in an atmosphere having 90 per cent humidity. The briquettes
are then kept in clean fresh water and are taken out before testing. Six briquettes are tested
and the average tensile strength is calculated. Load is applied steadily and uniformly, starting
from zero and increasing at the rate of 0.7 N/ sq mm of section in 12 seconds.
Specific Gravity Test
The specific gravity of hydraulic cement is obtained using Le-Chatelier flask shown in Fig.
5.13.

le-Chatelier Flask for Specific Gravity Test

Conditions Affecting Specific Gravity: Long seasonig is the chief cause of a low
specific gravity in unadulterated cement. This is because the freshly ground cement when
exposed to air rapidly absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide. Cements with high contents
of iron oxide have a higher specific gravity. The effect of fineness of grinding upon specific
gravity is slight. Very finely ground cements are likely to have lower specific gravities.

Test Procedure: The flask is filled with either kerosene free of water, or naphtha having
a specific gravity not less than 0.7313 to a point on the stem between zero and 1-ml mark.
The flask is immersed in a constant temperature water bath and the reading is recorded. A
weighed quantity of cement (about 64 g of Portland cement) is then introduced in small
amounts at the

same temperature as that of the liquid. After introducing all the cement, the stopper is
placed in the flask and the flask rolled in an inclined position, or gently whirled in a
horizontal circle, so as to free the cement from air until no further air bubbles rise to the
surface of the liquid. The flask is again immersed in the water-bath and the final reading is
recorded. The difference between the first and the final reading represents the volume of
liquid displaced by the weight of the cement used in the test.

Specific gravity = Weight of cement

Displaced volume of liquid in
ml
Types of Cement

In addition to ordinary cement, the following are the other varieties of cement.
The main types cements are
i) Acid resistance cement
ii) Blast furnace cement
iii) Coloured cement
iv) Expanding cement
v) High alumina cement
vi) Hydrophobic cement
vii) Low heat cement
viii) Pozzolona cement
ix) Quick setting cement
x) Rapid hardening cement
xi) Sulphate resistance cement
xii) White resistance cement

a. Acid Resistance Cement: This is consists of acid resistance aggregates such as quartz, quartzite’s, etc,
additive such as sodium fluro silicate (Na2SiO6) and aqueous solution of sodium silicate. This is used for acid resistant
and heat resistant coating of installations of chemical Industry. By adding 0.5 percent of linseed oil or
2 percent of ceresil, its resistance to water is increased and known as acid water resistant cement.

b. Blast Furnace Cement: For this cement slag as obtained from blast furnace in the manufacture of pig iron and it
contains basic elements of cement, namely alumina, lime and silica. The properties of this cement are more or less the
same as those of ordinary cement and prove to be economical as the slag, which is waste product, is used in its
manufacture.

c. Coloured Cement: Cement of desired colour may be obtained by intimately mixing mineral pigments with
ordinary cement. The amount of colouring may vary from 5 to 10 percent and strength of cement if it is exceeds 10
percent. Chromium oxide gives brown, red or yellow for different proportions. Coloured cements are used for finishing
of floors, external surfaces, artificial marble, and windows.

d. Expanding Cement : This type of cement is produced by adding an expanding medium like sulpha – aluminate and a
stabilizing agent to ordinary cement. Hence this cement expands where as other cement shrinks. Expanding cement is
used for the construction of water retaining structures and also for repairing the damaged concrete surfaces.

e. High alumina Cement: This cement is produced by grinding clinkers formed by calcining bauxite and lime. The total
content should not be less than 32 percent and the ratio by weight of alumina to lime should be between 0.85 and 1.30.
Advantages
1. Initial setting time is about 31/2 hours therefore, allows more time for mixing and placing operations.
2. It can stand high temperatures.
3. It evolves great heat during setting therefore not affected by frost.
4. It resists the action of acids in a better way.
5. It lets quickly and attains higher ultimate strength.
Disadvantages:
1. It is costly
2. It cannot be used in mass construction as it evolves great heat and as it sets soon.
3. Extreme care is to taken to see that it does not come in contact with even traces of lime or ordinary cement.

f. Hydrophobic Cement: This type of cement contains admixtures, which decreases the wetting ability of cement grains.
The usual hydrophobic admixtures are acidol napthene soap, oxidized petrolium etc when hydrophobic cement is used,
the fire pores in concrete are uniformly distributed and thus the frost resistance
and the water resistance of such concrete are considerably increased.

g. Low Heat Cement: Considerable heat is produced during the setting action of cement. In order to reduce the amount
of heat, this type of cement is used. It contains lower percentage of tri calcium aluminates C3A and higher percentage of
dicalcium silicate C2s. This type of cement is used for mass concrete works because it processes less compressor
strength.

h. Pozzuolona Cement: Pozzuolona is a volcanic powder and the percentage should be between 10 to 30.
Advantages
1. It attains compressive strength with age.
2. It can resist action of sulphates.
3. It evolves less heat during setting.
4. It imparts higher degree of water tightness.
5. It imparts plasticity and workability to mortar and concrete prepared from it.
6. It offers great resistance to expansion
7. It possesses higher tensile strength
Disadvantages:
1. Compressive strength in early days is less.
2. It possesses less resistance to erosion and weathering action.

i. Quick Setting Cement: This cement is prepared by adding a small percentage aluminum sulphate which reduce the
percentage of gypsum or retarded for setting action and accelerating the setting action of cement. As this cement
hardness less than 30 minutes, mixing and placing operations should be completed. This cement is used to lay concrete
under static water or running water.

j. Rapid Hardening cement: This cement has same initial and final setting times as that of ordinary cement. But it attains
high strength in early days due to
1. Burning at high temperature.
2. Increased lime content in cement composition.
3. Very fine grinding.
Advantages:
1. Construction work may be carried out speedily.
2. Form work of concrete can be removed earlier.
3. It is light in weight.
4. It is not damaged easily.
5. This cement requires short period of curing.
6. Use of this cement also higher permissible stresses in the design.
7. Structural member constructed with this cement may be loaded earlier.

k. Sulphate Resisting Cement: In this cement percentage of tri-calcium aluminates is kept below 5 to 6 percent and it
results in the increase in resisting power against sulphate. This cement is used for structure which are likely to be
damaged by sever alkaline condition such as canal linings, culverts, siphons etc.

l. White Cement: This is a variety of ordinary cement and it is prepared form such raw materials which are practically
free from colouring oxides of Iron, manganese or chromium. For burning of this cement, oil fuel is used instead of coal.
It is used for floor finish; plaster work, ornamental works etc.

3.3. Uses of Cement:

1. Cement mortar for masonry work, plaster, pointing etc
2. Concreter for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, weather sheds, stairs, pillars etc.
3. Construction of important engineering structure such as bridges, culverts, dams, tunnels storage reservoirs, light
houses, deckles etc.
4. Construction of water tanks, wells, tennis courts, septic tanks, lampposts, roads, telephone cabins etc.
5. Making joints for drains, pipes etc.
6. Manufacture of pre cast pipes, piles, garden seats, artificially designed urns, flowerpots, etc dustbins, fencing posts
etc.
7. Preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths etc.

SAND
Sand is an important building material used in the preparation of mortar, concrete, etc.
Sources of Sand: Sand particles consist of small grains of silica (Si02). It is formed by the decomposition of sand stones
due to various effects of weather. The following are the natural sources of sand.
a. Pit Sand: This sand is found as deposits in soil and it is obtained by forming pits to a depth of about 1m to 2m from
ground level. Pit sand consists of sharp angular grains, which are free from salts for making mortar, clean pit sand free
from organic and clay should only be used.
b. Rive Sand: This sand is obtained from beds of rivers. River sand consists of fine rounded grains. Colour of river sand is
almost white. As the river sand is usually available in clean condition, it is widely used for all purposes.
c. Sea Sand: This sand is obtained from sea shores. Sea sand consists of rounded grains in light brown colour. Sea sand
consists of salts which attract the moisture from the atmosphere and causes dampness, efflorescence and disintegration
of work. Due to all such reasons, sea sand is not recommendable for engineering works. However be used as a local
material after being thoroughly washed to remove the salts.

Characteristics of sand:
1. It should be chemically inert
2. It should be clean and coarse. It should be free from organic matter.
3. It should contain sharp, angular and durable grains.
4. It should not contain salts, which attract the moisture from atmosphere.
5. It should be well graded (i.e.) should contain particles of various sizes in suitable proportions.
Grading of Sand:
According to the site of grains, sand is classified as fine, coarse and gravelly Sand passing through a screen with clear
opening of 1.5875mm is known as fine sand. It is generally used for masonry works.
Sand passing through a screen with clear openings of 7.62mm is known as gravely sand. It is generally used for
plastering. Sand passing through a screen with clear opening of 3.175mm is known as coarse sand. It is generally used
for masonry work..
Bulking of Sand:
The presence of moisture in sand increases the volume of sand. This is due to fact that moisture causes film of water
around the sand particles which result in the increase of volume of sand. For a moisture content of 5 to 8 percent, the
increase in volume may be about 5 to 8 percent, depending upon the grading of sand. The finer the material, the more
will be the increase in volume for a given moisture content. This phenomenon is known as bulking of sand. When
moisture content is increased by adding more water, sand particles pack near each other and the amount of bulking of
sand is decreased. Thus the dry sand and the sand completely flooded with water have practically the same volume. For
finding the bulking of sand, a test is carried out with following procedure as in the fig.
Fig. Bulking of Sand

I. A container is taken and it is filled two third with

the sample of sand to be tested.
II. The height is measured, say 20cm.
III. Sand is taken out of container
IV. The container is filled with water
V. Sand is then slowly dropped in the container and
it is thoroughly stirred by means of a rod.
VI. The height of sand is measured say 16cm, then
bulking of sand == -------------- = ------ or
25%.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. What are the main types of sand according to the natural source?
2. What is meant by bulking of sand?
3. What are the important characteristics of sand?

ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Explain the sources of sand.
2. Explain the characteristics of sand.
3. Explain how bulking of sand is found using the experiment.
4. Explain the grading of sand.
5. Explain the bulking of sand.
Coarse aggregate: Sources, shape, size, grading, sampling and analysis, impurities

 Aggregates are the materials basically used as filler with binding material in the production of mortar and
concrete. They are derived from igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks or manufactured from blast
furnace slag, etc. Aggregates form the body of the concrete, reduce the shrinkage and effect economy.
 They occupy 70-80 per cent of the volume and have considerable influence on the properties of the concrete. It
is therefore significantly important to obtain right type and quality of aggregates at site. They should be clean,
hard, strong, durable and graded in size to achieve utmost economy from the paste.
 Earlier aggregates were considered to be chemically inert but the latest research has revealed that some of
them are chemically active and also that certain types exhibit chemical bond at the interface of aggregates and
cement paste.
 To increase the bulk density of concrete aggregates are used in two markedly different sizes—the bigger ones
known to be coarse aggregate (grit) and the smaller ones fine aggregate (sand).
 The coarse aggregate form the main matrix of concrete and the fine aggregate from the filler matrix between
the coarse aggregate.

Classification of aggregates:

The aggregates may be classified into natural aggregates and artificial aggregates.
Natural Aggregates:
These are obtained by crushing from quarries of igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic rocks. Gravels and sand reduced
to their present size by the natural agencies also fall in this category. The most widely used aggregate are from igneous
origin. Aggregates obtained from pits or dredged from river, creek or sea are most often not clean enough or well
graded to suit the quality requirement. They therefore require sieving and washing before they can be used in concrete.

Artificial Aggregates:
Broken bricks, blast furnace slag and synthetic aggregates are artificial aggregates. Broken bricks known as brick bats are
suitable for mass concreting, for example, in foundation bases. They are not used for reinforced concrete works. Blast
furnace slag aggregate is obtained from slow cooling of the slag followed by crushing. The dense and strong particles as
obtained are used for making precast concrete products. The sp. gr. of this range between 2–2.8 and bulk density 1120–
1300 kg/m3. The blast furnace slag aggregate has good fire resisting properties but are responsible for corrosion of
reinforcement due to sulphur content of slag. Synthetic aggregates are produced by thermally processed materials such
as expanded clay and shale used for making light weight concrete.

On the basis of size:

According to size aggregates are classified as coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and all-in- aggregate
Coarse Aggregate:
 Aggregate retained on 4.75 mm sieve are identified as coarse.
 They are obtained by natural disintegration or by artificial crushing of rocks.
 The maximum size of aggregate can be 80 mm. The size is governed by the thickness of section, spacing of
reinforcement, clear cover, mixing, handling and placing methods.
 For economy the maximum size should be as large as possible but not more than one-fourth of the minimum
thickness of the member.
 For reinforced sections the maximum size should be at least 5 mm less than the clear spacing between the
reinforcement and also at least 5 mm less than the clear cover.
 Aggregate more than 20 mm sizes are seldom used for reinforced cement concrete structural members.
Fine aggregate:
 Aggregate passing through 4.75 mm sieve are defined as fine. They may be natural sand—deposited by rivers,
crushed stone sand—obtained by crushing stones and crushed gravel sand.
All in- aggregate:
 Naturally available aggregates of different fractions of fine and coarse sizes are known as all-in-aggregate. The
deficiency of any particular fraction can be corrected for use in the mix but they are not recommended for
quality concrete.
On the basis of shape:
Aggregates are classified as rounded, irregular, angular, and flaky.
Rounded:
 These are generally obtained from river or sea shore and produce minimum voids (about 32 per cent) in the
concrete. They have minimum ratio of surface area to the volume, and the cement paste required is minimum.
Poor interlocking bond makes it unsuitable for high strength concrete and pavements.
Irregular:
 They have voids about 36 per cent and require more cement paste as compared to rounded aggregate. Because
of irregularity in shape they develop good bond and are suitable for making ordinary concrete.
Angular:
 They have sharp, angular and rough particles having maximum voids (about 40 per cent). Angular aggregate
provide very good bond than the earlier two, are most suitable for high strength concrete and pavements; the
requirement of cement paste is relatively more.
Flaky:
 These are sometimes wrongly called as elongated aggregate. However, both of these influence the concrete
properties adversely. The least lateral dimension of flaky aggregate (thickness) should be less than 0.6 times the
mean dimension. For example, the mean sieve size for an aggregate piece passing through 50 mm and retained
on 40 mm sieve is (50 + 40)/2 = 45.0 mm. If the least lateral dimension is less than 0.6 × 45 = 27.0 mm, the
aggregate is classified as flaky.
 Elongated aggregate are those aggregate whose length is 1.8 times its mean dimension.
 Flaky aggregate generally orient in one plane with water and air voids underneath. They adversely affect
durability and are restricted to maximum of 15 per cent.

Water:

 The purpose of using water with cement is to cause hydration of the cement. Water in excess of that required
for hydration acts as a lubricant between coarse and fine aggregates and produces a workable and economical
concrete.
 In case of excess water, the cement along with water comes to the surface by capillary action and forms a thin
layer over surface known as laitance. This weakens bond between the successive lifts of concrete.
 The excess water may leak through the form work, resulting in honeycombed concrete and on evaporation
makes the concrete porous.
 On the other hand lesser water makes it difficult to work with concrete and because of non uniform mixing the
resultant concrete is weaker in strength.
 The amount of water must therefore be limited to produce concrete of the quality required for a job. Water is
also used for washing aggregates and curing.

Quality of water:
 Almost any natural potable water that has no pronounced taste or odour is acceptable for the concrete mix.
Many sources of water unsuitable for drinking may also be used. In case of a doubt, water samples should be
tested for suitability. Excessive impurities may affect setting time, strength, durability and may cause
efflorescence, surface discolouration, and corrosion of steel.
 The effects of impurities in water are mainly expressed in terms of setting time of Portland cement. The initial
setting time of the mixes with impure water and that with the pure water are obtained. Their difference in the
initial setting time of ± 30 minutes with initial setting time not less than 30 minutes is supposed to be
acceptable. The 7 day and 28 day compressive strengths of the cube/cylinder specimens prepared with impure
water should not differ by 10 per cent from that of cubes/cylinders prepared with pure water.
Effect of water in the mix depending on the source:
Natural ground water:
 Natural ground waters seldom contain more than 20 to 30 ppm of iron. However, acid mine waters may carry
rather large quantities of iron. Iron salts in concentrations up to 40,000 ppm do not usually affect mortar
strengths adversely.
Sea water:
 The sea water generally contains 3.5 per cent of salts with about 75 per cent of sodium chloride, about 15 per
cent of chloride and sulphate of magnesium.
 It has been found to reduce the strength of concrete by 10-20 per cent and slightly accelerate the setting time.
 Sea water may lead to corrosion of the reinforcement. Therefore, sea water may be recommended for concrete
without reinforcement.
 The chlorides in sea water may cause efflorescence restricting it to be used in making mortars for plastering. The
use of sea water is not recommended for pre stressed concrete because of stress corrosion and the small
diameter wires (if corroded may cause disaster).

Industrial waste water:

 Most waters carrying industrial waste have less than 3,000 ppm of total solids.
 Waste waters from paint factories, coke plants, chemical and galvanizing plants may contain harmful impurities.
 It is advisable to test any waste water that contains even few hundred parts per million of unusual solids before
using it for mixing concrete.