Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF RIZAL SYSTEM

Province of Rizal

Biophysics

Code 11

Course Title: Physics for Biological Science

No. of Units: 2/2

No. of Modules 11

Course Structure

The course Biophysics consists of four (4) structures which are divided into eleven (11)
modules

Module Writers

Unit 1: General Concepts and Biophysical Principles

1.General Concepts Dr. Reneecilia B Paz de

Leon

Biophysics
Prerequisites of Biophysics
A brief History of Biophysics
Scope and Topics of Biophysics

2. Biophysical Topics Prof. Edwin Navalta

Molecular and Subcellular Biophysics

Physiological and Anatomical Biophysics
Environmental Biophysics

3.Biophysical Techniques and

Applications Prof. Edwin Navalta

Ultracentrifugation
Electrophoresis
Size Exclusion Chromatography
Spectroscopy
Absorption Spectroscopy

1
 Fluorescence Spectroscopy
Mass Spectrometry
X-Ray Crystallography
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
Electron Microscopy
Atomic Force Microscopy
Optical Tweezers
Voltage Clamp
Current Clamp
Patch Clamp
Calorimetry

Unit 2 : Energy and Life

4. Biophysical Process and Heat Prof. Thelma DS Cruz

The First Law of Thermodynamics

Enthalpy
Entropy

5. Statistical Mechanics Prof. Thelma DS Cruz

Gibbs Energy
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
The Gibbs Function as the Driver of Biophysical Processes
Gibbs Energy and the Biophysical Partition Function

Unit 3: Chemical Basis of Biophysical Reactions

6. Biomolecules Prof Edwin Navalta

Classes of Biomolecules
Functional Groups
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids

Unit 4: Biophysical Mechanics of Life

7. The Cell Dr. Reneecilia B. Paz de Leon

What Is a Cell
Cell Structure
The Cell Membrane

2
 Cell Organelles
Cell Life Cycle

8. Protein Biophysics Dr. Reneecilia B Paz de Leon

Protein Folding
Factors Influencing Protein Structure
Membrane Proteins
Analysis of Polypeptide Backbone Bond Angles
Common Protein Secondary Structures

9. Nucleic Acid Biophysics Dr. Reneecilia B. Paz de Leon

DNA Secondary Structure

DNA Melting
DNA Tertiary Structure

10. Membrane Biophysics Prof. Edwin Navalta

Membrane Functions
Phospholipid Behavior and Self-Assembly
Lipid Bilayer Energetics and Permeability
Fluid Mosaic Model
Phase Transitions in Phospholipid Bilayers
Membrane Growth
Membrane Permeability and Transport

11. Physiological and Anatomical Biophysics Dr. Reneecilia B Paz de Leon

The Scope of Physiological and Anatomical Biophysics

Basic concepts in physiological and anatomical biophysics;
Scope of Biophysics in the Physiological and Anatomical structure of human
beings;
Range of Biophysics in the Physiological and Anatomical structure of plants;
Environmental Biophysics
Roles of Biophysics students in preserving the environment

3
 Module 7

The Cell
Module Writer: Dr. Reneecilia B. Paz de Leon
Subtopics:

What Is a Cell
Cell Structure/Cell Organelles
The Cell Membrane
Cell Life Cycle

4
Module 7

The Cell

What Is a Cell
Cell Structure
The Cell Membrane
Cell Organelles
Cell Life Cycle

Objectives:

• Interpret the basic concepts of cell theory.

• Asses the structures of the cell and their functions.
• Deduce the relationship between biomolecules and cell structures.

Requirements:

Submission of Activity outputs 40%

Recitation 20%
Passing of Major Term Exams. 40%

Course Schedule:

1.5 Weeks/Module Topics Modality

First Session What Is a Cell Online Lesson Introduction

Second Session Cell Structure Offline lesson

The Cell Membrane

Third Session Cell Organelles Offline session

Fourth Session Cell Life Cycle Online session/Outputs Submission

Examination

5
The Cell

We want to dig deeper into the physics of biomolecules. In order to do so, we must first
understand the context in which biomolecules function. That context is almost always
the cell. We also want to lay a foundation to study the physics of the cell itself. With this
in mind, in this chapter we review the main structures of living cells and give you a basic
understanding of the relationship between cell structures and the biomolecules they are
made of.

Objectives:

• Interpret the basic concepts of cell theory.

• Asses the structures of the cell and their functions.
• Deduce the the relationship between biomolecules and cell structures.

What is a Cell ?

A cell is a pouch or sack of biomolecules that is (or was) alive. A cell is the smallest unit
of an organism that can be considered alive. If you break the cell into anything smaller,
it’s just a bunch of biomolecules and not considered alive. The pouch or sack is part of
the cell itself and is called the cell membrane.

What do we consider alive? 

Something is alive if it can take in matter and energy and use that matter and energy to
do work on its surroundings, to grow, and to reproduce itself.

Some basic facts about the cell: https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-a-cell

1. Cells are the basic building blocks of living things. The human body is composed of
trillions of cells, all with their own specialized function. 
2. Cells are the basic structures of all living organisms.
3. Cells provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food and carry out
important functions.
4. Cells group together to form tissues, which in turn group together to form organs ,
such as the heart and brain.
5. Our cells contain a number of functional structures called organelles.
6. These organelles carry out tasks such as making proteins , processing chemicals and
generating energy for the cell.
7. The nucleus is based at the center of the cell and is the ‘control room’ for the cell.
8. The genome is found within the nucleus.

What Defines a Cell?

6
All cells are surrounded by a structure called the cell membrane — which, much like
the walls of a house, serves as a clear boundary between the cell's internal and external
environments. The cell membrane is sometimes also referred to as the plasma
membrane.

Cell membranes are based on a framework of fat-based molecules

called phospholipids, which physically prevent water-loving, or hydrophilic, substances
from entering or escaping the cell. These membranes are also studded with proteins
that serve various functions. Still others work like fasteners, binding cells together so
they can function as a unit. Yet other membrane proteins serve as communicators,
sending and receiving signals from neighboring cells and the environment — whether
friendly or alarming. Within this membrane, a cell's interior environment is water based.
Called cytoplasm, this liquid environment is packed full of cellular machinery and
structural elements. In fact, the concentrations of proteins inside a cell far outnumber
those on the outside — whether the outside is ocean water (as in the case of a single-
celled alga) or blood serum (as in the case of a red blood cell). Although cell
membranes form natural barriers in watery environments, a cell must nonetheless
expend quite a bit of energy to maintain the high concentrations of intracellular
constituents necessary for its survival. Indeed, cells may use as much as 30 percent of
their energy just to maintain the composition of their cytoplasm.
https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-a-cell

Figure 1: The composition of a bacterial cell

Most of a cell is water (70%). The remaining 30% contains varying proportions of
structural and functional molecules.

7
 © 2010 Nature Education https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/what-is-a-cell-
14023083/

Figure 2: The relative scale of biological molecules and structures

Cells can vary between 1 micrometer (μm) and hundreds of micrometers in diameter.
Within a cell, a DNA double helix is approximately 10 nanometers (nm) wide, whereas
the cellular organelle called a nucleus that encloses this DNA can be approximately
1000 times bigger (about 10 μm). See how cells compare along a relative scale axis
with other molecules, tissues, and biological structures (blue arrow at bottom). Note that
a micrometer (μm) is also known as a micron.
© 2010 Nature Education https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/what-is-a-cell-
14023083/

What is a virus?

A virus is a DNA molecule surrounded by a protein coat. Should it be considered alive?

Viruses reproduce, but they do not grow. And viruses only reproduce with the aid of a
cell they’ve infected. Without a host cell a virus can’t do much of anything.

Specifics on Virus:

 A virus is an infectious particle that reproduces by "commandeering" a host cell

and using its machinery to make more viruses.
 A virus is made up of a DNA or RNA genome inside a protein shell called
a capsid. Some viruses have an external membrane envelope.
 Viruses are very diverse. They come in different shapes and structures, have
different kinds of genomes, and infect different hosts.

8
 Viruses reproduce by infecting their host cells and reprogramming them to
become virus-making "factories."

Is virus a form of a cell?

A virus is a tiny, infectious particle that can reproduce only by infecting a host cell.
Viruses "commandeer" the host cell and use its resources to make more viruses,
basically reprogramming it to become a virus factory. Because they can't reproduce by
themselves (without a host), viruses are not considered living. Nor do viruses
have cells: they're very small, much smaller than the cells of living things, and
are basically just packages of nucleic acid and protein. Still, viruses have some
important features in common with cell-based life. For instance, they have nucleic acid
genomes based on the same genetic code that's used in your cells (and the cells of all
living creatures). Also, like cell-based life, viruses have genetic variation and can
evolve. So, even though they don't meet the definition of life, viruses seem to be in a
"questionable" zone. (Maybe viruses are actually undead like zombies.
https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/viruses/a/are-viruses-dead-or-alive

What does Cell Theory states?

Cell theory was formally developed in 1839 by M. J. Schleiden and T. Schwann. The
theory was based not only on Schleiden’s and Schwann’s own microscopic
observations, but also the observations and ideas expressed by others going as far
back as the mid- to late-1600s, when scientists including Robert Hooke and Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek began using microscopes to examine living things.
Schleiden and Schwann proposed spontaneous generation as the method for cell
origination, but spontaneous generation (also called abiogenesis) was later disproven.
Rudolf Virchow famously stated “Omnis cellula e cellula”… “All cells only arise from pre-
existing cells. “The parts of the theory that did not have to do with the origin of cells,
however, held up to scientific scrutiny and are widely agreed upon by the scientific
community today. The generally accepted portions of the modern Cell Theory are as
follows(https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book)

1. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things.
2. All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
3. Cells arise from other cells through cellular division.

The expanded version of the cell theory can also include:

1. Cells carry genetic material passed to daughter cells during cellular division
2. All cells are essentially the same in chemical composition
3. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells

Other facts about cells:

1. An organism can be single cellular, that is, made up of a single cell (like
an amoeba) or multicellular (like people). Cells themselves can grow, by
taking in matter and energy to build up their internal structures and

9
 increase their mem- brane size. Organisms can grow too (obviously).
Single-cell organisms grow as a cell grows. Multicellular organisms grow
primarily by adding cells to them- selves through cell division.
2. Cells can be large or small. Most cells are too small to see with the naked
eye. However, a modest microscope is usually sufficient to visualize most
kinds of cells. In some cases cells can be quite large. For example, an egg
is a single cell. The eggs of many organisms are too small to see without a
microscope, whereas the eggs of others are big enough to eat for
breakfast.
3. There are many different types of cells. The cells of different organisms
can be very different from one another. But even within the same
organism cells specialize to carry out different functions. For example,
nerve cells are long and thin like wires to carry nerve impulses throughout
the body. Muscle cells can contract to provide movement. Skin cells are
flat and strong to protect the body. And bone marrow cells manufacture
blood cells which carry oxygen through the blood. The process of a young
cell maturing to specialize and become a particular type of cell is known
as differentiation.

Activity 1 .

Watch the video or read the cited article on cells (choose 1 only).

1. Types of cells. https://untamedscience.com/biology/cells/basic-types-of-cells/

2. Article on Types of cells.https://www.thoughtco.com/types-of-cells-in-the-body-
373388

After watching the video or reading the article cited, in a bond paper, draw and label
different types of cells.

You will be rated using the rubric :

Criteria 1 2 3 4
Unacceptable Acceptable Excellent Exemplary
Not there yet Progressing Meets Exceeds
Needs Fair Expectation Expectation
improvement Fairly Good Superior
Not yet Competent Highly Sophisticated
Competent Competent
 
Comprehensibilit Isolated bits Gist and main Very Very Much
y are ideas are comprehensibl comprehensible
comprehensibl comprehensibl e
e e

10
Cell Structure /Cell Organelles

Animal Cell Structures

(https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/animalcell.html#:~:text=Animal%20cells%20are
%20typical%20of,membrane)


Centrioles - Centrioles are self-replicating organelles made up of nine bundles of
microtubules and are found only in animal cells. They appear to help in
organizing cell division, but aren't essential to the process.
 Cilia and Flagella - For single-celled eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are essential
for the locomotion of individual organisms. In multicellular organisms, cilia
function to move fluid or materials past an immobile cell as well as moving a cell
or group of cells.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum - The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of sacs that
manufactures, processes, and transports chemical compounds for use inside and
outside of the cell. It is connected to the double-layered nuclear envelope,
providing a pipeline between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 Endosomes and Endocytosis - Endosomes are membrane-bound vesicles,
formed via a complex family of processes collectively known as endocytosis, and
found in the cytoplasm of virtually every animal cell. The basic mechanism of
endocytosis is the reverse of what occurs during exocytosis or cellular secretion.
It involves the invagination (folding inward) of a cell's plasma membrane to
surround macromolecules or other matter diffusing through the extracellular fluid.
 Golgi Apparatus - The Golgi apparatus is the distribution and shipping
department for the cell's chemical products. It modifies proteins and fats built in
the endoplasmic reticulum and prepares them for export to the outside of the cell.
 Intermediate Filaments - Intermediate filaments are a very broad class of fibrous
proteins that play an important role as both structural and functional elements of
the cytoskeleton. Ranging in size from 8 to 12 nanometers, intermediate
filaments function as tension-bearing elements to help maintain cell shape and
rigidity.
 Lysosomes - The main function of these microbodies is digestion. Lysosomes
break down cellular waste products and debris from outside the cell into simple
compounds, which are transferred to the cytoplasm as new cell-building
materials.

11
  Microfilaments - Microfilaments are solid rods made of globular proteins called
actin. These filaments are primarily structural in function and are an important
component of the cytoskeleton.
 Microtubules - These straight, hollow cylinders are found throughout the
cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells (prokaryotes don't have them) and carry out a
variety of functions, ranging from transport to structural support.
 Mitochondria - Mitochondria are oblong shaped organelles that are found in the
cytoplasm of every eukaryotic cell. In the animal cell, they are the main power
generators, converting oxygen and nutrients into energy.
 Nucleus - The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle that serves as the
information processing and administrative center of the cell. This organelle has
two major functions: it stores the cell's hereditary material, or DNA, and it
coordinates the cell's activities, which include growth, intermediary metabolism,
protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell division).
 Peroxisomes - Microbodies are a diverse group of organelles that are found in
the cytoplasm, roughly spherical and bound by a single membrane. There are
several types of microbodies but peroxisomes are the most common.
 Plasma Membrane - All living cells have a plasma membrane that encloses their
contents. In prokaryotes, the membrane is the inner layer of protection
surrounded by a rigid cell wall. Eukaryotic animal cells have only the membrane
to contain and protect their contents. These membranes also regulate the
passage of molecules in and out of the cells.
 Ribosomes - All living cells contain ribosomes, tiny organelles composed of
approximately 60 percent RNA and 40 percent protein. In eukaryotes, ribosomes
are made of four strands of RNA. In prokaryotes, they consist of three strands of
RNA.

12
Anatomy of the Animal Cell

Figure 3. The animal cell is a typical eukaryotic cell. It ranges in size between 1 and
100 micrometers and is surrounded by a plasma membrane, which forms a selective
barrier allowing nutrients to enter and waste products to leave. The cytoplasm contains
a number of specialized organelles, each of which is surrounded by a membrane.
There is only one nucleus and it contains all the genetic information necessary for cell
growth and reproduction. The other organelles occur in multiple copies and carry out
the various functions of the cell, allowing it to survive and participate in the functioning
of the larger organism. https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/animals/animalmodel.html

The Plant Cell

13
Figure 4. The Plant Cell. https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/plantcell.html

Parts of a Plant Cell ( https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/plantcell.html)

 Cell Wall- Like their prokaryotic ancestors, plant cells have a rigid wall
surrounding the plasma membrane. It is a far more complex structure, however,
and serves a variety of functions, from protecting the cell to regulating the life
cycle of the plant organism.

 Chloroplasts - The most important characteristic of plants is their ability to

photosynthesize, in effect, to make their own food by converting light energy into
chemical energy. This process is carried out in specialized organelles called
chloroplasts.

 Endoplasmic Reticulum - The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of sacs that

manufactures, processes, and transports chemical compounds for use inside and
outside of the cell. It is connected to the double-layered nuclear envelope,
providing a pipeline between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. In plants, the
endoplasmic reticulum also connects between cells via the plasmodesmata.

14
  Golgi Apparatus - The Golgi apparatus is the distribution and shipping
department for the cell's chemical products. It modifies proteins and fats built in
the endoplasmic reticulum and prepares them for export as outside of the cell.

 Microfilaments - Microfilaments are solid rods made of globular proteins called

actin. These filaments are primarily structural in function and are an important
component of the cytoskeleton.

 Microtubules - These straight, hollow cylinders are found throughout the

cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells (prokaryotes don't have them) and carry out a
variety of functions, ranging from transport to structural support.

 Mitochondria - Mitochondria are oblong shaped organelles found in the

cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. In plant cells, they break down carbohydrate
and sugar molecules to provide energy, particularly when light isn't available for
the chloroplasts to produce energy.

 Nucleus - The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle that serves as the

information processing and administrative center of the cell. This organelle has
two major functions: it stores the cell's hereditary material, or DNA, and it
coordinates the cell's activities, which include growth, intermediary metabolism,
protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell division).

 Peroxisomes - Microbodies are a diverse group of organelles that are found in

the cytoplasm, roughly spherical and bound by a single membrane. There are
several types of microbodies but peroxisomes are the most common.

 Plasmodesmata - Plasmodesmata are small tubes that connect plant cells to

each other, providing living bridges between cells.

 Plasma Membrane - All living cells have a plasma membrane that encloses their
contents. In prokaryotes and plants, the membrane is the inner layer of protection
surrounded by a rigid cell wall. These membranes also regulate the passage of
molecules in and out of the cells.

 Ribosomes - All living cells contain ribosomes, tiny organelles composed of

approximately 60 percent RNA and 40 percent protein. In eukaryotes, ribosomes
are made of four strands of RNA. In prokaryotes, they consist of three strands of
RNA.

 Vacuole - Each plant cell has a large, single vacuole that stores compounds,
helps in plant growth, and plays an important structural role for the plant.

What are major categories of a cell?

15
There are two major categories of cells, and all organisms are made up entirely of one
of these two categories of cells. Some cells contain a central, membrane-bound
compartment called the nucleus which contains most or all of the cell’s genetic material.
Cells that have a nucleus are called eukaryotic cells, and the organisms that contain
these cells are called eukaryotes. Cells that lack a nucleus are called prokaryotic cells,
and organisms made of prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes.

There are some important distinctions between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.

Eukaryotes, in addition to a nucleus, have other membrane-bound, internal structures
called organelles. These organelles compartmentalize some of the functions of the cell.
For example, an organelle called a mitochondrion carries out the role of generating ATP
molecules for use as energy currency throughout the cell .

In contrast to a eukaryotic cell, a prokaryotic cell is one large compartment. All of the
cell’s functions are carried out in this one compartment. However, like a one-room
apartment, various functions tend toward certain locations.

Figure 5. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells.

https://sites.google.com/site/laurelbiology/cells/prokaryotes-vs-eu

Prokaryotic cell structures and functions

(Source: www.courses.lumenlearning.com)

Resistance to phagocytosis, adherence to

Capsules and slime layers surfaces

Gives bacteria shape and protection from lysis in

Cell wall dilute solutions

Endospore Survival under harsh environmental conditions

16
 Fimbriae and pili Attachment to surfaces, bacterial mating

Flagella Provides the power of motility or self-propulsion

Gas vacuole Buoyancy for floating in aquatic environments.

Storage of carbon, phosphate, and other

Inclusion bodies substances

Nucleoid Localization of genetic material (DNA)

Periplasmic space Contains hydrolytic enzymes and binding

proteins for nutrient processing and uptake’

Selectively permeable barrier, mechanical

boundary of cell, nutrient and waste transport,
location of many metabolic processes
(respiration, photosynthesis), detection of
Plasma membrane environmental cues for chemotaxis

Eukaryotic cell Structures and

functions(https://www.pharmapproach.com/differences-between-prokaryotic-
and-eukaryotic-cells/)

Cell wall and pellicle Strengthen and give shape to the cell

Photosynthesis—trapping light energy and

Chloroplasts formation of carbohydrate from CO2 and water

Cilia and flagella Cell movement

Environment for other organelles, location of

Cytoplasmic matrix many metabolic processes

Endoplasmic Transport of materials, protein and lipid

reticulum synthesis

Packaging and secretion of materials for 

Golgi apparatus various purposes, lysosome formation

Lysosomes Intracellular digestion

Microfilaments, Cell structure and movements, form the

intermediate cytoskeleton

17
 filaments, and
microtubules

Energy production through use of the

tricarboxylic acid cycle, electron transport,
Mitochondria oxidative phosphorylation, and other pathways

Ribosomal RNA synthesis, ribosome

Nucleolus construction

Repository for genetic information, control

Nucleus centre for cell

Mechanical cell boundary, selectively permeable

barrier with transport systems, mediates cell-cell
Plasma membrane interactions and adhesion to surfaces, secretion

Ribosomes Protein synthesis

Temporary storage and transport, digestion

(food vacuoles), water balance (contractile
Vacuole vacuole)

Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

The various differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are listed in the
table below.( https://www.pharmapproach.com/differences-between-prokaryotic-and-
eukaryotic-cells/)

Characteristic Prokaryote Eukaryote

Size Typically 1 – 5  µm Normally greater than 10  µm

Do not possess a Have a nucleus surrounded by a

Cell nucleus true nucleus nuclear membrane

In the cytoplasm,
Location of usually attached to Within a true nucleus separated from the
chromosomes the cell membrane cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane

Nuclear division Mitosis and meiosis Exhibit both mitosis and

and reproduction are meiosis, so reproduction may be sexual or
absent so asexual or both
reproduction is depending on species

18
 asexual

Nucleolus Absent Present

Resulting both from mutations and the

creation of new gene combinations
Resulting largely during sexual
Genetic variation from mutations reproduction

Mitochondria and
Mitochondria, chloroplasts
chloroplasts and absent; ribosome Mitochondria and chloroplasts
ribosomes size is 70s may be present; ribosomes larger: 80s

Do not possess
sterols in the cell
membrane but do
usually have Do possess sterols in the
Chemical peptidoglycan in cell membrane but no
composition the cell walls peptidoglycan in the walls

Flagella Structurally simple Structurally complex

Pili Present Absent

Poly -β-
Storage hydroxybutyrate
compounds often present Poly -β- hydroxybutyrate absent

There are two main divisions of prokaryotes: bacteria and archaea. Prokaryotes were
originally thought of as unicellular plants, because of similarities they have with plant
cells. However, with the advent of detailed genetic analysis (analysis of the organism’s
nucleic acid sequence), it now makes sense to classify bacteria and archaea into
domains of their own, separate and apart from plants and animals. Prokaryotic
organisms are almost exclusively unicellular; however, many can form multicellular
colonies that have properties resembling multicellular organisms. Eukaryotes are for the
most part multicellular organ- isms, such as plants and animals. But unicellular
eukaryotes exist as well (e.g., the amoeba).

Activity 2

1. Draw and label the parts of plant and animal cell.

2. Draw and label the parts of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
3. What are the differences between the plant and animal cell?
4. What are the differences between the eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells?

19
You will be rated using the rubric :

Criteria 1 2 3 4
Unacceptable Acceptable Excellent Exemplary
Not there yet Progressing Meets Exceeds
Needs Fair Expectation Expectation
improvement Fairly Good Superior
Not yet Competent Highly Sophisticated
Competent Competent
 
Comprehensibilit Isolated bits Gist and main Very Very Much
y are ideas are comprehensibl comprehensibl
comprehensibl comprehensibl e e
e e
Content      
coverage Minimally Partially Adequately Fully
developed, developed, supported, developed,
minimally partially partially fully supported
supported supported developed,
     
   
 

The Cell Membrane

What surrounds the cells? What serves as flexible containers of cells?

The cell membrane is not a solid structure. It is made of millions of smaller molecules
that create a flexible and porous container. Proteins and phospholipids make up most
of the membrane structure. The phospholipids make the basic bag. The proteins are
found around the holes and help move molecules in and out of the cell. There are also
proteins attached to the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane.

Cell Membranes are Mosaics (https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/

3A_Biology_for_Non-Majors_I_3A_Structure_of_the_Membrane)

In 1972, S. J. Singer and Garth L. Nicolson proposed a new model of the plasma
membrane that, compared to earlier understanding, better explained both microscopic
observations and the function of the plasma membrane. This was called the fluid
mosaic model. The model has evolved somewhat over time, but still best accounts for
the structure and functions of the plasma membrane as we now understand them. The
fluid mosaic model describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of

20
components—including phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates—in
which the components are able to flow and change position, while maintaining the basic
integrity of the membrane. Both phospholipid molecules and embedded proteins are
able to diffuse rapidly and laterally in the membrane. The fluidity of the plasma
membrane is necessary for the activities of certain enzymes and transport molecules
within the membrane. Plasma membranes range from 5–10 nm thick. As a comparison,
human red blood cells, visible via light microscopy, are approximately 8 µm thick, or
approximately 1,000 times thicker than a plasma membrane.

Figure 6. The fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane structure describes the
plasma membrane as a fluid combination of phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and
carbohydrates.

The plasma membrane is made up primarily of a bilayer of phospholipids with

embedded proteins, carbohydrates, glycolipids, and glycoproteins, and, in animal cells,
cholesterol. The amount of cholesterol in animal plasma membranes regulates the
fluidity of the membrane and changes based on the temperature of the cell’s
environment. In other words, cholesterol acts as antifreeze in the cell membrane and is
more abundant in animals that live in cold climates.

The main fabric of the membrane is composed of two layers of phospholipid molecules,
and the polar ends of these molecules (which look like a collection of balls in an artist’s
rendition of the model) (Figure 3) are in contact with aqueous fluid both inside and
outside the cell. Thus, both surfaces of the plasma membrane are hydrophilic. In
contrast, the interior of the membrane, between its two surfaces, is a hydrophobic or
nonpolar region because of the fatty acid tails. This region has no attraction for water or
other polar molecules.

Proteins make up the second major chemical component of plasma membranes.

Integral proteins are embedded in the plasma membrane and may span all or part of the

21
membrane. Integral proteins may serve as channels or pumps to move materials into or
out of the cell. Peripheral proteins are found on the exterior or interior surfaces of
membranes, attached either to integral proteins or to phospholipid molecules. Both
integral and peripheral proteins may serve as enzymes, as structural attachments for
the fibers of the cytoskeleton, or as part of the cell’s recognition sites.

Carbohydrates are the third major component of plasma membranes. They are
always found on the exterior surface of cells and are bound either to proteins (forming
glycoproteins) or to lipids (forming glycolipids). These carbohydrate chains may consist
of 2–60 monosaccharide units and may be either straight or branched. Along with
peripheral proteins, carbohydrates form specialized sites on the cell surface that allow
cells to recognize each other.

Membrane Transport (https://courses.lumenlearning.com/nemcc-ap/chapter/3204/)

Transport across the Cell Membrane

One of the great wonders of the cell membrane is its ability to regulate the concentration
of substances inside the cell. These substances include ions such as Ca ++, Na+, K+, and
Cl–; nutrients including sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids; and waste products,
particularly carbon dioxide (CO 2), which must leave the cell. The membrane’s lipid
bilayer structure provides the first level of control. The phospholipids are tightly packed
together, and the membrane has a hydrophobic interior. This structure causes the
membrane to be selectively permeable. A membrane that has selective
permeability allows only substances meeting certain criteria to pass through it unaided.
In the case of the cell membrane, only relatively small, nonpolar materials can move
through the lipid bilayer (remember, the lipid tails of the membrane are nonpolar). Some
examples of these are other lipids, oxygen and carbon dioxide gases, and alcohol.
However, water-soluble materials—like glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes—need
some assistance to cross the membrane because they are repelled by the hydrophobic
tails of the phospholipid bilayer.
All substances that move through the membrane do so by one of two general methods,
which are categorized based on whether or not energy is required. Passive transport is
the movement of substances across the membrane without the expenditure of cellular
energy. In contrast, active transport is the movement of substances across the
membrane using energy from adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Passive Transport

In order to understand how substances move passively across a cell membrane, it is

necessary to understand concentration gradients and diffusion. A concentration
gradient is the difference in concentration of a substance across a space. Molecules (or
ions) will spread/diffuse from where they are more concentrated to where they are less

22
concentrated until they are equally distributed in that space. (When molecules move in
this way, they are said to move down their concentration gradient.) Three common
types of passive transport include simple diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.

Simple Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to

an area of lower concentration. A couple of common examples will help to illustrate this
concept. Imagine being inside a closed bathroom. If a bottle of perfume were sprayed,
the scent molecules would naturally diffuse from the spot where they left the bottle to all
corners of the bathroom, and this diffusion would go on until no more concentration
gradient remains. Another example is a spoonful of sugar placed in a cup of tea.
Eventually the sugar will diffuse throughout the tea until no concentration gradient
remains. In both cases, if the room is warmer or the tea hotter, diffusion occurs even
faster as the molecules are bumping into each other and spreading out faster than at
cooler temperatures. Having an internal body temperature around 98.6 ° F thus also aids
in diffusion of particles within the body.

Figure 7. Simple Diffusion across the Cell (Plasma) Membrane

The structure of the lipid bilayer allows only small, non-polar substances such as
oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass through the cell membrane, down their
concentration gradient, by simple diffusion. (https://courses.lumenlearning.com/nemcc-
ap/chapter/3204/

Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane Water can move
freely across the cell membrane of all cells, either through protein channels or by
slipping between the lipid tails of the membrane itself.  However, it is concentration of
solutes within the water that determine whether or not water will be moving into the cell,
out of the cell, or both.

23
Figure 8. Osmosis

Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane down its

concentration gradient. If a membrane is permeable to water, though not to a solute,
water will equalize its own concentration by diffusing to the side of lower water
concentration (and thus the side of higher solute concentration). In the beaker on the
left, the solution on the right side of the membrane is hypertonic.
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/nemcc-ap/chapter/3204/

Solutes within a solution create osmotic pressure, a pressure that pulls water.  Osmosis
occurs when there is an imbalance of solutes outside of a cell versus inside the cell. 
The more solute a solution contains, the greater the osmotic pressure that solution will
have. A solution that has a higher concentration of solutes than another solution is said
to be hypertonic. Water molecules tend to diffuse into a hypertonic solution because the
higher osmotic pressure pulls water (Figure 3.17). If a cell is placed in a hypertonic
solution, the cells will shrivel or crenate as water leaves the cell via osmosis. In contrast,
a solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than another solution is said to
be hypotonic. Cells in a hypotonic solution will take on too much water and swell, with
the risk of eventually bursting, a process called lysis. A critical aspect of homeostasis in
living things is to create an internal environment in which all of the body’s cells are in an
isotonic solution, an environment in which two solutions have the same concentration of
solutes (equal osmotic pressure). When cells and their extracellular environments
are isotonic, the concentration of water molecules is the same outside and inside the
cells, so water flows both in and out and the cells maintain their normal shape (and
function). Various organ systems, particularly the kidneys, work to maintain this
homeostasis.

24
Figure 9. Concentration of Solutions

A hypertonic solution has a solute concentration higher than another solution. An

isotonic solution has a solute concentration equal to another solution. A hypotonic
solution has a solute concentration lower than another solution.
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/nemcc-ap/chapter/3204/

Vesicle function in endocytosis and exocytosis

During bulk transport, larger substances or large packages of small molecules are
transported through the cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, by way
of vesicles – think of vesicles as little membrane sacs that can fuse with the cell
membrane.

Cell membranes are comprised of a lipid bilayer. The walls of vesicles are also made up
of a lipid bilayer, which is why they are capable of fusing with the cell membrane. This
fusion between vesicles and the plasma membrane facilitates bulk transport both into
and out of the cell.

What is endocytosis? Endocytosis definition and purposes

(https://www.technologynetworks.com/immunology/articles/endocytosis-and-exocytosis-
differences-and-similarities-334059)

Endocytosis is the process by which cells take in substances from outside of the cell by
engulfing them in a vesicle. These can include things like nutrients to support the cell or
pathogens that immune cells engulf and destroy.

Endocytosis occurs when a portion of the cell membrane folds in on itself, encircling
extracellular fluid and various molecules or microorganisms. The resulting vesicle
breaks off and is transported within the cell.

25
Endocytosis serves many purposes, including:

 Taking in nutrients for cellular growth, function and repair: Cells need

materials like proteins and lipids to function. 
 Capturing pathogens or other unknown substances that may endanger the
organism: When pathogens like bacteria are identified by the immune system,
they are engulfed by immune cells to be destroyed.
 Disposing of old or damaged cells: Cells must be safely disposed of when
they stop functioning properly to prevent damage to other cells. These cells are
eliminated through endocytosis.

Types of endocytosis
There are two types of endocytosis: phagocytosis and pinocytosis.

Phagocytosis

Phagocytosis, also known as cell eating, is the process by which cells internalize large
particles or cells, like damaged cells and bacteria.

Within the human body, and in other mammals, phagocytosis is how immune cells
engulf and destroy dangerous microorganisms or toxic compounds. Macrophages and
neutrophils, types of white blood cells, are the two primary phagocytes. These white
blood cells are responsible for clearing out aged and damaged cells, as well as
disposing of infectious microorganisms.

Pinocytosis

Pinocytosis, also known as cell drinking, is common in plant and animal cells. During
pinocytosis, the cell takes in substances from the extracellular fluid that it needs to
function. These include things like water and nutrients.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a specialized type of pinocytosis. During receptor-

mediated endocytosis, macromolecules bind to receptors along the surface of the cell’s
plasma membrane. Cholesterol uptake is an example of receptor-mediated endocytosis.

The steps of endocytosis

The following is an outline of the basic steps of the two types of endocytosis.

26
Figure 10.Two types of endocytosis: phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
https://www.technologynetworks.com/immunology/articles/endocytosis-and-exocytosis-
differences-and-similarities-334059
 
Phagocytosis:

1. A particle or substance binds to receptors on the cell’s surface, stimulating the

release of pseudopodia (extensions of the plasma membrane filled with
cytoplasm).
2. Pseudopodia surround the object until their membranes fuse, forming a
phagocytic vesicle.
3. The phagocytic vesicle pinches off from the cell membrane, entering the cell.
4. The phagocytic vesicle fuses with lysosomes, which recycle or destroy the
vesicle’s contents.  

Pinocytosis:

1. Molecules bind to receptors located along the surface of the cellular membrane.
2. The plasma membrane folds in, forming a pinocytic vesicle that contains the
molecules and the extracellular fluid.  
3. The pinocytic vesicle detaches from the cell membrane inside the cell.
4. The vesicle fuses with early endosomes where the contents found within are
sorted.

Endocytosis example

27
Macrophages are a type of white blood cell that play a central role in protecting
mammals against pathogens like bacteria and viruses. When a macrophage comes into
contact with a virus, say a cold virus in the bloodstream, it can bind to the virus’s cell
surface.

Next, the macrophage will form a vesicle around the virus, completely ingesting it. The
vesicle then travels to the cytosol and fuses with the lysosome, where the virus is
broken down. Some viruses replicate by “tricking” host cells into endocytosing them, at
which point the cell is hijacked by the virus and is instructed to replicate the virus
genome and capsid.

What is exocytosis? Exocytosis definition and purposes

Exocytosis is the process by which cells move materials from within the cell into the
extracellular fluid. Exocytosis occurs when a vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane,
allowing its contents to be released outside the cell.

Exocytosis serves the following purposes:

 Removing toxins or waste products from the cell’s interior: Cells create

waste or toxins that must be removed from the cell to maintain homeostasis. For
instance, in aerobic respiration, cells produce the waste products carbon dioxide
and water during ATP formation. Carbon dioxide and water are removed from
these cells via exocytosis.
 Facilitating cellular communication: Cells create signaling molecules like
hormones and neurotransmitters. They are delivered to other cells following their
release from the cell through exocytosis.
 Facilitating cellular membrane growth, repair, signaling and
migration: When cells absorb materials from outside the cell during endocytosis,
they use lipids and proteins from the plasma membrane to create vesicles. When
certain exocytotic vesicles fuse with the cellular membrane, they replenish the
cell membrane with these materials.

Types of exocytosis

Regulated Exocytosis
Most exocytotic vesicles contain substances created within the endoplasmic reticulum
for use elsewhere in the body, such as neurotransmitters or hormones. These
molecules are then packaged within a layer of membrane called a vesicle.

Once excreted from the endoplasmic reticulum, these vesicles are transported to the
Golgi apparatus (also known as the Golgi complex) for further modification. The
molecules are then packaged once again in a vesicle that makes its way to the plasma
membrane.

The release of these molecules from the cell is termed regulated exocytosis because

28
the expulsion of the materials is controlled, or regulated, by extracellular signals that
cause membrane depolarization.

Constitutive Exocytosis
Constitutive exocytosis, in contrast, doesn’t require any extracellular signals. The
majority of molecules traveling to the plasma membrane do so using this pathway.

After exocytosis, some exocytotic vesicles are incorporated into the plasma membrane
(full vesicle fusion), while others return to the interior of the cell after their contents have
been released (this is termed the “kiss-and-run” pathway). Others remain docked to the
membrane, where they can be used multiple times (the “kiss-and-stay” pathway).

Figure 11. Exocytosis involves the passage of a vesicle from the endoplasmic reticulum
or Golgi apparatus, through the cytoplasm to the cell membrane, where it fuses and
releases its contents.
https://www.technologynetworks.com/immunology/articles/endocytosis-and-exocytosis-
differences-and-similarities-334059

The steps of exocytosis

Below is an outline of the basic steps of exocytosis.

1. A vesicle is formed, typically within the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi
apparatus or early endosomes.
2. The vesicle travels to the cell membrane.

29
 3. The vesicle fuses to the plasma membrane, during which the two bilayers merge.
4. The vesicle’s contents are released into the extracellular space.
5. The vesicle either fuses with or separates from the cell membrane.

Exocytosis example
Let’s take the macrophage that we discussed in our endocytosis example. Once the
white blood cell has engulfed a foreign pathogen eliminate it, certain parts of the
pathogen are no longer needed. The macrophage gets rid of this waste material through
exocytosis, during which vesicles carry out the unwanted pathogen material.

Endocytosis vs exocytosis: a comparison

Endocytosis Exocytosis

Definition The process of taking a particle or The process of taking a substance

substance from outside of the cell or particle from inside of the cell and
and transferring it inside the cell transferring it to outside the cell
using a vesicle.  using a vesicle. 

Function  Absorbing nutrients for  Removing toxins or waste

cellular function products
 Eliminating pathogens  Repairing the cell membrane
 Disposing of old/damaged  Facilitating communication
cells between cells

Types  Phagocytosis  Regulated exocytosis

 Pinocytosis  Constitutive exocytosis

Examples White blood cells engulfing a virus Releasing a neurotransmitter for

and eliminating it. cellular communication.
 
https://www.technologynetworks.com/immunology/articles/endocytosis-and-exocytosis-
differences-and-similarities-334059

Activity 3. Membrane Transport

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J5pWH1r3pgU (membrane transport)

 Compare and contrast passive and active transport

30
  Describe the process of diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion
 Describe the process of the sodium/potassium pump and endo/exocytosis
 Describe the three types of endocytosis
 Draw how a passive transport occurs in a membrane.
 Illustrate how endocytosis and exocytosis occurs in a membrane.

You will be rated using the rubric :

Criteria 1 2 3 4
Unacceptable Acceptable Excellent Exemplary
Not there yet ProgressingMeets Exceeds
Needs Fair Expectation Expectation
improvement Fairly Good Superior
Not yet Competent Highly Sophisticated
Competent Competent
 
Comprehensibilit Isolated bits Gist and main Very Very Much
y are ideas are comprehensibl comprehensibl
comprehensibl comprehensibl e e
e e
Content      
coverage Minimally Partially Adequately Fully
developed, developed, supported, developed,
minimally partially partially fully supported
supported supported developed,
     
   
 

Cell Life Cycle of a Cell (https://teachmephysiology.com/basics/cell-growth-death/cell-

cycle/)

The cell cycle is the process a cell undertakes to replicate all of its material and divide
into two identical cells. In this article, we will look at the different stages of the cell cycle
and what happens in each stage. We will also consider the regulation of the cell cycle,
and look at some examples of dysregulation.

Phases of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is a 4-stage process consisting of Gap 1 (G1), Synthesis, Gap 2 (G2) and
mitosis. An active eukaryotic cell will undergo these steps as it grows and divides. After

31
completing the cycle, the cell either starts the process again from G1 or exits the cycle
through G0. From G0, the cell can undergo terminal differentiation.

The stages in the cell cycle between one mitosis and the next, which include G1, S and
G2, are known collectively as the interphase.

G1 phase
Cell increases in size
Cellular contents duplicated
S phase
DNA replication
Each of the 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) is replicated by the cell
G2 phase
Cell grows more
Organelles and proteins develop in preparation for cell division
M phase
Mitosis followed by cytokinesis (cell separation)
Formation of two identical daughter cells
G0 phase
While some cells are constantly dividing, some cell types are at rest. These cells
may exit G1 and enter a resting state called G0. In G0, a cell is performing its
function without actively preparing to divide. G0 is a permanent state for some
cells, while others may re-start division if they get the right signals.

Fig 12 – Diagram showing the stages of the cell cycle.

32
The progression of cells through the cell cycle is controlled by checkpoints at different
stages. These detect if a cell contains damaged DNA and ensure those cells do not
replicate. The Restriction point (R) is located at G1 and is a key checkpoint. The vast
majority of cells that pass through the R point will end up completing the entire cell
cycle. Other checkpoints are located at the transitions between G1 and S, and G2 and
M.

If damaged DNA is detected at any checkpoint, activation of the checkpoint results in

increased protein p53 production. p53 is a tumour suppressor gene that stops the
progression of the cell cycle and starts repair mechanisms for the damaged DNA. If this
DNA cannot be repaired, then it ensures the cell undergoes apoptosis and can no
longer replicate.

This cell cycle is also closely regulated by cyclins which control cell progression by
activating cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) enzymes.

An example of a tumour suppressor protein would be retinoblastoma

protein (Rb). Rb restricts the ability of a cell to progress from G1 to S phase in the cell
cycle. CDK phosphorylates Rb to pRb, making it unable to restrict cell proliferation. This
allows cells to divide normally in the cell cycle.

33
Figure 12. Diagram showing the cell cycle, with important checkpoints and regulators.
https://teachmephysiology.com/basics/cell-growth-death/cell-cycle/

Activity 4

1. Draw and explain the life cycle of a cell.

2. Make a research on. At least three (3) diseases that is implicated on
unchecked cell division.

You will be rated using the rubric :

Criteria 1 2 3 4
Unacceptable Acceptable Excellent Exemplary
Not there yet Progressing Meets Exceeds
Needs Fair Expectation Expectation
improvement Fairly Good Superior
Not yet Competent Highly Sophisticated
Competent Competent
 
Comprehensibilit Isolated bits Gist and main Very Very Much
y are ideas are comprehensibl comprehensible
comprehensibl comprehensibl e
e e
Content coverage      
Minimally Partially Adequately Fully
developed, developed, supported, developed, fully
minimally partially partially supported
supported supported developed,
     
   
 

Quiz

Answer the following questions. Refer to the text in this chapter if necessary.

Part 1. Choose the letter of the correct answer.

a. Which of the following are true about cells?

a. The cell is the basic unit of life.

b. cells are surrounded by a phospholipid bilayer membrane.

34
 c. Prokaryotes always have nucleic acids.
d. Eukaryotes are always multicellular organisms.
e. a,b,c
f. a,b,c,d

b. Which of the following statement is true?

a. Eukaryotes are typically larger that prokaryotes.
b. Eukaryotes divide more rapidly than prokaryotes.
c. Eukaryotes compartmentalize various functions into membrane-bound
organelles.
d. Eukaryotes adapt more quickly to drastic changes in their environment.
c. What are receptors?
a. Antenna-like projections from the cell that receive radio signals.
b. Membrane proteins that receive other cells.
c. Molecules on the surface of the cell membrane that signals specific
outside molecules to come and bind to the membrane.
d. Molecules on the surface of the cell membrane that bind specific outside
molecules, thereby signaling the cell to do something.
d. What are the Golgi apparatus and the ER?
a. TheGolgiapparatusisadeviceusedtostudycellularfunction,andtheERisaretic
ulating structure found within the cell.
b. They are both membranous organelles.
c. The Golgi apparatus stores vesicles, and the ER stores ribosomes.
d. The Golgi apparatus is a species of eukaryote, and the ER is a species of
prokaryote.
e. What do ribosomes do for the cell?
a. Process DNA
b. Generate polypeptides
c. Distinguish between the smooth and rough ER
d. synthesize lipids

Part 2. Thru a matrix, compare Endocytosis vs exocytosis: a comparison

Endocytosis Exocytosis

Definition

Function  

Types 

35
 Examples

Part 3. Illustrate /Explain and give example of simple diffusion thru a semi permeable
mebrane.

Answers:

chapter 8

Part 1.

a. E

b. A

c. D

d. B

e. B

Part 2.

Endocytosis vs exocytosis: a comparison

Endocytosis Exocytosis

Definition The process of taking a particle or The process of taking a substance

substance from outside of the cell or particle from inside of the cell and
and transferring it inside the cell transferring it to outside the cell
using a vesicle.  using a vesicle. 

Function  Absorbing nutrients for  Removing toxins or waste

cellular function products
 Eliminating pathogens  Repairing the cell membrane
 Disposing of old/damaged  Facilitating communication
cells between cells

Types  Phagocytosis  Regulated exocytosis

36
  Pinocytosis  Constitutive exocytosis

Examples White blood cells engulfing a virus Releasing a neurotransmitter for

and eliminating it. cellular communication.

Part 3.

Simple Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to

an area of lower concentration. A couple of common examples will help to illustrate this
concept. Imagine being inside a closed bathroom. If a bottle of perfume were sprayed,
the scent molecules would naturally diffuse from the spot where they left the bottle to all
corners of the bathroom, and this diffusion would go on until no more concentration
gradient remains. Another example is a spoonful of sugar placed in a cup of tea.
Eventually the sugar will diffuse throughout the tea until no concentration gradient
remains. In both cases, if the room is warmer or the tea hotter, diffusion occurs even
faster as the molecules are bumping into each other and spreading out faster than at
cooler temperatures. Having an internal body temperature around 98.6 ° F thus also aids
in diffusion of particles within the body.

Simple Diffusion across the Cell (Plasma) Membrane

References:

Cell. https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/what-is-a-cell-14023083/
Cell. https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-a-cell
Viruses. https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/viruses/a/are-viruses-dead-
or-alive
Cell Theory. https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/B
Animal and Plant Cell.https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/plantcell.html
Cell Membrane. http://www.biology4kids.com/files/cell_membrane.html

37
Eukaryotic/Prokaryotic cells https://www.pharmapproach.com/differences-between-
prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-cells/
Cell Classification Prokaryotic Cells courses. Lumenlearning.com
Membrane Transport.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J5pWH1r3pgU
Exocytosis ,Endocytosis.
https://www.technologynetworks.com/immunology/articles/endocytosis-and-exocytosis-
differences-and-similarities-334059)
Life Cycle of a Cell.https://teachmephysiology.com/basics/cell-growth-death/cell-cycle/
Life cycle of a cellhttp://creativecommons.org/licences/
https://teachmephysiology.com/basics/cell-growth-death/cell-cycle/

38