Heaven’s Light is Our Guide

RAJSHAHI UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
2018-2019
Course Code: EEE 1101 (Electrical Circuit-I)
Course Teacher: Prof. Dr. Md. Mortuza Ali

There are several textbooks on electrical circuit theory that have been used for years. The
material of this book is not new, and this writer claims no originality of its content. It has
been written to fit the needs of the average student from many branches of electrical
engineering, such as power, electric machines, control, electronics, instrumentation,
communication, and computer hardware.
This book contains the standard subject matter of basic circuit analysis; and it is intended as
first course in circuits. Though, most textbooks of this kind deal the circuit theory with dc
(direct current) and ac (alternating current) sources separately, here the writer has tried to
explain the circuit theory in a generalized way for easy understanding of the average student
in this field. I, sincerely hope that the readers will have fun and excitement in using this book
as the writer has had in developing it.

Chapter 1 (BASIC CONCEPTS)

1.1 Introduction 5
1.2 Systems of Units 6
1.3 Basic Electrical Quantities 7
1.3.1 Electric charge 7
1.3.2 Electric field 8
1.3.3 Voltage 8
1.3.4 Current 9
1.3.5 Electric power 9
1.3.6 Energy 10
1.4 Circuit Elements 13
1.5 Active Circuit Elements 14
1.5.1 Voltage and current sources 14
1.5.2 Independent and dependent sources 14
1.5.3 DC voltage and current sources 17
1.5.4 AC voltage and current sources 17
1.5.5 Phase relation between two sinusoids 19
1.6 Passive Circuit Elements 20
1.6.1 Resistor 20
1.6.2 Inductor 22
1.6.3 Capacitor 26
1.7 Linear Circuit Element 31
1.8 Bilateral Circuit Element 31
1.9 Circuit Connections 31
1.9.1 Electric network 31

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 1.9.2 Electric circuit 32
1.9.3 Node 32
1.9.4 Branch 32
1.9.5 Loops and meshes 32
1.9.6 Series connection 33
1.9.7 Parallel connection 33
1.9.8 Ground 34
1.9.9 Connection of the sources 34
1.10 Circuit Response 34
Summary 35
Sample questions 36

Chapter 2 (SIMPLE CIRCUIT AND CIRCUIT LAWS)

2.1 Introduction 37
2.2 DC Response of Passive Elements 37
2.2.1 DC response of resistor 37
2.2.2 DC response of inductor 38
2.2.3 DC response of capacitor 38
2.3 AC Response of Passive Elements in Time domain 39
2.3.1 AC response of resistor in time domain 39
2.3.2 AC response of inductor in time domain 39
2.3.3 AC response of capacitor in time domain 40
2.4 Phasor Representation of a Sinusoid 41
2.5 AC Response of Passive Elements in Phasor domain 43
2.5.1 AC response of resistor in phasor domain 43
2.5.2 AC response of inductor in phasor domain 43
2.5.3 AC response of capacitor in phasor domain 44
2.6 Circuit Laws 46
2.6.1 Ohm’s law 46
2.6.2 Kirchhoff’s laws 48
2.7 Simple Circuit Analysis 53
2.7.1 Series circuit – the voltage divider 53
2.7.2 Parallel circuit – the current divider 58
2.7.3 Series – Parallel circuit 63
2.7.4 Wye – Delta transformations 68
2.8 Practical Sources and Source Transformation 71
2.8.1 Practical sources 71
2.8.2 Source transformation 72
Summary 75
Sample questions 75

Chapter 3 (CIRCUIT ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES)

3.1 Introduction 76
3.2 Nodal Analysis 76
3.3 Mesh Analysis 80
Summary 85

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 Sample questions 85

Chapter 4 (NETWORK THEREMS)

4.1 Introduction 89
4.2 Superposition Principle 89
4.3 Thevenin’s Theorem 93
4.4 Norton’s Theorem 97
4.5 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 101
4.6 Reciprocity Theorem 103
4.7 Substitution Theorem 105
Summary 107
Sample questions 107

Chapter 5 (POWER IN AC CIRCUIT)

5.1 Introduction 109
5.2 Effective value of a Time Varying Signal 109
5.3 Average value of a Time Varying Signal 111
5.4 Form Factor and Peak or Crest Factor 112
5.5 Power in AC Circuit: Instantaneous and Average 113
Power
5.6 Complex Power: Real, Reactive, and Apparent Power 118
5.7 Power Factor 120
5.7.1 Problems of low power factor 121
5.7.2 Causes of low power factor 121
5.8 Power Factor Correction 121
5.9 Maximum Average Power Transfer Theorem 123
5.10 Conservation of AC Power 124
Summary 126
Sample questions 127

Chapter 6 (RESNANCE)
6.1 Introduction 128
6.2 Variable Frequency Response of Passive Elements 128
6.3 Series Resonance 129
6.4 VR, VL, and VC in a Series Resonant Circuit 133
6.5 Parallel Resonance 135
Summary 140
Sample questions 140

Chapter 7 (MAGNETIC CIRCUIT)

7.1 Introduction 141
7.2 Magnetic Materials 141
7.3 Magnetic Fields 142
7.4 Magnetic Circuit 143
7.5 Magnetic Circuit Analysis 146
Summary 155

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Sample questions 155

Appendix A: Review of complex number and complex 156

algebra
Appendix B: Time domain analysis of ac circuit 159
Appendix C: B-H curve of few ferromagnetic materials 161
Appendix D: List of Greek letters 163
Index

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CHAPTER 1

Basic Concepts

✓ CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

1) Understand and be able to use SI units and the standard prefixes for power of
10.
2) Know and be able to use the definitions of basic electrical quantities such as
current, electric field, voltage, power and energy.
3) Understand the symbols for and the behavior of the following ideal basic
circuit elements: voltage and current sources, resistor, inductor, and
capacitor.
4) Be able to calculate the power absorbed by a circuit element using the
passive sign convention.
5) Be able to understand the circuit connections.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In the present days, electrical systems encompass our lives. They are found everywhere such
as in homes, schools, hospitals, and even in our workplaces. In a single word, we may
consider it as the heart of our modern society. Over the past two centuries, electrical
engineers have played a dominant role in the development of systems that have changed the
way people live and work.
As an electrical engineer, you can contribute to this ongoing technological revolution by
improving and refining the existing systems and by discovering and developing new systems
to meet the needs of our ever-changing society.
The outstanding characteristics of electricity in comparison to other energy sources are its
cleanness, and easy transformation, transmission, and distribution. Heat, chemical,
mechanical, light, and many other forms of energy can easily be converted to electrical
energy at a distant location to keep the environments free from pollutions. The generated
electricity is then transmitted to the consumers over long distance along a couple of wires;
and depending on the need, converted into another form of energy such as light, heat, motion,
and so on.
In power plants (the places where electricity is generated) energy in the form heat,
mechanical, hydraulic, chemical, solar, wind, geothermal, nuclear, etc., are transformed into
electrical energy. The transmission line is then efficiently transport electrical energy over
long distances to the consumption locations. This requires an interconnection of several
electrical devices. Such interconnection of electrical devices that have at least one closed
path in which current can flow is referred to as an electric circuit.
Figure 1.1 shows the basic building blocks of an electrical power system. The system starts
with the generation of electricity, by converting some other form of energy in the power
plant. In power station, it is then transformed into high voltage (HV) electrical energy which
is more suitable for long distance transportation. HV power lines in the transmission portion

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of the electric power system then efficiently transport electrical energy to the substations
where this HV electrical energy is transformed into low voltage (LV) energy. It is then
transmitted over distribution power lines for its distribution to residential, commercial, and
industrial users.

Figure 1.1: Electrical Power System Overview.

In this circuit book we will try to provide you, the learner, the foundations of electrical
circuits, and to develop a thinking style and a problem solving methodology based on
physical insight.

1.2 SYSTEMS OF UNITS

The International System of Units (abbreviated SI) is used by all the major engineering
societies and most engineers throughout the word; hence we use it in this book.
Table 1.1 and Table 1.2 show the base units and derived units, respectively, used in this
book.

TABLE 1.1 The International Systems of Units (SI)

Quantity Basic Unit Symbol
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Current Ampere A
Temperature Degree kelvin K
Luminous intensity Candela cd

TABLE 1.2 Derived Units in SI

Quantity Unit Name (Symbol) Formula
Frequency hertz (Hz) s-1
Force newton (N) kgm/s2

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 Energy or work joule (J or Watts) Nm
Power watt (W) J/s
Electric charge coulomb (C) As
Voltage volt (V) J/C
Electric field Volt/meter V/m
Resistance ohm () V/A
Conductance siemens (S) A/V
Capacitance farad (F) C/V
Magnetic flux weber (Wb) Vs
Inductance henry (H) Wb/A

In many cases, the SI unit becomes either too small or too large in magnitude. To simplify
notation, the SI unit thus incorporates the decimal system to relate larger and smaller units to
the basic unit and uses standard prefixes to signify the various powers of ten. These most
useful prefixes are listed in Table 1.3.

TABLE 1.3 Standardized Prefixes to Signify Powers of 10

Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol
1024 Yotta Y 10-24 Yocto y
1021 Zetta Z 10-21 Zetto z
1018 Exa E 10-18 Atto a
1015 Peta P 10-15 Femto f
1012 Tera T 10-12 Pico p
109 Giga G 10-9 Nano n
106 Mega M 10-6 Micro 
103 Kilo k 10-3 Milli m

1.3 BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

Before undertaking the systematic study of electrical circuits, we should be familiar with
such fundamental electrical quantities (which are usually known as circuit variables) as
charge, current, voltage, power, energy, etc. The material of this section will serve as a
review, since these quantities are not entirely new to most readers.

1.3.1 Electric Charge

Electric charge is a physical property of matter. It experiences a force when placed near other
electrically charged body. Charge is the most elementary quantity of electricity. Some
important properties of electric charge are given in the following:
➢ There are two types of charges: positive (it is due to proton) and negative (it is due to
electron).
➢ Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
➢ The electric charge of an electron is -1.602210-19C and that of a proton is 1.602210-
19
C.

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➢ The mass of an electron is 9.110-31 kg and that of a proton is 1.6726210-27 kg which is
about 1836 times the mass of an electron.
➢ Charge is conservative; it can neither be created nor destroyed. However positive and
negative charges may combine to cancel each other.
➢ The electric charge exists in discrete quantities, which are integral multiples of electronic
charge, 1.602210-19C.
➢ The flow of charge establishes electricity.

1.3.2 Electric Field

Every charge creates a 3D space around it, where if a test charge is taken it will experience a
force. The space where the test charge feels force is known as electric field of the former
charge. And the force on a unit positive test charge at a given point in the field is known as
the electric field intensity E of the former charge at that point. E is a vector quantity and its
direction is along the line a positive test charge moves.
Under the effect of electric field E, positive charges tend to move in the same direction as E,
and negative charges move in the opposite direction. In a conductor, electric field causes the
free electrons of the conductor to flow and thus generates electricity.

1.3.3 Voltage

Voltage is a measure of the energy or work required to move a unit positive charge in the
electric field from one point to another. In an electrical circuit, if an energy dw J is required
to move a positive charge of dq C from a point b to point a, then we define the voltage
difference (sometimes it is called potential difference) between those points as
dw
v ab = v a − vb = (1.1)
dq
The voltage of 4V across a two terminal circuit element (box in the following figure),
therefore, is the energy required to move a unit positive charge from its –ve terminal to the
+ve terminal.

In case of electrical energy sources such as battery and generator, the potential difference
between their terminals in absence of current through them is known as electromotive force
(emf). It is the amount of potential energy the source has to make positive charges move
through its low voltage terminal to its high voltage terminal.
If dw>0 in equation (1.1), point a is said to be at higher potential than b and we have to
expend energy to move a positive charge from b to a. Recall that when we pump water from
the ground level reservoir to the roof top water tank, which is at higher potential energy than
the ground level reservoir, we need to expend energy to run an electric motor. If however, the
positive charge dq freely movers from b to a, without requiring any energy from an external

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source, point b is said to be at higher potential than a. It is, therefore, said that the current
flows from high voltage point to low voltage point.
We must remember that reversing the reference polarity reverses the sign of the voltage
difference as shown in the following figure.

Finally, it is noted that if there is any voltage difference between two points, an electric field
is established there. Electric field and voltage are related by E= -V.

1.3.4 Current

The motion of charge creates an electric current. In electrical circuits, the emf which is the
voltage difference across any electrical energy source at no load condition serves as working
force for the development of electric current. Within the emf source, positive charge moves
from its –ve terminal to the +ve terminal.
The electric current is defined as the time rate at which electric charge flows perpendicularly
through a given area. If a charge of dq C crosses some reference plane/surface
perpendicularly in a time dt s, then a current
i=dq/dt (1.2)
is said to occur. Thus, the time rate of flow of charge is known as electric current.
In addition to its numerical value, we often represent a current in a circuit with an arrow in
the direction of flow of positive charge. This convention was introduced by Benjamin
Franklin, although we now know that the current in conductors is due to negatively charged
electrons. The designation shown in the following figure indicates either a current of 2 A is
flowing from left to right, or that a current of -2 A is moving from right to left.

1.3.5 Electric Power

An electrical energy source requires an expenditure of energy or has to do work to sustain

electric current inside an electrical device. The rate at which energy is expended is known as
power and is expressed as
dw dw dq
p= = = vi (1.3)
dt dq dt
In words, the above relation states that the power is simply the product of the voltage across
an electrical device times the current through the device.
Voltage and current by themselves cannot do any real work. The product of voltage and
current is power; and power is used to do real work. For example, voltage might appear at a
wall outlet in your home and a hair-dryer might be plugged into the outlet, but until someone
turns on the switch of the hair-dryer, no current flows, and hence no work is expected from
the hair-dryer.

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It is said that the current in an electrical circuit serves as a vehicle to transfer electrical
energy from the electrical power source to the electrical devices for their proper functioning.

Passive Sign Convention

The direction of current through an electrical device and the polarity of voltage across the
device play a major role in determining the sign of power. The most widely used sign
convention is called the passive sign convention, which is stated as follows:

Whenever the direction of the current in an electrical device is from

higher voltage to lower voltage, use a positive sign for power.
Otherwise, use a negative sign.

Figure 1.2: Reference polarities for power using passive sign convention: (a) absorbing
power; (b) supplying power.

In Figure 1.2 (a), the current i flows in the direction of decreasing v. This is the case where
the power p is being assumed to be absorbed by the device; and according to passive sign
convention p is positive. If the current i flows in the direction of increasing v, as shown in
Figure 1.2 (b), then the power p is being assumed to be released from the device. In this case
p is negative.

1.3.6 Energy

Energy is the capacity for doing work. As power is the rate at which work is being done, the
electrical energy is equal to the product of the power used to run a load and the amount of
time the load is on.
The energy released or absorbed by an electric device, w, over the time interval from t 1 to t2,
is given by
t2

w =  pdt (1.4)
t1

Although energy is measured in J, when dealing with electrical energy, the unit used is
kilowatt hour (kWh).
Finally, it is important to note, that like other systems our electrical circuits satisfy the
principle of conservation of energy. Because of the relationship between energy and power, it
can be implied that power is also conserved in an electrical circuit. This result was formally
stated in 1952 by B. D. H. Tellegen and is known as Tellegen’s theorem-the sum of the

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powers absorbed by all elements in an electrical circuit is zero. Another statement of this
theorem is that the power supplied in a circuit is exactly equal to the power absorbed. A
typical example is offered by an ordinary bulb, which converts electric energy to light and
heat. When the bulb is connected to a battery, current flows through the bulb and thus
transfers power from the battery to the bulb. We say that the battery releases electric power
and the bulb absorbs this electric power.

Example 1.1: Assume a 12-V automobile battery is completely discharged and at some
reference time t=0, is connected to a battery charger to charge it for the next 8 hours. It is
also assumed that the charging rate is
i = 8e −t / 3600 A 0  t  8 hr
=0 otherwise
For this 8-hour interval, compute:
a) the total charge delivered to the battery
b) the maximum power absorbed by the battery
c) the total energy supplied
d) the average power absorbed by the battery

Solution:
28800 28800

 idt =  8e
− t / 3600 28800
(a) q = dt = − 8  3600e−t / 3600  28.80 kC
0
0 0

(b) The voltage is constant ans is 12 V, and the maximum current is 8 A. Therefore the
maximum power absorbed by the battery is 128=96 W.
(c) The supplied energy is given by
28800 28800

 pdt =  96e
− t / 3600 28800
W= dt = − 96  3600e−t / 3600  345.6 kJ
0
0 0

(d) The average power absorbed by the battery is obtained from the total energy absorbed
during 8-hour dividing by the time 8-hour and is
Pavg=345.6103/28800=12 W

Example 1.2: An electrical energy source of emf of 5 V supplies a current of 3 A for 10

minutes. How much energy is provided in this time?
Solution: From (1.3) and (1.4), we have
t2 600
w =  pdt =  (3  5)dt = 15  600 = 9kJ
t1 0

Example 1.3: An electric heater consumes 1.8 MJ when connected to a 250 V supply for 30
minutes. Find the power rating of the heater and the current taken from the supply.
Solution: Consumed energy=1.8 MJ=1.8106 Ws.
Therefore, power rating of the heater=1.8106/(3060)=1 kW.
Now, the current taken from the source is obtained from (1.3) and given by
i=p/v=1103/250=4 A.

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Problem 1.1: A HV dc transmission line between Kaptai and Rajshahi is assumed to operate
at 500 kV and carrying 2 kA, as shown in the following figure. Calculate the power in
megawatts at Kaptai.

Answer: 1000 MW power is supplied by Kaptai.

Problem 1.2: When a car has a dead battery, it can often be started by connecting the battery
from another car across its terminals. The positive terminals are connected together as are the
negative terminals. The connection is illustrated in the following figure. Assume the current I
is measured and found to be 30 A.
a) Which car has the dead battery?
b) If this connection is maintained for 1 min, how much energy is transferred to the
dead battery?

Answer: (a) As the battery of car A is taking current, its battery is dead (b) 21.6 kJ
Problem 1.3: Determine the amount of power absorbed or supplied by the elements in the
following figure.

Answer: (a) P=-48W, (b) P=8W.

Problem 1.4: Verify the Tellegen’s theorem for the following circuit.

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Problem 1.5: Use Tellegen’s theorem to find the current I0 in the following circuit.

Answer: 1A.

Problem 1.6: The voltage and current at the terminals of a device in the following figure are:

Both the voltage and current are zero for t<0 and t>40 s.
a) At what instant of time is the power being delivered to the device maximum?
b) What is the power at the time found in (a)?
c) At what instant of time is the power being extracted from the device maximum?
d) What is the power at the time found in (c)?

Answer: t=8.453 s, 15.396 W (delivered), t=31.547 s, 15.396 W (extracted)

1.4 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

We discussed in Section 1.1, that the interconnection of several electrical devices to achieve
a specified goal is referred to an electric circuit. The components of a circuit are known as
circuit elements. The circuit elements can be broadly classified as being either active or
passive.
An active circuit element is capable of converting energy of any other form into electrical
energy and supplying it to a circuit. Because of their ability to release power, electrical power
sources are said to be active elements. Examples of active circuit elements include batteries
(primary and secondary cells), ac outlets or generators, instant power supply (IPS), etc.
The passive circuit elements do not generate any electricity. They receive electrical energy
from the active circuit elements and may either convert it into any non-electrical form of
energy such as heat, light, etc., or store in electric and/or magnetic fields. The three basic
passive elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
The distinguishing features of the circuit elements are: (1) they have only two terminals,
which are points of connection to other circuit component; (2) they can be described
mathematically in terms of voltage across the terminals and/or the current through them; and
(3) they cannot be subdivided into other elements.

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1.5 ACTIVE CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
An electrical circuit without an active circuit element is meaningless. The voltage and
current sources that generally supply electrical energy to a circuit are known as active circuit
elements or electrical power sources. They act as the driving force for proper functioning of
electrical devices. Among the two types of sources, the voltage sources are more practical.

1.5.1 Voltage and Current Sources

A voltage source is an active circuit element that maintains a prescribed voltage or emf
across its terminals regardless of the magnitude and direction of current through it, as shown
in Figure 1.3 (a). The voltage sources that satisfy the above condition are known as ideal
voltage sources.
Similarly, an ideal current source is an active circuit element that maintains a prescribed
current through it regardless of the magnitude and polarity of the voltage across its terminals,
as shown in Figure 1.3 (b).

Figure 1.3: Characteristics of (a) ideal voltage source; (b) ideal current source.

Both voltage and current sources can further be classified as either independent or dependent.

1.5.2 Independent and Dependent Sources

An independent source establishes a voltage or current in a circuit without depending on

voltages or currents elsewhere in the circuit. Battery and generators are common examples of
independent voltage sources.
The circuit symbols for the ideal independent sources are shown in Figure 1.4. Note that a
circle is used to represent an ideal source. To completely specify an ideal independent
voltage source in a circuit, you must include the value of the supplied voltage and its polarity,
as shown in Figure 1.4(a). Similarly, to completely specify an ideal independent current
source, you must include the value of the supplied current and its direction, as shown in
Figure 1.4(b).

Figure 1.4: The circuit symbols for (a) an ideal independent voltage source and (b) an ideal
independent current source.

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In contrast to the independent source, a dependent source establishes a voltage or current
whose value depends on the value of some other voltage or current anywhere in the circuit.
You cannot specify the value of a dependent source unless you know the value of the voltage
or current on which it depends. Dependent sources are commonly used to represent electrical
properties of electronic devices such as transistors, amplifiers, etc. You have to remember
that a dependent source in a circuit is meaningless or inactive in absence of independent
source in the circuit.
The circuit symbols for the ideal dependent sources are shown in Figure 1.5. A diamond is
used to represent a dependent source. Both the dependent current source and the dependent
voltage source may be controlled by either a voltage or a current elsewhere in the circuit, so
there are a total of four variations, as indicated by the symbols in Figure 1.5. Dependent
sources are sometimes called controlled sources.

Figure 1.5: The circuit symbols for (a) an ideal dependent VCVS, (b) an ideal dependent
CCVS, (c) an ideal dependent CCCS, and (d) an ideal dependent VCCS.

The four possible types of linear dependent sources are:

(1) The voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS), which yields v= vs volts regardless of
the current through that circuit element whose controlling voltage is vs. The constant 
has the dimension of volt/volt.
(2) The current-controlled voltage source (CCVS) , which yields v=ris volts regardless of
the voltage across that circuit element whose controlling current is is. The constant kr has
the dimension of volt/ampere.
(3) The voltage-controlled current source (VCCS), which yields i=gvs ampere regardless
of the current through that circuit element whose controlling voltage is vs. The constant g
has the dimension of ampere/volt.
(4) The current-controlled current source (CCCS), which yields i=is ampere regardless
of the voltage across that circuit element whose controlling current is is. The constant 
has the dimension of ampere/ampere.

Problem 1.7: Using the definition of the ideal independent sources, state which
interconnections in the following figure are permissible and which violate the constraints
imposed by the ideal sources.

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Answer: (a, b and e)-permissible, (c and d)- not permissible.

Problem 1.8: Using the definition of the ideal independent and dependent sources, state
which interconnections in the following figure are valid and which violate the constraints
imposed by the ideal sources.

Answer: (a and d)-invalid, (b and c)- valid.

Problem 1.9: Identify the independent and dependent sources in the following circuit.

Problem 1.10: Determine the power supplied by the dependent sources in the following
circuits.

Answer: (a) 80 W, (b) 160 W.

1.5.3 DC Voltage and Current Sources

Two types of electrical power sources that we encounter in our daily lives are: direct current
(dc) and alternating current (ac).
Ideal dc voltage and current sources supply voltage and current at constant magnitude with
respect to time. The dc voltage (current) can be expressed mathematically as V(I)=K
Volts(Amperes), where K is a constant and independent of time. Batteries and dc generators

16
are the examples of dc power sources. The characteristic of dc voltage and current sources is
shown in the following:

V/I
K

Figure 1.6: Characteristic of dc voltage or current.

One of the more common applications of dc sources is to provide power to electronic and
electromechanical devices such as flush-light, radio, laptop, watch, and so forth. Instruments
specifically designed to serve this function are called dc power supplies.

1.5.4 AC Voltage and Current Sources

The generation and transmission of alternating current (ac) voltage were found easy and
efficient over dc. Moreover, dc voltage or current can be obtained from ac by using a very
simple electronic circuit. Therefore, the electrical engineers in the late 1800s decided to
generate ac power specifically in which the value of the source voltage or current varies
sinusoidally, for future use. The most important reasons for our interest on the sinusoidal ac
voltage is not only that it is the voltage generated by utilities throughout the world, the
communication system also uses the sinusoidally varying signals for its operation. Moreover,
most mathematical operations such as additin, subtraction, differentiation, integration etc. on
sinusoidal function yield sinusoidal function.
AC voltage and current, that we use everyday as electrical power source, vary sinusoidally
with time. Their waveshape is shown in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7: Sinusoidally varying Voltage waveform

We can express the sinusoidally varying voltage or current mathematically with either the
sine function or the cosine function. Although either works equally well, we cannot use both
simultaneously. We will use cosine function throughout our discussion in this book to
express the sinusoidally varying function. Hence, the sinusoidally varying ac voltage or
current will be expressed in its generalized form as:

17
 x(t ) = X m cos(t +  ) (1.5)
Here x(t) is the instantaneous value of the sinusoidal signal or function (x is either v for
voltage or i for current), Xm is its amplitude or maximum/peak value. The sinusoid shown in
the above figure is a periodic function defined by the property x(t+nT)=x(t) for all t and n
where n is an integer; T (sec) is the period of oscillation which is defined by the time taken,
in seconds, by the alternating function to make a complete wave or cycle. The reciprocal of T
gives the number of cycles per second, or the frequency in Hz, of the sinusoidal function and
is obtained as f=1/T. Omega (=2f=2/T) is the angular frequency of the sinusoid in
rad/sec. Most of the countries in Asia including Bangladesh, Europe, Africa, Australia, and
South America use 50 Hz power, while some parts of USA use 60 Hz.
Theta () in equation (1.5) is the phase angle in radian or degrees and is the measure of phase
shift of the nearest positive peak of the cosine wave from the origin where t=0. To
understand the role of the phase angle θ, recall that the cosine function
x(t ) = X m cos(t +  ) reaches its maximum when its argument is an integral multiple of 2,
i. e., when (ωt+θ)=± 2n where n is an integer. The maximum value of the function
corresponding to n=0, referred to as the central peak, occurs when ωt+θ=0. When θ=0, the
central peak occurs at t=0 (series 1). Depending on the value of θ (for θ≠0), the central peak
of the function shifts to the right (for θ<0, series 2) or left (for θ>0, series 3) of the point
corresponding to t=0 as shown in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8: Sinusoids with different phases.

It is noted that a dc voltage or current can be regarded as an infinitely slow periodic

function having T=. Consequently, since f=1/T=1/=0, the frequency of dc voltage or
current is zero.
Other forms of time varying signals are also used in the various branch of electrical
engineering. A few examples are shown in the following:

1.5.5 PHASE RELATION BETWEEN TWO SINUSOIDS

In ac analysis of electrical networks, we frequently need to relate two or more ac voltages or

currents that are not synchronized (i. e., their peaks as well as zero points do not occur at the
same time). The following figure illustrates an example. In this figure, two waves A and B

18
have the same amplitude and frequency, but they are out of step with each other. This is
called phase shift. The phase shift for two waveforms of same frequency is constant
throughout their existence; and whichever waveform is ahead in its evolution is said to be
leading and the one behind is said to be lagging. We may, therefore, say that waveform A in
the following figure leads the waveform B.

It is often of interest to know the phase difference between two signals having the same
frequency. If x(t ) = X m cos(t +  x ) and y (t ) = Ym cos(t +  y ) , we define the phase
difference between functions x(t) and y(t) as =x-y. Depending on the value of , we have
several important cases:
(1) If =0, the two functions are said to be in phase with each other.
(2) If >0, we say that x(t) leads y(t) by  rad.
(3) If <0, we say that x(t) lags y(t) by  rad.
We generally keep  within the range - or -180180, and this is obtained by
suitably adding or subtracting integral multiples of 2 rad or 360 with it.
In determining the phase difference between two waveforms graphically, the sinusoidal
waves are first expressed either in cosine or sine form and then two closest similar points on
the waves are compared. It is noted that throughout this course, we always consider the
sinusoid as cosine function as stated earlier.
Conversion the expressions from sine to cosine can be obtained from the following identities:
sin ( A) = cos( A −  / 2)
− sin ( A) = cos( A +  / 2)
− cos ( A) = cos( A   )

Example 1.4: Determine the phase relations between the signals of the following sets: i) v=2
cos(t+100), i=5 sin(t+100) ; ii) i=2 cos(t+100), v= -5 sin(t-100); iii) x=10 sin(t+100),
y=5 sin(t-100)

Solution: i) v=2 cos(t+100) and i=5 sin(t+100)=5 cos(t+100-900). Therefore the phase
difference between v and i is =100 +800=900. Since >0, v leads i by 900. It can also be said
that i lags v by 900.
ii) i=2 cos(t+100) and v= -5 sin(t-100)=5 cos{(t-100)+ 900}=5 cos(t+800). Therefore
the phase difference between i and v is =100 -800= -700. Since <0, i lags v by 700. It can
also be said here that v leads i by 700.
iii) x=10 sin(t+100)=10cos(t-800), y=5 sin(t-100) =5 cos(t-1000). The phase difference
between x and y is =-800-(-1000)= 200. Since >0, x leads y by 200.

Problem 1.11: Determine the frequency and the phase difference between the two voltages
v1(t)=12 sin(1000t+600) V and v2(t)=-6 sin(1000t+300) V.

19
1.6 PASSIVE CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
The three basic passive elements are resistor, inductor, and capacitor. Each type has specific
characteristics that make them unique. In fact, all electrical devices can equivalently be
represented by circuits of these three components together with voltage and/or current
sources.

1.6.1 Resistor

Resistance is the physical property of a circuit element that resists the conduction of current
through it. The circuit element specifically designed to provide this function is called resistor.
Figure 1.9 shows the circuit symbol for the resistor, with R denoting the resistance value of
it.

Figure 1.9: The circuit symbol for a resistor having a resistance R.

German physicist Georg S. Ohm established that the voltage across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it, i.e.,
vR (t )  iR (t )  vR (t ) = Ri R (t ) or, iR (t ) = vR (t ) / R (1.6)
where R is the proportionality constant; the value of R is independent on the voltage across
the resistor and the current through it. The polarity of the voltage and the direction of current
flowing are shown in Figure 1.10, according to passive sign convention.

Figure 1.10: A resistive circuit.

The linear relation between voltage and current of a resistor as given in equation (1.6) is
known as Ohm’s law. The SI unit of resistance R is named ohm () in honor of Georg S.
Ohm. Note that 1/R=G where G is the conductance and its SI unit is Siemens (S) or mho.
Now power
pR (t ) =vR (t ) iR (t ) = i 2R (t ) R= v2R (t ) /R= v2R (t ) G W,
and energy consumed by the resistor in time t sec is
t
wR (t ) =  pR dt Ws
0
where power is in W and time in sec.
It is to be noted that p is always positive, as R and G are positive quantities, indicating that
power is always consumed by the resistor and energy always increases with time.
Resistor is such an electric circuit element that converts electric energy into thermal energy
and dissipated in the form of heat. This effect may be undesirable in general. However, many

20
useful electrical devices take advantage of resistance heating, including stoves, toasters,
irons, and heaters.
A resistor is generally made of a rod of conductive material such as carbon composition,
though a variety of other materials and shapes are common. They mostly fall into one of the
following four basic categories: carbon composition, carbon film, metal film, or wire wound.
Figure 1.11 shows some typical resistor.

Figure1.11: Example of some typical resistors.

The amount of R of a resistor depends on the material used to manufacture it. Metals such as
copper and aluminum have small values of resistance, making them good choices for wiring
used to conduct electric current. The resistance of any conducting material with a uniform
cross-sectional area is determined from R=l/A=l/(A), where (rho), (sigma), l, and A, are
respectively, the material’s resistivity, the conductivity (which is reciprocal of resistivity), the
length, and the cross-sectional area. Table 1.5 presents the values of  for some common
materials and shows which materials are conductors, insulators, and semiconductors.

TABLE 1.5: Resistivities of common materials.

Short circuit and Open circuit

Graphically, the voltage-current relationship for a resistor according to Ohm’s law is

depicted in Figure 1.12. At any given point in the graph, the ratio of voltage to current is
always constant and is equal to R. Clearly, the larger value of R the smaller the current for a

21
given applied voltage.

Figure 1.12: V-I characteristic for a resistor according to Ohm’s law.

Two extreme values of resistance have the descriptive names short circuit (R=0) and open
circuit (R=). With the decrease in the value of R, V-I characteristic shown in Figure 1.11
moves towards i-axis and finally it coincides with it when R=0; in this case vR=0 regardless
of the current. This is the property of short circuit. However, with the increase in the value of
R, V-I characteristic moves towards v-axis and finally it coincides with it when R=; here
iR=0 regardless of the voltage. This is the property of open circuit.

1.6.2 Inductor

Inductance represents the physical property or ability of a circuit element to produce

magnetic flux linkage in response to current. Circuit elements specifically designed to
provide this function is called inductor. It consists of a conducting wire wound on a core, as
shown in Figure 1.13. The circuit symbol of inductor with L denoting its inductance value is
also shown in the figure. It is designed to store energy in its magnetic field when current
flows through it.

Figure 1.13: Typical form of an inductor and its symbol.

In the beginning of 19th century, English experimentalist Michael Faraday and American
inventor Joseph Henry established, almost simultaneously, that the electromotive force or
voltage vL across the coil is proportional to the rate of change of the current through it, i.e.,
diL (t ) diL (t )
v L (t )   v L (t ) = L (1.7)
dt dt
where L is the constant of proportionality and is measured in henry (H) in honor of Joseph
Henry. The value of L is independent on the voltage across the inductor and the current
through it. The polarity of the voltage and the direction of current flowing through L are
shown in Figure 1.14.

22
 Figure 1.14: An inductive circuit.

Equation (1.7) can be rearranged as

1
diL (t ) = vL (t )dt
L
Integrating this expression from t=- to some time t yields
t t t t
1 1 0 1 1
iL (t ) =  vL (t )dt =  vL (t )dt +  vL (t )dt = iL (t0 ) +  vL (t )dt (1.8)
L − L − L t0 L t0
where iL(t0) is the through the inductor at t= t0, usually known as initial current, and iL(t=-
)=0.
The power delivered to the inductor is equal to
 di (t ) 
pL (t ) = vL (t )iL (t ) =  L L iL (t ) (W) (1.9)
 dt 
and the stored energy is
t0 i (t )
 diL (t ) 
t t t L

wL (t ) =  pL (t )dt =  pL (t )dt +  pL (t )dt =   L iL (t )dt = L  iL (t )diL (t )

t0 
− − t0
dt  iL (t 0 )

1 2 (1.10a)
= L[iL (t ) − iL2 (t0 )] W s or J
2
In deriving the above equation, stored energy in the inductor was assumed to be zero for t<t0,
where t0 is usually known as initial time.
Energy can also be calculated from pL as follows:
t t0 t
w L (t ) = p
−
L (t )dt =  vL (t )iL (t )dt +  vL (t )iL (t )dt
− t0
W s or J (1.10b)

One practical use of the stored energy in an inductor, in our daily life, is to fire the spark plug
of a car.
The important characteristics of an inductor are:
(1) The voltage across an inductor only exists if there is any change in the value of current
flowing through it. The voltage across the inductor is zero if the current through it is
constant, i. e., an inductor acts like a short circuit to dc.
(2) A step current change is not possible through an inductor as this change would require an
infinite voltage which is not possible. Therefore, the current passing through an
inductor can never change suddenly. It means that an inductor opposes any change in
current through it.
(3) An inductor does not generate or dissipate electrical energy. However, it stores energy in
its magnetic field. This stored energy can be retrieved at a later time. During storing

23
 energy, inductor takes power from the circuit and delivers it to the circuit when returns
back the previously stored energy.

From the basic theory of magnetism it is known that the inductance L of a coil depends on
the core material and its physical dimensions, and is given by L==N/I=N2A/l, where  is
the magnetic flux in the core,  is the permeability of the core material, A is the cross-
sectional area of the core, and l is the mean length of the flux path through the core as shown
in Figure 1.13.
Most electrical devices like hair dryers, fans, blenders, vacuum cleaners and many other
motorized devices show the property of inductor. Some typical inductors are shown in Figure
1.15.

Figure 1.15: Some typical inductors.

The model of practical inductor is shown in the following figure. They are modeled by an
ideal inductance in series with a resistance which originates from the conducting wire of the
coil. It also has a winding capacitance due to the capacitive coupling between the conducting
coils. However, the winding resistance Rw is usually very small as the coil is made from
highly conductive wire. The effect of winding capacitance Cw can also be ignored except at
high frequencies.

Ideal inductor Practical model of an inductor

As the current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously, you might ask what is
happened if we switched off the current in an inductive circuit. What would really happen in
a real system is that the current initially continues to flow in the air across the switch, a
phenomena called arcing. The arc across the switch prevents the current from dropping to
zero instantaneously.
Example 1.5: A pure inductance of 3 mH carries a current of the waveform shown in the
following figure. Sketch the waveform of v(t).

24
Solution: We know the voltage v(t) across an inductor is given by v(t)=L(di/dt). The current
i is given as follows:
i=5t A for 0  t  2 sec
=10 A for 2  t  4 sec
=-10t+50 A for 4  t  6 sec
=-10 A for 6  t  8 sec
=5t-50 A for 8  t  10 sec
Therefore form v(t)=L(di/dt), we have
v(t)=1510-3=15 mV for 0  t  2 sec
=0 mV for 2  t  4 sec
=-30 mV for 4  t  6 sec
=0 mV for 6  t  8 sec
=15 mV for 8  t  10 sec
The sketch for v(t) is shown in the following:

Example 1.6: A voltage of 10(1-t) V is applied across an inductor of 2H inductance at t=0

when the current through it was 2 A. Calculate the current through the inductor at t=4 sec and
the stored energy in it at t=4 sec.
Solution: We know the current i(t) through an inductor is given by
t
1
iL (t ) = iL (t0 ) +  vL (t )dt
L t0
In this problem iL(t0=0)=2 A. Therefore,
t t
1 t2 t2
iL (t ) = 2 + 10(1 − t )dt = 2 + 5(t − ) = 2 + 5(t − ) A
2 t0 =0 2 0 2
The current at t=4 sec is, therefore, iL(t=4)=2-20=-18 A.
As voltage across the inductor is zero for t<0 because of constant current, wL(t=4) can be
obtained from (1.10) as
1 1
w L (t = 4) = L[i L2 (t = 4) − i L2 (t 0 )] = 2[( −18) 2 − (2) 2 ] = 320 Ws
2 2
The stored energy can also be determined as follows:

25
  t2 
t0 t t t
w L (t ) =  pL (t )dt +  pL (t )dt =  pL (t )dt =
− t0 t0

t0 =0
10(1 − t ) 

2 + 5(t −
2
) dt


 
t t
25 75 30
= 25t − 75t + 30t + 20 dt = t 4 − t 3 + t 2 + 20t
3 2

0
4 3 2 0

25 4 75 3 30 2
= t − t + t + 20t
4 3 2
w L (t = 4) = 320 Ws

Problem 1.12: The current in a 5-mH inductor has the following waveform. Compute the
voltage waveform.
Answer:

1.6.3 Capacitor

Capacitance represents the ability of a circuit element to store charge in response to voltage.
Circuit elements that are designed to provide this specific function are called capacitors. It is
the only device other than a battery that can store charge.
A capacitor is made of two metallic conducting plates separated by a dielectric or insulating
material. A simplified model of capacitor and its circuit symbol are shown in Figure 1.16.
Capacitors store energy in its electric field.

Figure 1.16: Typical form of a capacitor and its circuit symbol.

Applying a voltage between the plates of a capacitor causes positive charge to accumulate on
the plate at higher potential and an equal amount negative charge to accumulate on the plate
at lower potential. The rate at which the accumulated charge varies with the applied voltage
is denoted as C, i.e.,
dq
C= (1.11)
dv
Suppose the supply voltage vC in Figure 1.17 is increased by dvC. This causes the charge on
the top plate to increase by dq=CdvC and the charge on the bottom plate to decrease by the

26
same amount. Therefore, a current must flow from the source to the top plate and the bottom
plate back to the source.

Figure 1.17: A capacitive circuit.

The current iC in the circuit can be obtained as follows:

dq (t ) dv (t ) dvC (t )
dq (t ) = CdvC (t )  =C C  iC (t ) = C (1.12)
dt dt dt
Equation (1.12) can be re arranged as
1
dvC (t ) = iC (t )dt
C
Then integrating this expression from t=0 to some time t yields
t
1
vC (t ) = vC (t0 ) +  iC dt (1.13)
C t0
where vC (t0) is the initial voltage across the capacitor.
The power delivered to the capacitor is obtained as
 dv (t ) 
pC (t ) = vC (t )iC (t ) =  C C vC (t ) (W) (1.14)
 dt 
The stored energy is
t0
 dv (t ) 
t t t
wC (t ) =  pC (t )dt =  pC (t )dt +  pC (t )dt =   C C vC (t )dt
t0 
− − t0
dt 
vc (t )
1
=C v
vc (t 0 )
C (t )dvC (t ) = C[vC2 (t ) − vC2 (t0 )] Ws or J
2
(1.15a)

In deriving the above equation, stored energy in the capacitor was assumed to be zero for
t<t0, where t0 is usually known as initial time.
Stored energy in a capacitor can also be determine from
t t0 t
wC (t ) =
−
 pC (t )dt =  vC (t )iC (t )dt +  vC (t )iC (t )dt Ws or J
− t0
(1.15b)

One practical use of the stored energy in a capacitor, in our daily life, is to fire the flashbulb
of a camera.
The important characteristics of a capacitor are:
(1) The current through a capacitor is proportional to the rate of change of voltage across it.
This requires a time varying voltage across a capacitor to have current through it.
Therefore, the current through a capacitor is zero if the voltage across it is constant, i. e.,
a capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc.

27
(2) A step voltage change is not possible through a capacitor as this would correspond to an
infinite current, which is physically impossible. Therefore, the voltage across a capacitor
can never change suddenly. It means that a capacitor opposes any change in voltage
across it.
(3) A capacitor does not generate or consume electrical energy. However, it stores energy in
its electric field and returns previously stored energy when required. During storing
energy, capacitor takes power from the circuit and delivers it to the circuit when returns
back the previously stored energy.

A capacitor consists of two conducting surfaces separated by an insulator. From the basic
theory of electricity, the capacitance of a capacitor depends on the type of insulator and the
physical dimensions. For parallel plate capacitor as shown in Figure 1.16, the capacitance is
given by C=A/d, where A is the surface area of the plate, d is the distance between the
plates, and  is the permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates. The SI unit of
capacitance is farad (F) in honor of Michael Faraday.
Capacitors are used extensively in electronics, communications, computers, and power
systems. For general applications in electronic circuit, the dielectric material may be paper
impregnated with oil or wax, polystyrene, mica, glass, or ceramic. Mica, glass, and ceramic
dielectric capacitors operate satisfactorily at high frequencies. Aluminum electrolytic
capacitors, consist of a pair of aluminum plates separated by a moistened borax paste
electrolyte, are typically used for filtering, bypassing, and coupling, and in power supplies
and motor starting applications.
Figure 1.18 shows a variety of typical discrete capacitors. In using capacitors, precautions
must be taken because there are some capacitors (mostly electrolytic capacitors) which are
primarily designed for use in dc circuits. These capacitors have terminals with polarity
marking.

Figure 1.18: Some typical capacitors.

A practical capacitor is modeled by assuming a resistance in parallel to the ideal capacitor as

shown in the following figure; however, this resistance may be as high as 100 M. In circuit
analyses, the capacitor may be considered as an ideal one.

28
 Ideal capacitor Practical model of a capacitor

Example 1.7: A 0.5 F capacitor has current waveform i(t) as shown in the following figure.
Plot v(t).

Solution: The equations for the current i(t) through the capacitor are:
i(t)= 10A for 0  t  2 sec
= 0A for 2  t  4 sec
=- 5A for 4  t  8 sec
t
1
We know the voltage across the capacitor is given by v(t ) = v(t0 ) +  i(t )dt
C0
Assuming v(t0)=0, we have
t t
1 1
v(t ) = v(t0 = 0) +  i(t )dt = 0 + −6 
10  10− 6 dt = 20t for 0  t  2 sec
C0 0.5  10 0
t t
1 1
v(t ) = v(t = 2) +
C2 i(t )dt = 40 +
0.5  10− 6 0
0dt = 40 for 2  t  4 sec
t t
1 1
v(t ) = v(t = 4) +  i (t )dt = 40 + −6 
(−5  10− 6 )dt = 80 − 10t for 4  t  8 sec
C4 0.5  10 4
The sketch for v(t) is shown in the following:

Example 1.8: The current through a 5mF capacitor is as follows:

0.25 A, 0  t  2 sec;

i = − 0.25 A, 2  t  3 sec;
0 A, t  3 sec


29
Determine the voltage across the capacitor, the instantaneous power, and energy.

Solution: We know
t
1
v(t ) = v(t 0 ) +  i (t )dt
C t0
Therefore,
t t
1 1
v(t ) = v(t0 ) +  i (t )dt = 0 +
5  10− 3 t 0= 0
0.25dt = 50t for 0  t  2 sec
C t0
t
1
5  10− 3 t 0= 2
v(t ) = v(t0 = 2) − 0.25dt = 100 − 50(t − 2) = 200 − 50t for 2  t  3 sec

t
1
5  10− 3 t 0= 2
v(t ) = v(t0 = 3) − 0dt = 50 for t  3 sec

Since p(t)=v(t)i(t), we obtain

p(t ) = 50t (0.25) = 12.5t for 0  t  2 sec
p(t ) = (200 − 50t )( −0.25) = −50 + 12.5t for 2  t  3 sec
p(t ) = 50(0) = 0 for t  3 sec
The energy can be obtained from
t0 t t0 t
wC (t ) =  pC (t )dt +  pC (t )dt =  vC (t )iC (t )dt +  vC (t )iC (t )dt
− t0 − t0

Therefore,
0 t t
wC (t ) = p
−
C (t )dt + 12.5tdt = 12.5tdt = 6.25t 2
0 0
for 0  t  2

2 t

 pC (t )dt +  (−50 + 12.5t )dt = 25 + (−50t + 6.25t )

t
wC (t ) = 2
2
− 2

= 25 + (−50t + 6.25t 2 ) − (−100 + 25) = 100 − 50t + 6.25t 2 for 2  t  3

3 t
wC (t ) = p
−
C (t )dt +  0dt = 6.25
3

Problem 1.13: The voltage across a 2-F capacitor has the following waveform. Determine
the waveform for the capacitor current.

Answer:

30
1.7 LINEAR CIRCUIT ELEMENT
A circuit or a circuit element is said to be linear if it describes a linear relationship between
cause and effect. Suppose an application of voltage across a circuit produces a current
through it, then we may consider the supply voltage as cause and the current as effect. And if
the voltage and the current in the circuit have the linear relation between them, the circuit is
said to be linear. More specifically, a linear circuit or circuit element is one that satisfies (i)
homogeneity property and (ii) additive property.
The homogeneity property requires that if the input signal vi(t) to a circuit is multiplied by a
constant k, then the output (also called the response) of the circuit will be equal to kv0(t),
where v0(t) is the output of the circuit for the input signal vi(t).
The additive property requires that the response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the
responses to each input applied separately. Assume that the outputs of a circuit are v01(t) for
the input vi1(t) and v02(t) for the input vi2(t). Then if you apply [vi1(t)+ vi2(t)] to the circuit,
the output will be [v01(t)+ v02(t)].
Sincerely speaking, a linear circuit is one whose parameters do not change with a change in
the applied voltage or current. Resistor, inductor and capacitor are the examples of linear
circuit elements. However, a semiconductor diode is not a linear element, as because its v-i
characteristic is non-linear.

1.8 BILATERAL CIRCUIT ELEMENT

A circuit element is said to be bilateral if it allows the flow of current through it in both
directions and satisfy the same relation between the voltage across and the current through it.
Voltage and current sources, resistor, inductor, and capacitor are the examples of bilateral
circuit elements. On the other hand, semiconductor diode is not a bilateral circuit element; it
is a unilateral circuit element as because the current in a diode flows in one direction.

1.9 CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS

Electric circuits are interconnection of different circuit elements and they may be connected
in several ways. Before starting circuit analysis, we need to understand the following basic
terminologies frequently used in circuit analysis.

1.9.1 Electric Network

An electric network is an interconnection of two or more circuit elements such as resistors,

inductors, capacitors, transmission lines, voltage sources, current sources, and switches as
shown in the following figure. Electrical network may not provide a return path to electric
current.

31
1.9.2 Electric Circuit

An electrical circuit is a network which contains at least one closed path. Thus every circuit
is a network but not all networks are circuits. The following is an example of electric circuit.

1.9.3 Node

When the leads of two or more circuit elements are joined together, they form a node. An
example of a node is shown in the following Figure.

Note that there is no element connected between nodes D and E, or E and F in Figure 1.9;
therefore, they can be regarded as a single node. If only two leads converge to a node, as in
the case of node A in Figure 1.19, then it is called a simple node. However, a node where
three or more circuit elements are joined together, as in the case of node A in Figure 1.19, is
known as essential node or junction. The distinguishing feature of a node is that all leads
converging to it are at the same potential.

1.9.4 Branch

Each circuit element in a circuit constitutes a branch. The circuit in Figure 1.19 has six
branches.

1.9.5 Loops and Meshes

A loop in an electrical circuit is simply a closed path formed by the interconnection of circuit
elements in which no node is encountered more than once. On the other hand, a mesh is a
loop that contains no other loop inside it. In the following circuit, ABCDEFA is an example
of loop but ABEFA is a mesh.

Figure 1.19: An example of electrical circuit.

32
1.9.6 Series Connection

Two or more circuit elements are said to be connected in series if they carry the same current.
To be in series, two elements must share a common terminal or a simple node. In the circuit
shown in Figure 1.20, the voltage source, the resistor, inductor, and the capacitor are
connected in series because every two elements in the circuit shear a common simple node,
and the same current will flow through them.

Figure 1.20: A circuit illustrating series connections.

The defining characteristics of a series circuit are:

1) A series circuit has only one path for source current to flow, so that the same current
flows through each element,
2) The supply voltage divieds among all the passive elements, and
3) If one of the circuit element is broken or open circuited, current will cease to flow
through all the other elements in the circuit.

1.9.7 Parallel connection

Two or more circuit elements are said to be connected in parallel if they are subjected to the
same voltage. To be in parallel, the elements must share the same pair of nodes. Looking at
the circuit shwn in Figure 1.21, we observe that the voltage source, the resistor, the inductor,
and the capacitor are connected in parallel because they share the same pair of nodes A and
B.

Figure 1.21: A circuit illustrating parallel connections.

The defining characteristics of a parallel circuit are:

1) A parallel circuit has two or more paths for current to flow,
2) Voltage across each element of a parallel circuit is same,

33
3) If one of the parallel paths is broken, current will continue to flow in all the other paths.
This is why we connect our loads in parallel to oerate independently.

1.9.8 Ground

Sometimes, a node of a circuit is connected to ground or is grounded. It is a node in circuit to

which all voltages are referenced. Therefore, a grounded node is also called reference node.
Some circuit symbols used for ground are shown in the following figure.

1.9.9 Connection of Sources

From the definition of ideal sources, it is to be remembered that two or more ideal voltage
sources may be connected in series to increase or decrease the amount of voltage to be
sourced as shown below. However, the two voltage sources with VS1 VS2 must never be
connected in parallel at least as long as they are ideal. On the other hand, two or more current
sources may be connected in parallel to increase or decrease the amount of current to be
sourced as shown below. However, the two current sources with IS1 IS2 must never be
connected in series at least as long as they are ideal.

Voltage sources in series Current sources in parallel

1.10 CIRCUIT RESPONSE

Circuit response is the relation between the circuits input to its output. It may be a measure of
either current or voltage. The response of a physical circuit containing the passive circuit
elements depends on the type of source, the elements in the circuit, and the past history of the
circuit. The total response consists of forced response determined by the type of energy
source, and a natural response dictated by the energy storage elements, inductor and
capacitor, of the circuit and their past history. The natural response is always transient and
occurs when a circuit is turned on or off; but the forced response of the circuits, having linear
passive elements such as resistor, inductor, and capacitor, is similar in nature as that of the
source. The forced response is the final value of the output and also known as the steady state

34
response or value. The steady state response of a circuit exists as long as the energy source
remains connected with the circuit; the transient response, however, vanishes within very
short time.
In the following, unless and otherwise stated, steady-state response of the circuit will only be
considered.

SUMMARY

1) Electrical circuit is an interconnection of electrical devices (known as circuit elements) so

that electricity can flow through them.
2) Electric field causes the free electrons of the conductor to flow through it and thus
generates electricity in the conductor.
3) Current flows from high voltage point to low voltage point in a circuit.
4) The emf is the amount of potential energy the voltage source has to make positive
charges move through it from its low voltage terminal to high voltage terminal.
5) There are two types of circuit elements: i) Active circuit element and ii) Passive circuit
element.
6) Active circuit elements supply electrical energy and Passive circuit elements absorb
electrical energy and convert it into other form or store in them.
7) Voltage and Current sources (battery/generator) are example of active circuit elements;
whereas resistors, inductors, and capacitors are the basic passive circuit elements.
8) An ideal voltage source provides a known voltage across its terminals regardless of the
current drawn from it.
9) An ideal current source provides a constant current through it regardless of the voltage
across its terminals.
10) Voltage and Current sources can be classified into i) independent (voltage/current of the
source does not depend on the voltage/current of other parts of the circuit), and ii)
dependent (voltage/current of the source depends on the voltage/current of other parts of
the circuit).
11) We encounter two types of electrical power sources in our daily lives: direct current (dc)
and alternating current (ac).
12) The v-i characteristic of a resistor is given as:
vR = Ri R or iR = vR / R.
13) The v-i characteristic of an inductor is given as:
t
di 1
vL = L L or iL = iL (t = t0 ) +  vL dt.
dt L t0
14) The v-i characteristic of a capacitor is given as:
t
dv 1
iC = C C or vC = vC (t = t0 ) +  iC dt.
dt C t0
15) The v-i characteristic of a resistor obeys Ohm’s law.
16) Inductor acts like a short circuit to dc.
17) Capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc.
18) A linear circuit is one that satisfies (i) homogeneity property and (ii) additive property.
19) The homogeneity property requires that if the input signal to a circuit is multiplied by a

35
 constant, then the output of the circuit will be equal to the constant times the output of the
circuit for the original input signal.
20) The additive property requires that the response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the
responses to each input applied separately.
21) A linear circuit is one whose parameters do not change with a change in the applied
voltage or current.
22) A circuit element is said to be bilateral if it allows the flow of current through it in both
directions and satisfy the same relation between the voltage across and the current
through it.
23) Interconnection of two or more circuit elements is known as electrical network.
24) An electrical circuit is a network which contains at least one closed path.
25) Node is a point in a network where two or more circuit elements are joined together.
26) A loop in an electrical circuit is a closed path through which electricity can flow.
27) A loop is said to be a mesh, if it does not contain any loop inside it.
28) Circuit elements are said to be connected in series if they carry the same current.
29) Circuit elements are said to be connected in parallel if they share the same voltage across
them.
30) Voltage sources may be connected in series. However, voltage sources with different
ratings must never be connected in parallel at least as long as they are ideal.
31) Current sources may be connected in parallel. However, current sources with different
ratings must never be connected in series at least as long as they are ideal.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1.1 What is electrical circuit?

1.2 Define current, voltage, power, and energy. Show that p=vi.
1.3 In a conductor point A is at higher potential than point B. What is the direction of
electric field in the conductor and what is the direction of current flow through the
conductor?
1.4 What do you mean by circuit element?
1.5 What do you mean by active and passive circuit elements? Give examples of each.
1.6 Explain the characteristics of ideal voltage and current sources.
1.7 What are independent and dependent souces?
1.8 Explain the v-i characteristics of resistor, inductor, and capacitor.
1.9 What are electrical network and electrical circuit?
1.10 What do you mean by node and mesh?
1.11 Explains the characteristics of series/parallel circuit in brief.
1.12 What do you mean by linear and bilateral circuit element?

36
CHAPTER 2

Simple Circuits and Circuit Laws

✓ CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

1) Be able to understand the behavior of passive circuit elements under dc and

ac excitation.
2) Be able to define phasor and know how to represent a sinusoidal signal into
phasor form.
3) Understand Ohm’s law, and Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws in phasor
form, and be able to apply them to analyze simple circuits.
4) Be able to define impedance and admittance of a circuit.
5) Be able to transform a circuit with a sinusoidal source into the frequency
domain using phasor concepts.
6) Be able to recognize impedances connected in series and in parallel and use
the rules to yield equivalent impedance.
7) Know how to design voltage divider and current divider circuits.
8) Understand when and how to apply wye-delta transformations in the analysis
of electric circuits.
9) Understand the source transformation technique and be able to use it to solve
a circuit.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this part of this book, we deal with simple electrical circuits on the following assumptions:

1) The energy source is either a dc voltage/current or an ac voltage/current,

2) Only steady state response is our prime concern.

2.2 DC RESPONSE OF PASSIVE ELEMENTS

In this section, circuit response of individual passive elements will be considered for dc
electrical power source. Remember that the steady state response is our prime concern. That
is why we are assuming that the circuit was turned on a very long time ago.

2.2.1 DC response of resistor

Assume a dc voltage of vR=V volts is applied across a resistor of R  as shown in the

following figure.

37
The dc current iR=I through the resistor for the given direction, following the passive sign
convention, can then be obtained by using equation (1.6) and is given by
iR=I=V/R A. (2.1)
Now power absorbed by the resistor R is given by
pR =vRiR=VI=I2R= V2/R W,
and energy consumed by the resistor in time t sec is
t
wR =  p dt = VIt = I Rt = (V 2 / R)t Ws
2
R
t0 =0

where power is in W.

2.2.2 DC response of inductor

Assume a dc current of iL=I ampere is passed through an inductor of inductance L H as

shown in the following figure.

The steady state solution for the voltage vL across the inductor for the given polarity can then
be obtained by using equation (1.7) as:
= L I  iL (t = 0) = 0
diL d
vL = L
dt dt
where iL(t=0) is the initial current through L.
That is the voltage across an inductor is zero if the current through it is independent of time.
The above result reminds that an inductor, in a dc circuit, acts like a short circuit.
Now power absorbed by the inductor of inductance L is also zero as the voltage across it is
zero even there is a current through it. However, the magnetic field created by the dc current
through L stores energy which is obtained from equation (1.10) and is given as
1
wL = I 2 L Ws
2
where the initial current through the inductor iL(t=0) is assumed to be zero.

2.2.3 DC response of capacitor

Assume a dc voltage of vC=V volts is applied across a capacitor of capacitance of C F as

shown in the following figure.

The steady state solution for the current iC through the capacitor for the given direction can
then be obtained by using equation (1.12) and is given by
= C V  vC (t = 0) = 0
dvC (t ) d
iC (t ) = C
dt dt

38
where vC(t=0) is the initial voltage across C.
That is the current through a capacitor is zero if the voltage across it is constant. In a dc
circuit, the capacitor thus acts like an open circuit.
Now power absorbed by the capacitor of capacitance C is also zero even there is a voltage
across it. However, the electric field created by the dc voltage across C stores energy which
is obtained from equation (1.15) and is given as
 dv 
t t t
1
wC =  pC dt =   C C vC dt = C  vC dvC = C[vC2 (t ) − vC2 (t = 0)]
0
0
dt  0
2
1
wC = CV 2 Ws
2
where the initial voltage across the capacitor vC(t=0) is assumed to be zero.

2.3 AC RESPONSE OF PASSIVE ELEMENTS IN TIME DOMAIN

In this section, steady state response of individual passive elements in time domain will be
considered for ac energy source. We are assuming sinusoidal forcing function as electrical
power source. Note that the discussion on power and energy for ac source will be left for the
time being.

2.3.1 AC response of resistor in time domain

If the sinusoidally varying ac current through a resistor of resistance R in the circuit shown in
Fig. 2.1 is iR =Im cos(t+θi), then the voltage vR across it is given by equation (1.6) as

vR = Ri R = RI m cos(t + i ) = Vm cos(t + i ) . (2.2)

Figure 2.1: Resistive circuit and its response to ac voltage.

The voltage signal is similar to current signal with same frequency and is in same phase with
it but differers in magnitude only as shown at the right side of the circuit in Fig. 2.1. The
phase difference between the voltage across a resistor and the current through that resistor is
zero. This means that, in case of resistor voltage and current signals are in phase.

2.3.2 AC response of inductor in time domain

If the current through an inductor of inductance L in the circuit of Fig. 2.2 is iL =Im
cos(t+θi), then the voltage across it is given by equation (1.7) as
di
vL = L L = −LI m sin( t + i ) = LI m cos(t + i + 90 ) = Vm cos(t + i + 90 ) (2.3)
dt

39
 Figure 2.2: Inductive circuit and its response to ac voltage.

In case of inductor, the voltage and current waves are found to have the same frequency. The
voltage signal across the inductor differs its current only in magnitude and phase. The
voltage magnitude is L times to that of current; and the difference between the phases of
voltage and current is /2 radian or 900 as shown at the right side of the circuit of Figure 2.2.
The instanteneous value of voltage across an inductor is proportional to the rate of change
current through the inductor (i. e., voltage is proportional to the slope of the current signal) at
that specific instant rather than the current itself. Thus the sinusoidal voltage signal goes
through zero when the current signal peaks out, and the voltage signal peaks out when the
current signal reaches its steepest slope at the instants of its zero crossings. The voltage is
negative during the time where the slop of the current signal is negative; however, the
voltage is positive when the slop of the current signal is positive. The voltage and the current
signals associated with an inductor are out of phase by 900.

2.3.3 AC response of capacitor in time domain

If a voltage vC=Vmcos(t+θv) is applied across a capacitor of capacitance C in the circuit

shown in Fig. 2.3, then the current through it is given by equation (1.12) as
dv
iC = C C = −CVm sin( t +  v ) = CVm cos(t +  v + 90 ) = I m cos(t +  v + 90 ) (2.4)
dt

Figure 2.3: Capacitive circuit and its response to ac voltage.

In case of capacitor, the voltage and the current waves are also found to have the same
frequency. The voltage signal across the capacitor differs its current only in magnitude and
phase. The voltage magnitude is 1/(C) times to that of current; and the difference between
the phases of current and voltage is /2 radian or 900 as shown at the right side of the circuit
in Figure 2.3.
The instanteneous value of the current through the capacitor is proportional to the rate of
change of voltage across the capacitor (i. e., slope of the voltage signal) at that specific
instant rather than the voltage itself. Thus the current signal goes through zero when the
voltage signal peaks out, and the current signal peaks out when the voltage signal reaches its

40
steepest slope at the instants of its zero crossings. The current is negative during the time
where the slop of the voltage signal is negative; however, the current is positive when the
slop of the voltage signal is positive. The current and the voltage signals associated with a
capacitor are out of phase by 900.

Example 2.1: The voltage v(t)=12 cos(377t+200) V is applied to a L mH inductor. If the

amplitude of current is 1.59 A, determine the value of L and the instanteneous value of i.

Solution: From (2.3), we have Im=Vm/(L) which yields L=Vm/(Im). In this problem,
=377, Vm=12, and Im=1.59. Therefore, L=12/(3771.59)=20 mH.
From (2.3) we have the phase of voltage signal i+900 which is for this problem equal to 200.
Therefore i+900=200 or i= -700 and hence the instantaneous current through the inductor is
i(t)=1.59 cos(377t-700).

2.4 PHASOR REPRESENTATION OF A SINUSOID

It has been found in the previous section that if the forcing function in a linear circuit is
sinusoidal, the resulting voltages and currents in the circuit shall oscillate with the same
frequency as the applied signal, differing only in amplitude and phase angle. Then the goal of
circuit analyses with ac source is to find the amplitudes and phase angles of these voltages
and currents; frequency is of no concern because it is same throughout. We thus need a
notation known as phasor that focuses on amplitude and phase angle of a sinusoid.
The phasor is a complex number which is a two-dimensional vector like item in polar form.
Its length conveys the magnitude/amplitude information and the angle with respect to a
reference axis conveys the phase angle information of the sinusoid. Specifically, given the ac
signal x(t ) = X m cos(t +  ) , the corresponding phasor is denoted as X and is represented in
shorthand form as X= Xm; and its graphical representation is shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Phasor on a complex plane.

The length of the phasor X, also called the magnitude or modulus of X, is non-negative by
defination and represents the magnitude of the ac signal, i.e., |X|=Xm. The angle of the phasor
X, also called the argument of X, is the phase angle  of the signal and is always measured
counterclockwise relative to the positive real axis if it is a positve. If the phasor have a
negative phase angle, then it is placed at an angle || in the clockwise direction relative to the
positive real axis.

41
It is important to note that the correspondence between an ac signal and its phasor is
bidirectional. Given a phasor X= Xm, the corresponding ac signal is then
x(t ) = X m cos(t +  ) . Remember that if one uses cosine form of ac source signal, then all
the circuit voltages and currents must be represented in cosine form. Instead, sine form of ac
source signal if is considered, all voltages and current must be expressed in sine form.
The phasor form of an ac sinusoidal function can be derived as follows:
x(t ) = X m cos(t +  ) = Real ( X m e j (t + ) ) = Real ( X m e jt e j ) = Real{( X m e j )e jt } .
Leaving the frequency dependent common term and assuming all the voltages and currents
are cosine in nature, the phasor form of x(t) is given by X= X m e jθ (most widely used form in
calculation) which can also be written as X= Xm (widely used form to express a phasor)=
Xm(cos +j sin ). A phasor is thus a complex number that represents the amplitude and
phase of a sinusoid.
On the other hand, once the phasor of a sinusoidal function is given, we obtain its time
domain representation as the cosine function with the same magnitude as the phasor and the
argument as t plus the phase of the phasor. It is done by multiplying the phasor by ejt and
taking the real part. Sinusoid-phasor transformation of few functions is tabulated in Table
2.1.

TABLE 2.1: Sinusoid-phasor transformation.

Time domain representation Phasor domain representation

Vm cos(t +  ) Vm 
Vm sin( t +  ) = Vm cos(t +  − 900 ) Vm ( − 90 )
- Vm sin( t +  ) = Vm cos(t +  + 900 ) Vm ( + 90 )

We wish to stress here that though phasors look like the vectors, they do not obey the rules of
vector analysis. Rather, phasors follow the rules of complex algebra (A review of complex
number and complex algebra is given in Appendix-A).
The phasors differ from the vectors in the following ways:
A vector is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction (x, y, z; or polar
coordinates) on a 1D or 2D or 3D plane. On the other hand, phasors are used in electrical
engineering to represent sinusoidal quantities such as current, voltage etc. by their magnitude
and angular displacement measured in a counterclockwise direction on a 2D complex plane.
The direction of a vector in angle is space based; however, the angle in phasors is time based.

Problem 2.1: Express the following sinusoidal functions into phasor forms: v1(t)=12
cos(1000t+600) V, v2(t)=-6 sin(1000t+300) V, and i=2 sin(t+450) A.

Problem 2.2: Express the following sinusoidal functions into phasor forms: v1(t)=12
cos(1000t+600) V, v2(t)=6 sin(1000t+300) V. Determine V3=V1+V2 and v3(t), where V1, V2,
and V3 are, respectively, the phasors of v1(t), v2(t), and v3(t).

Problem 2.3: Express the following phasors into corresponding instantaneous forms:
V1=12-450V, V2=-j10V and V3=12+j10 V.

42
2.5 AC RESPONSE OF PASSIVE ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN
The steady-state sinusoidal response of the basic passive circuit elements in phasor or
frequency domain are given in the following.

2.5.1 AC response of resistor in phasor domain

If a current in a resistor varies sinusoidally with time, i.e., if i=Im cos(t+θi), the voltage
across the terminals of the resistor, as shown in Figure 2.5(a), is
v = Ri = RI m cos(t +  i )
( )
Since, v = RI m cos(t + i ) = Real RI me j i e jt , the phasor form of this voltage is
j i
V = RI m e = RI m  i . (2.5)
But I m  i is the phasor representation of the sinusoidal current i=Im cos(t+θi), so we can
write equation (2.5) as
V=RI (2.6)
which states that the phasor voltage V across the terminals of a resistor is simply the
resistance times the phasor current I through the resistor. Figure 2.5(b) shows the circuit
diagram for a resistor in the phasor/frequency domain.

Figure 2.5: Voltage-current relation for a resistor in the: (a) time domain, (b) frequency
domain.

We should note from equation (2.6) that the voltage across and current through a resistor are
in phase, as illustrated in the phasor diagram in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6: Phasor diagram and the corresponding signal with i=0 for the resistor.

2.5.2 AC response of inductor in phasor domain

If a current in an inductor varies sinusoidally with time, i.e., if i=Im cos(t+θi), the voltage
across the terminals of the inductor, as shown in Figure 2.7(a), is

43
 di
v=L = −LI m sin( t +  i ) = LI m cos(t +  i + 90 0 )
dt
( )
Since, v = LI m cos(t + i + 900 ) = Real LI me j ( i + 90 )e jt , the phasor form of this voltage is
0

V = LI me j ( i + 90 ) = LI m(i + 900 ) .

0
(2.7)
But I m  i is the phasor representation of the sinusoidal current, so we can write equation
(2.7) as
V = LI m ( i + 900 ) = jLI m  i = jLI (2.8)
which states that the phasor voltage across the terminals of an inductor is jL times the
phasor current through the inductor. Figure 2.7(b) shows the circuit diagram for an inductor
in the phasor/frequency domain.

Figure 2.7: Voltage-current relation for an inductor in the: (a) time domain, (b) frequency
domain.

The term L is known as inductive reactance and is denoted by XL, i.e., XL=L.
We should note from equation (2.8) that the voltage and current for an inductor are 900 out of
phase. Specifically, the voltage leads the current by 900 as illustrated in the phasor diagram in
Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8: Phasor diagram and the corresponding signal with i=0 for the inductor.

2.5.3 AC response of capacitor in phasor domain

If a voltage across a capacitor varies sinusoidally with time, i.e., if v=Vm cos(t+θv), the
current through the capacitor, as shown in Figure 2.9(a), is
dv
i=C = −CVm sin( t +  v ) = CVm cos(t +  v + 90 0 )
dt

44
 ( )
Since, i = CVm cos(t + v + 900 ) = Real CVme j ( v + 90 )e jt , the phasor form of this voltage
0

is
I = CVme j (v +90 ) = CVm(v + 900 ) .
0
(2.9)
But Vm  v is the phasor representation of the sinusoidal current, so we can write equation
(2.9) as
I I
I = CVm( v + 900 ) = jCVmv = jCV  V = =−j (2.10)
jC C
Equation (2.10) states that the phasor voltage V across the terminals of a capacitor
 1 
is  − j  times the phasor current I through the capacitor. The term 1/(C) is known as
 C 
capacitive reactance and is denoted by XC, i.e., XC=1/(C). Figure 2.9(b) shows the circuit
diagram for a capacitor in the phasor/frequency domain.

Figure 2.9: Voltage-current relation for a capacitor in the: (a) time domain, (b) frequency
domain.

We should note from equation (2.10) that the voltage and current for a capacitor are 900 out
of phase. Specifically, the current leads the voltage by 900 as illustrated in the phasor
diagram in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10: Phasor diagram and the corresponding signal with i=0 for the capacitor.

The voltage-current relationship for the three passive circuit elements R, L, and C are
summurized in Table 2.2 in the following.

45
Table 2.2: Summary of voltage-current relationships.

Example 2.2: A current i(t)=10 cos(314t-150)V is passed through an 2 mH inductor. Find

the voltage VL across the inductor.
Solution: We know the phasor voltage VL across an inductor is VL=jLI. In this problem,
=314 and I=10<-150. Therefore VL=j314210-310<-150=6.28<-750V.
Example 2.3: The voltage v(t)=100 cos(314t+150)V is applied to a 100 F capacitor. Find
the current i through the capacitor.
Solution: We know the current through a capacitor is given by i=C(dv/dt). For this particular
problem, dv/dt=-31400sin(314t+150)=31400cos(314t+1050). Therefore, i=10010-631400
cos(314t+1050)=3.14 cos(314t+1050) A.

2.6 CIRCUIT LAWS

For circuit analysis, we have to understand Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws that are
discussed in the following.

2.6.1 Ohm’s Law

Georg Simon Ohm, a German physicist, is credited with finding the relationship between
current and voltage for a resistor, which is known as Ohm’s law.

Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly

proportional to the current i flowing through the resistor, provided the
temperature remains constant.

In addition to resistor, two other passive circuit elemnets such as inductor and capacitor are
now known to us; and moreover, we will also consider ac power sources in addition to dc. It
is clear from the discussion of Art. 2.6 that a particular type of function is now required to
relate voltage and current specially in an ac circuit analyses. We, therefore, must extend the
above Ohm’s law in the following generalized phasor form as:
V=ZI (2.11)
where V and I are voltage across and current through a passive circuit element in phasor
form. Z is known as impedance of the passive circuit element that represents the ability of a
circuit element to oppose the flow of current through it and is defined as Z=V/I.

The ratio of the phasor voltage across a passive circuit or circuit element to the
phasor current through the circuit or the circuit element is the impedance of the

46
 circuit or the circuit element.

The impedance must tell two important facts: (1) the ratio of | V | and | I |, and (2) the phase
difference between the voltage and current waves. Mathematically the impedance is
expressed as Z=[|V|/|I|](v - i) ; where v and i are, respectively, the phase angles of
voltage and current signals. Note that impedance is not a phasor and hence it cannot be
transformed in time domain by multiplying by ejt and taking the real part.
On the basis of the discussion of Art. 2.6, the impedance of the the basic passive circuit
elements (R, L, and C) takes the following forms:
ZR=R00 =R , ZL=jL =XL 900  and ZC= 1/(jC) == -j(1/C) = -jXC =XC-
900 . The impedance corresponding to R, L, and C are, respectively, known as resistive,
inductive, and capacitive impedances.
At very low frequency, the inductor acts as short-circuit and the capacitor acts as open-
circuit. On the other hand at high frequency, the inductor acts as open-circuit and the
capacitor acts as short-circuit.
The inverse of impedance, i.e., 1/Z is called admittance Y (moh (-1) or Simens S); the real
part of Y is called conductance G and the imaginary part is known as susceptance B.
If the impedance of a circuit which consists of R and L and/or C is given by Z=R+jX, then
the admittance of that circuit will be
1 1 R − jX R X
Y= = = = 2 −j 2 = G − jB
Z R + jX ( R + jX )( R − jX ) ( R + X ) 2
(R + X 2 )
The impedance and admittance of three basic passive circuit elements are tabulated in Table
2.3 where XL=L and XC=1/(C).

Table 2.3: Impedance and admittance of passive elements.

Basic Element Impedance Admittance
R ZR=R YR=1/R
L ZL=jXL=XL900 YL=1/(jXL)=(1/XL)-900
C ZC=-jXC=XC-900 YC=1/(-jXC)=(1/XC)900

The voltage-current relationship for the three passive circuit elements R, L, and C interms of
impedance, as obtained from Tables 2.2 and 2.3, are summurized in Table 2.4 in the
following.

Table 2.4: Summary of voltage-current relationships interms of impedance.

Basic Element Voltage – current interms of impedance

R V=IR=IZR
L V=I( jXL)=IZL
C V=I(-jXC)=IZC

The results shown in Tables 2.3 and 2.4 convince us that the passive circuit elements are
linear. Moreover, they are bilateral as because the same relation exists between voltage and
current for the current flowing in both directions.

47
Impedance/Admittance Diagram

If we plote impedance/admittance on the complex plane, we get impedance/admittance

diagram. In the following, impedance diagram corresponding to Z=3+j4 or Z=553.130 and
the admittance diagram corresponding to Y=0.3-j0.4 or Y=0.5-53.130 are shown,
respectively, in Figure 2.8(a) and (b).

(a) (b)
Figure 2.11: Impedance/Admittance diagram.

2.6.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws

In 1847, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, a professor at the University of Berlin, formulated two
important laws that provide the foundation for electrical circuit analysis. These laws are
referred to as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL). KCL and
KVL are a consequence of conservation of charge and conservation of energy, respectively.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Consider the branch currents associated with a given node. At any instant some of these
currents will be flowing into the node, others out of the node.
However, a node cannot accumulate or eliminate charge as because charge must be
conserved. Therefore, the amount of charge flowing into a node must equal that flowing out.
Expressing charge flow in terms of current, we have
iin (t ) =iout (t ) (2.12)
where i in denotes summation over all currents entering and i out denotes summation
over all currents leaving the given node. Equation (2.12) is known as KCL which states that
at any instant sum of all currents entering a node must equal the sum of all currents leaving
that node.
Rewriting equation (2.12) as
iin (t ) −iout (t ) = 0 (2.13)
we can restate KCL as that at any instant the algebraic sum of all currents associated with a
node must be zero, where the currents entering the node are regarded as positive, and those
leaving the node as negative.
The other KCL form is obtained by rewriting equation (2.12) as
iout (t ) −iin (t ) = 0 (2.14)

48
which stated that at any instant the algebraic sum of all currents associated with a node must
be zero, where the currents leaving the node are now regarded as positive, and those entering
the node as negative.
Assuming that iin-1(t)~ iin-n(t) represent currents entering into a node, at a particular time, and
iout-1(t)~ iout-m(t) represent current leaving the node at that time, then following equation
(2.12) have
iin-1(t)+ iin-2(t)+ iin-3(t)+………..+ iin-n(t)= iout-1(t)+ iout-2(t)+ iout-3(t)+………..+ + iout-m(t)
(2.15)
In the sinusoidal steady state condition, each current in equation (2.15) can be written in
cosine form, so that we have
I m _ in−1 cos(t +  in−1 ) + I m _ in−2 cos(t +  in−2 ) + ...... + I m _ in−n cos(t +  in−n )
= I m _ out−1 cos(t +  out−1 ) + I m _ out−2 cos(t +  out−2 ) + ........ + I m _ out−m cos(t +  out−m )
Or,
( ) 
Re al I m _ in−1e jin −1 + I m _ in−2 e jin −2 + ...... + I m _ in−n e jin −n e jt
( ) 
= Re al I m _ out−1e jout −1 + I m _ out−2 e jout −2 + ...... + I m _ out−m e jout − m e jt
Or,
I in=  I out (2.16)
Equation (2.16) is the KCL in phasor form where I is in phasor form. Equation (2.16) states
that at any instant the phasor sum of all currents entering a node is equal to the phasor sum
of all currents leaving the node.
Other forms of KCL in phasor form can be obtained form (2.16) as follows:
 Iin −  Iout = 0 (2.17)
I −  I in = 0
out (2.18)
Equation (2.17) and (2.18) are also the KCL in phasor form which state that at any instant
the phasor sum of all currents associated with a node must be zero, where the currents
leaving the node and those entering the node are considered of opposite sign.
To understand the use of Kirchhoff’s current law, let us consider the following circuit.

Figure 2.12: A circuit used to demonstrate KCL.

In the above circuit, on applying the KCL at nodes a, b, c, and d, we have:

at node a : i2 + i5 = i1 + i4
at node b : i1 + ia + ib = i2 + i3
at node c : i3 + i4 + ic = ib
at node d : i5 + ia + ic = 0

49
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Consider the branch voltages associated with a given loop. As we go around the loop, the
voltages across each of its branches may appear either as a voltage rise or as a voltage drop.
However, due to the energy conservation principle, the work required to move a charge
around a complete loop must be zero. This yield
vrise(t ) = vdrop(t) (2.19)
Equation (2.19) is known as KVL which states that at any instant the sum of all voltage rises
around a closed loop is equal to the sum of all voltage drops around that loop.
Rewriting equation (2.19) as
vrise(t ) − vdrop(t ) = 0 (2.20)
we can restate KVL as that at any instant the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed
loop must be zero, where voltage rises are regarded as positive and voltage drops as negative.
The other KVL form is obtained by rewriting equation (2.19) as
vdrop(t ) − vrise(t ) = 0 (2.21)
which stated that at any instant the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed loop must
be zero, where voltage drops are now regarded as positive and voltage rises as negative.
Following the same procedure as is used in KCL, KVL in phasor form can be expressed in
the following forms:
 Vrise =  Vdrop (2.22)
V rise −  Vdrop = 0 (2.23)
V drop−  Vrise = 0 (2.24)
where V is given in phasor form.
Equation (2.22) is the KVL in phasor form which states that at any instant the phasor sum of
all voltage rises around a closed loop is equal to the phasor sum of all voltage drops around
the loop.
Equation (2.23) states that at any instant the phasor sum of all voltage rises around a closed
loop minus the phasor sum of all voltage drops around the loop is equal to zero.
KVL in equation (2.24) states that at any instant the phasor sum of all voltage drops around
a closed loop minus the phasor sum of all voltage rises around the loop is equal to zero.
In the following circuit, let us first mark the polarities of the voltage differences across the
passive circuit elements according to the passive sign convention. Then, on applying the
KVL around the loop, we have
v1 + v4 = v2 + v3 + v5 .

Figure 2.13: A circuit used to demonstrate KVL.

50
Example 2.4: Applying Kirchhoff’s laws, determine the unknown current i and the unknown
voltage v in the following circuit.

Solution: Applying KCL at node a yields

2+1=4+i which results in i=-1 A.
Similarly, applying KVL in the mesh DFEC yields
12=4+v+(-5) which results in v=13 Volts.
Problem 2.4: Applying Kirchhoff’s laws, determine the unknown currents and voltages in
the following circuit.

Answer: i2= -4 A, i4= -3 A, v2= -6 Volts, v3= -4 Volts, v6= 2 Volts.

Problem 2.5: Find the unknowns in the following circuits:

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

51
Problem 2.6: Find the unknown voltage/current in the following circuits:

(a) (b)
Problem 2.7: Determine vs if i=2 (A) in the following circuit.

Problem 2.8: Determine ia in the following circuit.

Problem 2.9: Determine the voltages of node a and node b with respect to the ground in the
following circuit.

Problem 2.10: Determine I in the following circuit, if V=3.9447.970.

52
2.7 SIMPLE CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Electrical circuits can be classified as: 1) series circuit, 2) parallel circuit, and 3) series-
parallel or complex circuit. The circuit may consists of passive elements with dc or ac forcing
function.
It is noted that the circuit analyses, specially with the ac power source, will be carried out in
phasor domain rather than in time domain as because the presence of inductor and/or
capacitor needs a time consuming complicated solution of integro-differential equations in
time domain (In Appendix-B, the solution of a series R-L circuit is considered in time
domain).
In the following, we introduce a new approach to analyze electrical circuits by considering
impedances of passive elements rather than R, L, and C.
Nevertheless, the analyses of the circuits with any kind of source (ac or dc) usually requires
the following steps:

Essential steps to be followed to solve electrical Circuits:

Step 1. Redraw the circuit by replacing the passive circuit elements with their
corresponding impedances, and keep the sources as it is if they are dc,
otherwise replace them by their corresponding phasors.
Step 2. Solve the problem using any of the circuit analyzing technique.
Step 3. Transform the resulting phasor of the required variable to its time domain
form if the source is ac, otherwise keeps it as it is.

2.7.1 SERIES CIRCUIT – THE VOLTAGE DIVIDER

The defining characteristic of series circuit is that the same current flows through all of its
elements. Figure 2.14 is an example of series circuit where a voltage source and N number of
different passive circuit elements are connected in such a way that they carry the same
current through them. Here V is the dc voltage or phasor of ac source voltage, I is the dc
current or phasor of the sinusoidal current in the circuit, and Z1, Z2, …, ZN are the
impedances corresponding to the passive circuit elements.

Figure 2.14: (a) Series circuit and (b) its equivalent in frequency or phasor domain.

Applying KVL, we have

V = I (Z1 + Z 2 + Z 3 + ........ + Z N ) = IZ eq
where Zeq = (Z1 + Z 2 + Z 3 + ........ + Z N ) and
V
I= . (2.25)
Zeq

53
The voltage across the impedance Z1 can be obtained by multiplying the impedance with the
current phasor and so on.
This circuit is well known as voltage divider circuit as the supply voltage is divided among
the circuit elements depending on the value of their impedances. The unknown voltage VN
across the Nth impedance ZN (where n=0, 1, 2, ….. N) can be obtained from
Z
VN = IZ N = N V. (2.26)
Zeq
The principle of voltage division, also known as voltage divider rule, states that the voltage
across the Nth impedance in a series circuit is equal to that impedance times the impressed
voltage across the series elements divided by the equivalent impedance of the series circuit.

Problem Solving Strategy of Series Circuits:

Step 1. Redraw the given circuit by replacing the passive circuit elements with their
corresponding impedances, and keep the source as it is if it is dc, otherwise
transform into their corresponding phasor form.
Step 2. Define a current I. This current is assumed to be flowing either clockwise or
counterclockwise around the circuit.
Step 3. Using Ohm’s law, define a voltage across each passive element in terms of
the current and the impedance of each passive element.
Step 4. Apply KVL to the circuit.
Step 5. Solve the KVL equation for the unknown current. If I is positive, the current
is flowing in the direction assumed; if not, then the current is actually flowing
in the opposite direction.
Step 6. Convert the current I in time domain to obtain its instantaneous form if
required.

Example 2.5: For the following circuit, find the power (a) delivered to the 5 k resistor; (b)
supplied by the -25 V source; (c) supplied by the 10 V source.

Solution: Assume a current i mA is flowing in the circuit clockwise. Using KVL we have, -(-
25)+i+5i-10+1.5i=0 or, i=-15/7.5=-2 mA. The current i actually is flowing in the
anticlockwise direction. Therefore, according to passive sign convention: (a) the power
delivered to the 5 k resistor is i2R=(-210-3)25103=20 mW; (b) the power supplied by the
-25 V source is 25210-3=50 mW; (c) the power supplied by the 10 V source is -10210-
3
=-20 mW.
Example 2.6: Determine vC(t) in the following circuit.

54
Solution: Let us redraw the above circuit with passive elements replaced by their
impedances and the ac voltage source replaced by its phasor as shown in the following:

From KVL, we have Vs = I(Z R + ZC ) or, VP 00 = I(Z R + Z C ) . Therefore,

1
VP  − (900 − tan −1 )
VP 00 VP 00  1  VP  − 900 CR
VC = ZC = − j = =
(Z R + ZC ) 
R − j
1 

C  (CR − j1) (
CR) 2 + 1)
 C 

 vC (t ) =
VP 
cos t − 900 + tan −1
1 
=
VP
(
cos t − tan −1 CR )
( CR) + 1
2
)  CR  (
CR) + 1
2
)
Solution of i(t) in time domain is explained in Appendix-C.
Example 2.7: Determine the current i and the voltage v30 in the following circuit.

Solution: It is a series circuit; we have to apply Ohm’s law and KVL to solve the problem.
Using KVL, we have -120+v30+2va-va=0 or, v30+va=120 where v30=30i and va=-15i.
Therefore, 30i-15i=120 or, i=120/15=8 A and v30=30i=308=240 volts.
Problem 2.11: What finite value of  will cause the forced response v0 in the following
circuit to be zero?

Problem 2.12: Determine the current in the circuit and v0 in the following circuit.

Ans: Current in the circuit is 2 mA and v0=150 V.

55
Example 2.8: The source voltage vs=750 cos(5000t+300) V in the following circuit. (a)
Construct the frequency domain circuit and (b) Calculate i.

Solution: (a) The phasor of the supply voltage VS=750<300 V. The impedances of R, L, and
C are: ZR=90, ZL=jL=j160, and ZC=-j(1/C)=-j40, respectively. Therefore the circuit
in frequency domain is:

(b) According to Ohm’s and KVL, we now obtain

VS=I(ZR+ ZL+ ZC)=I(90+j160-j40)=I(90+j120)
I=VS/(90+j120)=750<300/(150<53.130)=5<-23.130 A.
The instantaneous current is thus i=5 cos(5000t-23.130) A.
Example 2.9: The source voltage vs=750 V in the following circuit. Calculate i.

Solution: It is a dc circuit. We know capacitor blocks current through it in a dc circuit.

Therefore i=0 in this circuit.
Example 2.10: Determine the unknowns in the following circuits.

Solution: The above circuit takes the following form as it is energized by dc source.

Using Ohm’s law, we have i=12/3=4 A, vR=43=12, and vL=0 volts.

Problem 2.13: The supply voltage and circuit current are, respectively, vS=120 cost V and
i=12 cos(t-36.90) A. Determine the frequency of the source.

56
Phasor diagram of a series circuit

Phasor diagrams are diagram representing sinusoidal current and voltage of the same
frequency as phasors with the phase angle between them. Phasors are the arrows rotating in
the anticlockwise direction from a reference line which is generally considered to go through
the real axis on a 2D complex plane.
Although direct calculation is easily carried out using phasors, it is sometimes useful to use a
phasor diagram to show the relationship between say a voltage and current phasor
graphically.
To draw phasor diagram of a series circuit, we consider the current phasor along the real axis
as reference because it is common to other phasors of the series circuit. Consider the
following series circuit as an example to explain the procedure of drawing the phasors and
hence gain quick insight into how the circuit operates.

Assume, V and I are the phasors of the supply voltage and the current through the circuit.
Now, the voltages across the resistor and capacitor in phasor are given by:
VR=RI and VC=ZC I=- j(1/C)I.

The I phasor is drawn along the real axis and considered as reference phasor, as shown in the
above diagram. The voltage phasor VR is drawn along the I phasor as the phase difference
between VR and I is zero; they differ only in magnitude. Now the phasor VC lags I by 900.
Threfore, phasor VC should be drawn along –j axis which makes 900 with phasor I in the
clockwise direction. The magnitude of phasor VC is (1/C) times to that of phasor I.
Following the KVL, the phasor sum of VR and VC results the phasor V of the supply voltage.

Problem 2.14: Determine i(t) for ω=10 rad/sec. Also draw the phasor diagram.

Example 2.11: A voltage of vs(t)=100 cos 20t V is applied to a series RL circuit containing a
5- resistor and an inductor L. Find L if: (a) the amplitude of the current is 10 A; (b) the
current lags the source voltage by 300.

57
Solution: The equivalent impedance of the series RL circuit is Zeq=5+j20L
=(25+400L2)1/2tan-1(4L).
(a) Now the amplitude of the current through the series circuit, Im, is obtained from
Vm/|Zeq| which yields (25+400L2)1/2=(100/10). Therefore L=(3/16)1/2=0.433 H.
(b) In this case tan-1(4L)=300. Therefore, L=(tan 300)/4=0.144 H.
Example 2.12: An industrial coil is modeled as a series combination of an inductance L and
resistance R, as shown in the following circuit. Since an ac voltmeter measures only the rms
value of a sinusoid, the following measurements are taken at 50 Hz: |VS|=145V, |V1|=50V,
|V0|=110V. Use the above measurements to determine R and L.

Solution: Phasor diagram will make the solution of this problem easy. Redraw the circuit in
frequency or phasor domain which will take the following form, where Z1=80, Z2=R ,
and Z3=jL:

Considering the phasor current I is flowing through the circuit in the clockwise direction.
Then the phasor diagram for the given circuit takes the following form:

|Vs|
|V0| |IZ3|

|V1| |IZ2| I
From the above figure we get
|Vs|2=(|V1|+|V0|cos)2+(|V0|sin)2=|V1|2+|V0|2+2|V1||V0|cos
 1452=502+1102+250110 cos.
 cos=0.584.
Now, magnitude of I=50/80=0.625. Therefore 0.625R=|V0|cos=64.24 and hence R=
64.24/0.625=102.784 . Similarly, L can be obtained from 0.625L=|V0|sin=89.3 which
yields L=89.3/(0.625250)=0.455 H.

2.7.2 PARALLEL CIRCUIT – THE CURRENT DIVIDER

The defining characteristic of parallel circuit is that the same voltage appears across all of its
elements. Figure 2.15 is an example of parallel circuit where a current source and N number

58
of different passive circuit elements are connected in such a way that they share the same
voltage and, hence, the same node pair.
Applying KCL at the top node gives
 1 1 
 = V(Y1 + Y2 + ..... + YN ) = VYeq
1
I = I1 + I 2 + ....... + I N = V + + ...... + (2.27)
 1
Z Z 2 Z N 

where Yeq = (Y1 + Y2 + ..... + YN ).

This circuit is well known as current divider circuit as the supply current is divided among
the circuit elements depending on the value of their impedances. Now, the current through
the Nth impedance is given by
V Y
IN = = VYN = N I (2.28)
ZN Yeq
where Yeq is the equivalent admittance of a parallel circuit, V and I are dc in case of dc
source or phasor of sinusoidal voltage and current for ac source.

Figure 2.15: (a) Parallel circuit and (b) its equivalent in frequency or phasor domain.

Equation (2.28) describes the principle of current division, also known as current divider
rule, states that the current through the Nth admittance in a parallel circuit is equal to that
admittance times the impressed current to the parallel elements divided by the equivalent
admittance of the parallel circuit.

Problem Solving Strategy of Parallel Circuits:

Step 1. Redraw the given circuit by replacing the passive circuit elements with their
corresponding admittances, and keep the source as it is if it is dc, otherwise
transform them into their corresponding phasor form.
Step 2. Define a voltage V across the elements. Polarity is assigned to the voltage.
Step 3. Using Ohm’s law, define a current through each passive element in terms of
the defined voltage and the admittance of each passive element.
Step 4. Apply KCL at one of two nodes in the circuit.
Step 5. Solve the KCL equation for the unknown voltage. If V is positive, the
assumed polarity of the voltage is correct; if not, then the voltage polarity is
actually in the opposite direction.
Step 6. Convert the voltage V in time domain to obtain their instantaneous form if the
source is ac, otherwise left them as they are.

Example 2.13: Determine the unknowns in the following circuit.

59
Solution: Using i=vG (where G is conductance) and KCL, we have 120=30v+30+15v or,
v=90/45=2 volts. Therefore i30 and i15 are, respectively, 60 A and 30 A.
Example 2.14: Obtain an expression for Req=v/i in the following circuit.

Solution: iR=v/R. Again from KCL i=iR-gv=v/R-gv=(1/R-g)v. Therefore, Req=v/i=1/(1/R-

g)=R/(1-Rg).
Example 2.15: When connected to a 4 mA source, a current divider divides the current down
to 3 mA while dissipating 60 mW. Find R1 and R2.
Solution: Given that the current in one resistor, say R2, is 3 mA, then the current through R1
is 1 mA. As the power dissipation is 60 mW, we have 6010-3=(110-3)2R1+(310-3)2R2.
Therefore, 60=10-3(R1+9R2). (i)
Again, the current in R2 is given by the current divider rule as
4  10 −3  1  4  10 −3 R1
3  10 −3 =   =
1 1  R2  R1 + R2
+
R1 R2
or , R1 = 3R2 (ii)
Now, from (i) and (ii), we have R2=5 k and R1=15 k.
Problem 2.15: Determine i0 and v in the following circuit.

Example 2.16: In the following circuit C=1 F, R=300 , and L=0.25 H. Find i if is=0.1 cos
103t A.

60
Solution: ZC=-j/(C)=-j1000 , ZR=300 , and ZL=j(L)=j250 . Is=0.100.
Let us now redraw the above circuit in phasor domain, i.e., replace the passive elements by
their corresponding impedances and convert the sources into its phasor. Therefore, the circuit
in phasor domain takes the following form.

Using current divider rule, the current I is obtained as

Is  1  I s ZC 0.100  (− j1000)
I=   = = = 0.1238 − 21.800
1
+
1  Z R + Z L  Z R + Z L + Z C 300 + j (250 − 1000)
ZC Z R + ZL
i=0.1238 cos (103t-21.800) A.
Problem 2.16: Determine R2 and Geq in the following circuits.

Problem 2.17: Determine the unknown currents in the following circuit.

Problem 2.18: Determine the unknowns in the following circuits.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

61
Problem 2.19: Determine the voltage of the parallel branch and currents in different
branches of the following circuit if is= 8 cos(200,000t). Also determine the equivalent
admittance. Find the current through the inductive branch, using the current divider rule.

Answer: v=40 cos(200,000t - 36.870)

Phasor diagram of a parallel circuit

In drawing the phasor diagram of a parallel circuit, we consider the voltage phasor of the
parallel circuit along the real axis as reference because it is common to all other phasors of
the parallel circuit. Consider the following parallel circuit as an example to explain the
procedure of drawing the phasors and hence gain quick insight into how the parallel circuit
operates.

Assume, V is the common phasor voltage across the elements, and IS, IR, IL, IC are,
respectively, the current phasors through the source, resistor, inductor, and capacitor. Now,
the currents through the resistor, inductor, and capacitor in phasor are given by:
IR=V/R, IL=V/ZL=-j V/(L), and IC= V/ZC=j V(C).
j-axis
IC
(IC- IL)
IS IR V
Real axis/Reference axis
IL

- j-axis
The V phasor is drawn along the real axis and considered as reference phasor, as shown in
the above diagram. The current phasor IR is drawn along the V phasor as the phase difference
between IR and V is zero; they differ only in magnitude. Now the phasor IL lags V by 900.
Threfore, phasor IL should be drawn along –j-axis which makes 900 with phasor V in the
clockwise direction. The magnitude of phasor IL is (1/L) times to that of phasor V.The
current IC leads V by 900. Threfore, phasor IC should be drawn along j-axis which makes 900
with phasor V in the anticlockwise direction.
Following the KCL, the phasor sum of IR, IL, and IC results the phasor IS of the supply
current.

62
Problem 2.20: For the following circuit, use phasor diagram to determine the value of R that
will cause the current IR to lag the source current IS by 450. Assume =5000. Also consider
that Vm has a phase angle of 00.

Ans: R=1/3 Ohm.

Problem 2.21: Determine v0(t) if ig= 0.8 cos(4000t) in the following circuit.

Problem 2.22: Determine iL and vL in the following circuit.

Problem 2.23: Determine the steady state value of vx in the following dc circuit.

2.7.3 SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT

The following is an example of a series-parallel circuit. Series and parallel impedance

combinations appear so frequently, especially as sub-circuits, that they are worthy of special
consideration. To analyze this type of circuit, Ohm’s law and both Kirchhoff’s laws are
required to use.

63
To clear the solution technique, let us take an example. Assume v=60 cos(10t) volts in the
above circuit. Also consider R1=50, R2=100, L=8H , and C=2.5 mF. Then the phasor
form of the source voltage is 60<00. The impedances corresponding to R1, R2, L, and C are,
respectively, 50, 100, j80, and –j4. The circuit in phasor domain takes the following
form.

Assume I1 is the current through j80. In the circuit, j80 and (100-j40)  impedances are
connected in parallel. We may, therefore, use current division rule to determine I1. Similarly,
the current through (100-j40)  impedance and then I0 can be determined using KCL.

Phasor diagram of a series-parallel circuit

Let us draw the phasor diagram of the following series-parallel circuit.

Here R and are in series, the phasor diagram for this section is given as follows:
j-axis
VL
V

VR I1 Real axis/Reference axis

- j-axis
The phasor sum of the phasors VR and VL gives the phasor of the V across the series circuit.
The voltage phasor V is common to both the C-branch and as well as the series R-L circuit.
Now as the current I2 will lead the voltage V by 900, it should be drawn 900 ahead of V in the
anticlockwise direction as shown in the following diagram. Following the KCL, we obtain I
from the phasor sum of I1 and I2.
j-axis

V
I2 I
I1 Real axis/Reference axis

- j-axis

64
The complete phasor diagram of the considered series-parallel circuit is sum of the above two
diagrams which is shown in the following.
j-axis
VL
V
I2 I
VR I1 Real axis/Reference axis

- j-axis

Example 2.17: Determine vx and i3 in the following circuit.

Solution: As 6||3=2, the voltage across 4 resistor will be 2vx. Using KVL, we have -
12+2Vx+Vx=0 or, Vx=12/3=4 and current I3=4/3=1.33 ampere.
Problem 2.24: Determine RAB in the following circuits.

Problem 2.25: Determine v0 in the following circuits.

Problem 2.26: Determine the current through the 5  resistor in the following circuits.

Answer: 4 A
Problem 2.27: Determine ZT, IS, IC, VR, and VC in the following circuit.

65
Ans: ZT=6.08<-80.540, IS=19.74<80.540A, IC=59.22<80.540A, VR=19.74<80.540V, and
VC=118.44<-9.460V.
Problem 2.28: Draw the phasor diagrams for the currents and voltages in the following
circuit. Also determine the phase difference between the supply voltage and the current
through the source.

Ans: 29.060

Problem 2.29: In the following circuit, V0 is known to be 8<450Volts. Determine VS. Also
draw the phasor diagram.

Ans:

Problem 2.30: Find v(t) in the following circuit.

Ans:
Problem 2.31: (a) Find the no-load value of v0 in the following circuit, (b) Find v0 when RL
is 150 k, (c) How much power is dissipated in the 25 k resistor if the load terminals are
accidentally short circuited?

Answer: (a) 150 V, (b) 133.33 V, and (c) 1.6 W.

Problem 2.32: Find the value of R that will cause 4 A of current to flow through the 80
resistor in the following circuit.

66
Answer: 30.
Problem 2.33: Find the current I in the following circuit.

Answer: 2A.
Problem 2.34: Find the unknowns in the following circuit using circuit laws. The given
current and resistances are given, respectively, in ampere and ohm.

Answer: i1=2A, i2=3A, i3=5A, vA=12V, vB=6V, and vS=17V.

Problem 2.35: Using current divider rule and KCL, determine i, i1, and i2 in the following
circuit.

Answer: i=1A, i1 =-2A, and i2 =-3A.

Problem 2.36: Determine R.

Answer: R=28k.

Problem 2.37: Determine the unknowns in the following circuit.

67
 Ia

2.5k Ib 2k
10k
18 V
DC
+
+
va 10mA
-
vc 1k
-

Answer: va=-2 V, vc=6 V, Ia=2 mA, Ib=-16 mA.

Problem 2.38: Determine the unknowns in the following circuit.

iR
iC
2.5  0.1F 10 

1H vL vi i=10 cos(4t-450) A

Problem 2.39: Find v in the following circuit.

Ans: 12.5 volts.

2.7.4 WYE-DELTA (Y-Δ) TRANSFORMATIONS

Using the series/parallel techniques learned thus far, we cannot reduce the circuits like that
shown in Figure 2.16 to an equivalent circuit containing the source and equivalent
impedance. However, we can replace one portion of the network with an equivalent circuit,
and this conversion will permit us, with ease, to reduce the combination of impedances to
single equivalent impedance. This conversion is called the wye (Y or T)-to-delta ( or ) or
delta ( or )-to-wye (Y or T) transformation. In order for wye (Y or T) connection and a
delta ( or ) connection to be equivalent, they must exhibit the same terminal behavior.

Figure 2.16: The Δ/Y network.

68
 (a) (b)

Figure 2.17: (a) Delta network (b) Wye network.

Consider the networks in Figure 2.17 for explaining the circuit conversion technique. It is
now our responsibility to relate the impedances of one circuit to the impedances of the other
such that the terminal characteristics of the two circuits are the same. Let us now determine
the equivalent impedance across the terminals A-B with terminal C open circuited for both
wye and delta network and equate them yields:
Z ( Z + Z CA )
Z A + Z B = AB BC (2.29)
Z AB + Z BC + Z CA
Similarly, the equivalent resistors across the terminals B-C with terminal A open circuited
and that across the terminals C-A with terminal B open circuited are given as:
Z ( Z + Z AB )
Z B + Z C = BC CA (2.30)
Z AB + Z BC + Z CA
Z ( Z + Z BC )
Z C + Z A = CA AB (2.31)
Z AB + Z BC + Z CA
Subtracting equation (2.30) from equation (2.29) and then adding this result with the
equation (2.31) yields:
Z CA Z AB
ZA = (2.32)
Z AB + Z BC + Z CA
Subtracting equation (2.31) from equation (2.30) and then adding this result with the
equation (2.29) yields:
Z AB Z BC
ZB = (2.33)
Z AB + Z BC + Z CA
Subtracting equation (2.29) from equation (2.31) and then adding this result with the
equation (2.30) yields:
Z BC Z CA
ZC = (2.34)
Z AB + Z BC + Z CA
The equations from (2.12) to (2.34) can now be used to convert a delta connected network
into wye.
The wye connected network can also be converted into delta as follows:
Multiply equations (2.32) and (2.33), (2.33) and (2.34), and (2.34) and (2.32); add the results
to obtain

69
 Z AB Z BC Z CA
Z AZ B + Z B ZC + ZC Z A = (2.35)
Z AB + Z BC + Z CA
Solving the equation (2.35) with the help of equations (2.32) to (2.34), we have
Z Z + Z B ZC + ZC Z A
Z AB = A B (2.36)
ZC
Z Z + Z B ZC + ZC Z A
Z BC = A B (2.37)
ZA
Z Z + Z B ZC + ZC Z A
Z CA = A B (2.38)
ZB

Problem 2.40: Determine i and Rab in the following circuit.

Problem 2.41: Use Y-Δ transformation technique to determine v in the following circuit.

Problem 2.42: Determine the current through 6V source in the following circuits.

Ans: 5A
Problem 2.43: Find I in the following circuit.

Problem 2.44: Find VS in the following circuit, if I0=2<00 A.

70
Problem 2.45: Find Zeq in the following circuits at 10 krad/s.

2.8 PRACTICAL SOURCES AND SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

Series-parallel reductions and wye-delta conversions are well-known techniques to simplify
circuits. Source transformation is another tool.
Before going to the details of source transformation, let us first consider the practical sources.

2.8.1 Practical Sources

So far we have considered the electrical power sources as ideal. The ideal source is designed
to supply either a fixed voltage (for voltage source) or a fixed current (for current source). In
a practical source, however, the terminal voltage of the voltage source decreases somewhat
as the load current is increased. On the other hand, the current supplied to the load by a
practical current source is not strictly independent of the load voltage. The current usually
decreases as the load voltage is increased. This reduction in source voltage or current is due
to the internal impedance.
Practical voltage and current sources are mathematically modeled and symbolized as follows:
Voltage source in time domain Current source in time domain

e=Em cos(t+θv) i=Im cos(t+θi)

Voltage source in phasor domain Current source in phasor domain

I=Im<θi and ZP =RP+jLP

E=Em<θv and ZS =RS+jLS

71
The internal impedance ZS acts in series with the voltage source. In case of current source the
internal impedance ZP acts in parallel with the source. The internal impedance arises from the
fact that the electrical generators are made from coils which exhibit the property of series
combination of resistor and inductor.
The drop in terminal voltage of a voltage source varies with the variation of current through
the source and is given by VL=E – I ZS. The voltage-current relationship of a voltage source
is shown in the following figure, where the dashed and solid lines are, respectively, the cases
for ideal and practical sources. In words, the voltage available at the terminals of the
practical voltage source equals whatever voltage is produced by the ideal source minus the
voltage drop across the internal impedance.
VL
IL E
ZS
Practical
ZL
Source + VL VL=E – IL ZS
E IL

The voltage source is said to be ideal if and only if ZS=0 which is impossible in a practical
source. However, it can be kept as low as possible.
A measure of how close a supply voltage from a practical source will come to ideal
conditions is given by the voltage regulation. It is defined by
V − VFL E − E + ILZS I Z
Voltage Re gulation (VR)% = NL 100% = 100% = L S 100%
VFL E − ILZS ILZL
ZS
= 100%
ZL
For ideal condition VR%=0.
On the other hand, the load current from a practical current source usually decreases as the
load voltage is increased as shown in the following figure. In words, the current available at
the terminals of the practical current source equals whatever current is produced by the
ideal source less the current diverted through its internal impedance.
IL
IL I

Source IS ZP VL Z ZL IL=IS -VL/ZP

VL

In ideal current source ZP=. In a practical current source the ZP should be kept as high as
possible.

2.8.2 Source Transformation

This technique allows us to replace an ideal voltage source in series with impedance by an
ideal current source with the same impedance in parallel or vice-versa. It should be in mind
that the source conversion from voltage source to current source or vice versa does not

72
change the voltage or current of any element in the rest of the circuit. Basic to this tool is the
concept of equivalence.
Consider the circuit in Figure 2.18 to explain the source transformation technique. The
double headed arrow emphasizes that a source transformation is bilateral; that is, we can start
with either configuration and derive the other.
We need to find the relationship between VS and IS (here VS and IS are the source voltage and
current in phasor form), and ZS and ZP that guarantees the two configurations in Figure 2.18
are equivalent with respect to nodes a-b.

Figure 2.18: Source transformation: (a) ac voltage source, (b) ac current source.

Equivalence is achieved if any impedance of ZL  experiences the same current flow IL

through it, and thus the same voltage drop VL across it, whether connected between nodes a-b
in Figure 2.18 (a) or Figure 2.18 (b). Suppose ZL is connected between the nodes a-b in
Figure 2.18 (a). The current through ZL is
V − V L VS V L
IL = S = − (2.39)
Zs Zs Zs
Now if the same impedance ZL is connected between the nodes a-b in Figure 2.18 (b). The
current through ZL is
V
IL = IS − L (2.40)
Zp
The above two circuits will become equivalent if and only if IS=VS/ZS and ZS=ZP. The above
discussion shows that the source transformation is not possible with the ideal sources.
Finally, it is noted that the source transformation is also applicable for dependent sources.
“What happens if there is a impedance Zp in parallel with the ideal voltage source or an
impedance Zs in series with the ideal current source?” The answer is: in both cases, the
impedance has no effect on the equivalent circuit that predicts behavior with respect to
terminals a, b. The two circuits depicted in Figure 2.19(a) are equivalent with respect to
terminals a, b because they produce the same voltage and current in any impedance ZL
inserted between nodes a, b. The same can be said for the circuits in Figure 2.19(b).

Figure 2.19: Equivalent circuits containing a resistor in parallel with an ideal voltage source
(a) or in series with an ideal current source (b).

73
Problem 2.46: Use source transformation technique to determine V0 in the following circuit.

Problem 2.47: Use source transformation technique to determine ix in the following circuit.

Problem 2.48: Use source transformation technique to find the power associated with the 6
V source in the following circuit.

Problem 2.49: Use source transformation technique to find ia.

Ans: ia=2.19 A

Problem 2.50: Use source transformation technique to determine i(t) in the following circuit.

Answer: i(t)=0.398 cos(2t-850) A

Problem 2.51: Using source transformation method, determine I0.

74
SUMMARY

1) In a resistor, the ac voltage and current are in phase.

2) The ac voltage in an ideal inductor leads its current by 900.
3) The ac current in an ideal capacitor leads its voltage by 900.
4) The generalized Ohm’s law may be defined as V=ZI.
5) Impedance Z is the ratio of phasor voltage to phasor current of a circuit or a circuit
element; admittance Y is the inverse of Z.
6) The phasor sum of all currents at a node is zero.
7) The phasor sum of voltages arround a closed loop is zero.
8) Toal impedance of a series circuit is to the sum of the individual impedances.
9) Toal admittance of a parallel circuit is to the sum of the individual admittances.
10) The terminal voltage of a voltage source drops with the current through the source and is
given by VL=E – ILZS.
11) The load current from a practical current source usually decreases as the load voltage is
increased and is given by IL= IS – VL/ZP.
12) Basic tool of source conversion from voltage source to current source or vice versa is the
concept of equivalence.
13) The concept of wye-delta transformation and source transformation techniques makes the
single source complex circuit analysis easy.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

2.1 Explain the voltage-current relation of passive circuit elements in phasor form.
2.2 Explain Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws for ac circuit.
2.3 Explain voltage and current divider rules in brief.
2.4 Explain the procedure of converting a wye connected circuit into equivalent delt
connected circuit.
2.5 Explain the procedure of converting a delta connected circuit into equivalent wye
connected circuit.
2.6 Explain the procedure of converting a voltage source into a current source and vice-
versa.
2.7 What is the basis of Y- or source conversion technique?
2.8 Explain the procedure of drawing the phasor diagram of a series/parallel/series-parallel
circuit in brief.

75
CHAPTER 3

Circuit Analysis Techniques

✓ CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

1) Be able to employ KCL to use nodal analysis to determine node voltages of a

circuit.
2) Be able to employ KVL to use mesh analysis to determine mesh currents of a
circuit.
3) Be able to decide whether the node-voltage method or the mesh-current
method is the preferred approach to solve a particular circuit.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Circuit analysis is the process of finding specific voltages or currents in a circuit. Having
understood the fundamental laws of circuit theory (Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws), we are
now prepared to apply these laws to develop two powerful techniques for circuit analysis:
nodal analysis, which is based on a systematic application of KCL, and mesh analysis,
which is based on a systematic application of KVL.
The node method allows us to find all node voltages in a circuit and the mesh method all
mesh currents. Once either set of variables is known, we can readily find the voltage across
or the current through any branch in the circuit. In general, the node and mesh methods
require the solution of systems of simultaneous linear equations. This solution is carried out
using either the Gaussian elimination method (substitution method) or Cramer’s rule.

3.2 NODAL ANALYSIS

In nodal analysis, the unknowns are the node voltages. They are defined with respect to a
common node known as reference node in the circuit. Ground is generally taken as reference
because it is said to be at zero potential, and is sometimes represents the chassis or ground
line in a practical circuit. In absence of ground, the node with the largest number of branch
connection is often considered as reference.
The following steps are required to implement the node-voltage method:
1) Redraw the given circuit by replacing its passive elements with their corresponding
impedances, and keep the source as it is if it is dc, otherwise transform them into their
corresponding phasor form.
2) Transform the voltage sources into current sources, if possible.
3) Find out the essential nodes.
4) Select one of the essential nodes as the reference node with zero voltage.
5) Assign names and define voltages to each essential node except the reference one. All
node voltages are assumed positive with respect to the reference node.

76
6) Apply the KCL at each essential node except the reference. There will be N-1 equations,
where N is the no of essential nodes.
7) If there is any dependent source, express the controlling voltage (in case of voltage
controlled source) or current (in case of current controlled source) in terms of the node
voltages so that the resulting equations only contain the node voltages as the unknowns.
8) Solve the resulting equations for node voltages.

If there is an ideal voltage source (either independent or a dependent) between two non-
reference essential nodes, then we can combine these nodes to form a supernode.

A supernode is formed by enclosing an ideal voltage source (independent or

dependent) connected between two essential nodes and any element
connected in parallel with it.

In this case the nodal method requires a special treatment. Obviously, KCL must hold for the
supernode. The usual way to apply nodal analysis method, in this case, is to write KCL
equations for both nodes and simply add them together into one equation ignoring the voltage
source in question. The resulting equation shall contain the voltages of both nodes; however,
one of them can be eliminated by exploiting the fact that their difference must be equal the
source voltage itself.

Example 3.1: Determine the voltages of nodes a and b in the following circuit.

Solution: Assume Va and Vb are the voltages of nodes a and b. Also assume the grounded
node as the reference node of 0 volt. Now applying KCL at nodes a and b yields
Va V −V
+3+ a b = 0 (i)
4 2
Va − Vb V
+4 = b (ii)
2 3
From (ii), we have
6 V 
Vb =  4 + a  (iii)
5 2
Insert the value of Vb from (iii) in (i), yields Va=-4/3 volts.
Now from (iii), we have Vb=4 volts.
Problem 3.1: Find node voltages in the following circuit.

Ans: V1= -2 volts

V2= -14 volts

77
Example 3.2: Find node voltages and I0 in the following circuit.

Solution: Assume V1 and V2 are two nodes with respect to the grounded (reference) node.
Here the nodes 1 and 2 form a supernode, where V2-V1=6<00. Using KCL at the nodes, we
have
V1 V V2
+ 2+ = 200 (i)
(1 + j1) 1 (1 − j1)
Using V1= V2-6<00 in (i), we have
V2 − 600 V2 V2
+ + = 200
(1 + j1) 1 (1 − j1)
 1 1  600
 V2  +1+  = 200 +
 (1 + j1) (1 − j1)  (1 + j1)
30 0
4 + j1
 V2 = 100 + = = 2.915 − 30.960
(1 + j1) (1 + j1)
V1 = V2 − 600 = 2.915 − 30.960 − 600 = 2.5 − j1.5 − 6 = −3.5 − j1.5
= −(3.5 + j1.5) = −3.80823.200 = 3.808 − 156.800
And I0=V2/1=2.915<-30.960

Problem 3.2: Find node voltages in the following circuit.

Ans: V1= 16 volts

V2= 10 volts

Problem 3.3: Find node voltages in the following circuit.

Problem 3.4: Find node voltages in the following circuit.

78
Problem 3.5: Find node voltages in the following circuit.

Problem 3.6: Find the voltage at node b in the following circuit.

Answer:

Problem 3.7: Use nodal method to determine v1 and v2.

Problem 3.8: Use nodal method to determine v1, v2 and I0.

Problem 3.9: Using nodal method, determine I0.

79
Problem 3.10: Using nodal method, determine VAB=VA -VB.

Answer: VAB=30.548.50 volts.

Problem 3.11: Determine the steady state values of v1, v2, and v3 in the following circuit.
Also compute the power absorbed and the energy consumed by the 5 mH inductor.
(Circuit-book, Example 5.3)

3.3 MESH ANALYSIS

While nodal analysis allows us to find all unknown node voltages, mesh analysis allows us to
find all unknown mesh or loop currents using KVL. Once the mesh currents are known,
Ohm’s law can be used to calculate any voltages in the circuit. It is noted that, while the
nodal analysis is applicable to both planar and nonplanar circuits (the circuit that can be
drawn on a plane with no crossing branches is known as planar circuit), whereas the mesh
current method is limited to planar circuits only.
The following steps are required to implement the mesh-current method:
1) Redraw the given circuit by replacing its passive elements with their corresponding
impedances, and keep the source as it is if it is dc, otherwise transform them into their
corresponding phasor form.
2) Transform the current sources into voltage sources, if possible.

80
3) Label each mesh with the corresponding mesh current, and assign each mesh current an
arbitrarily chosen direction, say, clockwise.
4) Indicate the polarities of the voltages across the passive circuit elements within each
mesh as determined by the assumed direction of the mesh current for that mesh. Mark the
terminal of a passive circuit element +ve where the mesh current enters and the other as –
ve. If there are two currents through a passive circuit element, the total current through it
is the assumed current of the mesh in which the KVL is being applied plus/minus the
assumed current of the other mesh passing through in the same/opposite direction.
5) Polarity of the voltage source is unaffected by the direction of the assigned mesh current.
6) Apply KVL around each mesh.
7) In the presence of dependent sources, express the controlling voltage (in case of voltage
controlled source) or current (in case of current controlled source) in terms of the mesh
currents so that the resulting equations only contain the mesh currents as the unknowns.
8) Solve the resulting equations for unknown mesh currents.

If there is an ideal current source (either independent or a dependent) between two meshes,
then we can combine the two meshes to form a supermesh.

A supermesh is formed when two meshes have an ideal current source

(independent or dependent) in common.

In this case the mesh method requires a special treatment. Obviously, KVL must hold for the
supermesh. The usual way to apply mesh analysis method, in this case, is to write KVL
equations for both meshes and simply add them together into one equation ignoring the
current source in question. The resulting equation shall contain the currents of both meshes;
however, one of them can be eliminated by exploiting the fact that the concerned mesh
currents are related to the source current itself.

Example 3.3: Find the mesh currents in the following circuit.

Solution: Using KVL, we have

− 24600 + 4 I1 + j 6( I1 − I 2 ) = 0  I1( 4 + j 6 ) − j 6 I 2 = 24600 (i)
8I 2 − j 4 I 2 + j 6( I 2 − I1 ) = 0  − j 6 I1 + I 2( 8 + j 2 ) = 0 (ii)
Using Cramer’s rule, we have from equations (i) and (ii)
 
I1 = 1 and I 2 = 2 where
 
(4 + j 6) − j6 
=  = (4 + j 6)(8 + j 2) − (− j 6)( − j 6) = 56 + j 56 = 79.2450
 − j6 (8 + j 2)
And

81
 2400 − j6 
1 =   = 240 (8 + j 2) − (0)( − j 6) = 48(4 + j1) = 197.914.04
0 0

 0 (8 + j 2)
(4 + j 6) 2400 
2 =   = 0(4 + j 6) − 240 (− j 6) = 14490
0 0

 − j 6 0 
197.914.04 0
I1 = = 2.5 − 30.960 A and
79.2450
144900
I2 = = 21.82450 A
79.245 0

Example 3.4: Find the mesh currents in the following circuit.

Solution: Meshes 1 and 2 forms a supermesh, where I2- I1=5. Using KVL, we have
I1 + 2( I1 − I 3 ) + 4( I 2 − I 3 ) + 10 = 0  3I1 + 4 I 2 − 6 I 3 = −10 (i)
3I 3 + 4( I 3 − I 2 ) + 2( I 3 − I1 ) = 0  −2 I1 − 4 I 2 + 9 I 3 = 0 (ii)
Putting I2=5+I1 in the above equations, we get
7 I1 − 6 I 3 = −30 (iii)
− 6 I1 + 9 I 3 = 20 (iv)
Using Cramer’s rule, from equations (iii) and (iv) we have
 
I1 = 1 and I 3 = 3 where
 
 7 − 6 
=  = 63 − 36 = 27
− 6 9 
And
− 30 − 6
1 =  = −270 + 120 = −150
 20 9 
 7 − 30
3 =   = 140 − 180 = −40
− 6 20 
− 150
I1 = = −5.56 A
27
− 40
I3 = = −1.48 A and
27
I 2 = −0.56 A

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Problem 3.12: Find the voltage V0 in the following circuit, using mesh method.

Problem 3.13: Find the voltage I0 in the following circuit, using mesh method.

Problem 3.14: Use mesh method to find how much power is being delivered to the
dependent voltage source in the following circuit.

Answer: - 36 W

Problem 3.15: Use mesh analysis to find the currents in the following circuit.

Problem 2.16: Use mesh analysis to find the currents through each branch in the following
circuit.

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Problem 3.17: Using mesh/node method, determine V0.

Problem 3.18: Using mesh method, determine the loop currents.

Problem 3.19: Using mesh method, determine the voltage V10A across the 1000 A current
source.

Problem 3.20: Determine iX(t), if vin(t)=2 cos 30000t volts .

Answer: i(t)=2.75cos(30000t-39.60) A.
Problem 3.21: Using mesh method, determine the voltage across the current source.

84
Answer: -36.455 V.
Problem 3.22: Determine Z in the following circuit, if Vg=100-j50 V, Ig=30+j20 A, and
V1=140-j30 V.

Problem 3.23: Determine Zab in the following circuit.

SUMMARY
1) Nodal analysis method uses KCL to solve all node voltages of an electrical circuit.
2) Mesh analysis method uses KVL to solve all mesh currents of an electrical circuit.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
3.1 Explain the nodal/mesh method of analysing a circuit in brief.
3.2 What do you mean by supernode/supermesh?
3.3 Apply node method to determine the node voltages in the following circuits:

Ans: 5, 2, -16 Volts

Ans: 25.7 and 33.7 Volts

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 Ans: v1=3.16 cos(10t-
43.490) volts and v2=3.58
cos(10t-47.660) volts

Ans: V1=1.23 <167.490

volts and V2=2.46
<130.620 volts

3.4 Apply mesh method to find ii for i0=2.5 cos(2105t – 150) mA in the following circuit.

Ans: ii=1.961 cos(2105t – 57.560) mA

3.5 Find I in the following circuit.

3.6 Find node voltages in the following circuit.

3.7 Apply node method to determine current through the source in the following circuit.

3.8 Apply node method to determine voltage across the current source in the following
circuit.

86
3.9 Obtain a relation between V0 and Vi in the following circuit, and verify that |V0|=|Vi|
regardless of .

3.10 Apply node method to determine voltage across the current source in the following
circuit.

3.11 Apply mesh method to determine the mesh currents in the following circuits:

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3.12 Determine the current through 6V source in the following circuits.

Ans: 5A

88
CHAPTER 4

Network Theorems

✓ CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
1) Know how to analyze electric circuit having sources of different frequency
using the principle of superposition.
2) Understand the concept of the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits and
be able to construct a Thevenin or Norton equivalent for a circuit.
3) Know the condition for maximum power transfer to a load in a dc circuit and
be able to calculate the resistive load that satisfies this condition.
4) Understand the concept of the Reciprocity and Substitution theorems.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The electric circuits become complex with the growth in areas of their application, now a
day. To handle the complexity, engineers over the years have developed some theorems to
simplify their analysis. Such theorems include Superposition principle, Thevenin’s and
Norton’s theorems, Maximum power transfer theorem, Reciprocity theorem, and Substitution
theorem. Notice that these theorems are applicable for linear and bilateral circuit only.

4.2 SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

The superposition theorem is very useful to determine a specific voltage or current response
of any branch in a linear and bilateral circuit having several independent voltage and/or
current sources. If a linear and bilateral circuit is excited by several independent voltage
and/or current sources all having the same frequency, this theorem may be used. But, if the
sources have different frequencies, the use of the superposition theorem is must.

The superposition principle states that the voltage across or current through any branch of a
multi-source linear and bilateral circuit is the sum of the voltages across or currents through
that branch due to each independent source acting alone.

The superposition theorem requires that we have to deactivate all but one independent source
and find the corresponding response. The process is to be repeated for all the independent
sources to find the individual effects.
Note that deactivating a voltage source means replacing it with its internal impedance only
since the source becomes incapable to supply power at this condition. While deactivating a
current source means replacing it with an open circuit since the current flow from the source
is interrupted at this condition.
If there is any dependent source in the circuit, it is never deactivated and must remain
unaltered during the analysis. Because deactivating a dependent source would invalidate the

89
constraint between controlled source and controlling signal. Moreover, the dependent sources
themselves are not capable to produce voltage or current in a circuit in absence of their
controlling signal which is, actually, the effect of independent source.

The problem solving strategy using superposition principle is summarized as follows:

1) Redraw the given circuit by replacing its passive elements with their corresponding
impedances, and keep the source as it is if it is dc, otherwise transform them into their
corresponding phasor form.
2) Label the voltage or current to be determined, and indicate its reference direction.
3) Leave one of the sources in the circuit, and replace all others with their internal
impedance. Find the contribution of this source to the resultant response.
4) Repeat step 3 for each of the other independent sources.
5) The time domain responses obtained by applying each source independently are then
added together to obtain the desired response (voltage or current).

In circuits with sources having dissimilar frequencies, we must have a different frequency
domain circuit for each frequency. The solutions to the desired voltage or current due to
individual frequencies are to be added in the time domain to have the resultant response. It is
incorrect to add the responses in phasor or frequency domain, because the exponential factor
ejωt is implicit in sinusoidal analysis and that factor would change for every angular
frequency ω. Hence the superposition theorem, in the case of sources operating at different
frequencies, applies to time domain only. However, phasor representation of total response in
phasor or frequency domain is allowed if the frequencies of the sources are same.

Example 4.1: Use superposition principle to find v0 in the following circuits.

Solution: Contribution to v0 due to 10 V source is assumed to be v0 and can be obtained

from the following circuit:

From the above circuit v=-4 v. Therefore, v=0 which means that the dependent current
source acts as open circuit as because it’s current is zero. Hence v0=(1020)/(5+20)=8 volts.
Now let the contribution of 5 A current source to v0 be v0.

90
We can determine v0 from the above circuit. Assume the node o as reference and using
KCL at nodes a and b, we have
Va Va
+ − 0.4v = 0  5Va − 8v = 0  5v0 − 8v = 0 (i)
20 5
v
+ 0.4v = 5  5v = 50  v = 10 (ii)
10
 From (i) v0 = 16 volts.
Therefore, the value of v0= v0+ v0=8+16=24 volts.
Example 4.2: Find the current in RL in the following circuit, using Superposition theorem.
Assume the sources are ideal.

Solution: Assume the current through RL is IL= IL+ IL, where IL and IL are respectively
due to the sources Vs1 and Vs2, when they are acting alone.
Now IL can be determined from the following circuit:

The current, I, through the Vs1 source is given by

I=Vs1/Z where Z=ZC+ZR1||ZR2=(-j723)+667=984<-47.30. ZR1 and ZR2 are impedances due
to R1 and R2, respectively.
Therefore I= Vs1/Z=5<00/984<-47.30=5.08<47.30 mA.
Using current divider rule, we obtain IL as:
IL= 5.08<47.30ZR1/(ZR1+ZR2)= 5.08<47.301/3=1.69<47.30 mA.
IL can be determined from the following circuit:

Remember that capacitor, in this case, acts as open circuit. Here, the current IL is given by
IL=Vs2/( ZR1+ZR2)=15/3 mA=5 mA.
Therefore, IL=5+1.69 cos(2103t+47.30) mA. Again, remember that we should not add
phasors of different frequencies together.

Problem 4.1: Use superposition principle to find v0 in the following circuits.

91
Problem 4.2: Use superposition principle to find vx and i0 in the following circuits.

Problem 4.3: Use superposition principle to find i0 and v0 in the following circuit.

Problem 4.4: Use superposition principle to find V0 in the following circuit.

V0=33/4V

Problem 4.5: Find the current in R in the following circuit, using Superposition theorem.
Assume the internal source impedances are zero.

Problem 4.6: Find the current in L in the following circuit, using Superposition theorem.
Assume the sources are ideal.

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4.3THEVENIN’S THEOREM
In practice, the voltage across or current through a particular branch in a circuit is required to
be determined when the branch impedance is changed with all other elements remaining
same. Household outlet terminal is a typical example. Each time the load is changed, re-
calculation of the circuit becomes necessary again. But the simple equivalent circuit, a single
ideal voltage source in series with impedance, obtained using Thevenin’s theorem makes the
analyses simple and easy.
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of an ideal voltage source Vth in series with an impedance Zth, where Vth is
the open circuit voltage at the terminals and Zth is the input or equivalent impedance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off. According to Thevenin’s theorem, the
linear circuit in Figure 4.1(a) can be replaced by that in Figure 4.1(b). The series combination
of Vth and Zth is equivalent to the original circuit in the sense that, if we connect the same
load across any two terminals a, b of each circuit, we get the same voltage and current at the
terminals of the load.

Figure 4.1: Replacing a linear two-terminal circuit by its Thevenin’s equivalent: (a) original
circuit, and (b) the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

The main task of this theorem is to find Vth and Zth. The process is summarized in the
following:

1) Redraw the given circuit by replacing its passive elements with their corresponding
impedances, and keep the source as it is if it is dc, otherwise transform them into their
corresponding phasor form.
2) Marks the terminals, say a, b across which the Thevenin’s equivalent is to be determined.
The terminals a, b are then open-circuited and find the voltage VOC=Vth across the open
circuited terminals, as shown in Figure 4.2.
3) Determine series impedance Zth by any one of the following methods:
(a) Deactivate all the independent sources and apply a voltage source V0 across the
terminals a, b. Determine the current I0 through V0. Then Zth=V0/I0. Alternatively, we
may apply a current source I0 at terminals a, b, and find voltage V0 across the
terminals. Again Zth=V0/I0. See Figure 4.3(a) and 4.3(b).
(b) Short circuited the terminals and determine the short circuit current Isc through the
terminals a, b. Then Zth=Vth/Isc, as shown in Figure 4.3(c).

93
Figure 4.2: Circuit to find Vth.

Figure 4.3: Determination of Zth.

Note that the dependent source, if present in the circuit, will never be deactivated during the
analysis.

Example 4.3: Find Thevenin’s equivalent of the following circuit across the terminals a-b.

Solution: Ass ume the open circuit/Thevenin’s voltage across the terminals a-b is VTH, which
can be calculated using node voltage method as:
VTH 3 V − VS
+I = I where I = TH
− j4 2 j2
VTH  3  1
 =  − 1 I = I
− j4  2  2
V 1 VTH − VS
 TH =  VTH = 5  530
− j4 2 j2
Now let us calculate the Norton’s current form the following circuit:

94
Let V is the voltage across the capacitor. Using nodal method we obtain
V V 3 V − VS
+ +I = I where I =
− j4 2 2 j2
V V 3  1 V − VS
 + =  − 1 I =
− j4 2  2  2 j2
VS
V =  V = 3.54  980
2 − j2
Therefore, IN=V/2=1.77<980 A.
ZTH=ZN=VTH/IN=5<530/(1.77<980)=2.82<-450=(2-j2) .
Problem 4.8: Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit to the left of the
terminals a, b; then find I in the following circuit.

Problem 4.9: Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit to the left of the
terminals a, b in the following circuit.

Problem 4.10: Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent of the following circuits and find V0 in (a).

Problem 4.11: Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit at the terminals a, b in
the following circuits.

Vth= -16.4 V, Rth= 20 

95
 Vth= 8 V, Rth= 1 

Vth= 0 V, Rth= 14/15 k

Problem 4.12: Using Thevenin’s theorem, find V0 in the following circuit.

Problem 4.13: Using Thevenin’s theorem, find V0 in the following circuit.

Problem 4.14: Determine the Thevenin’s voltage across RL in the following circuit.

Problem 4.15: Determine Vth for the circuit external to RL in the following network.

96
Problem 4.16: Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit external to RL in the following
network.

4.4NORTON’S THEOREM
Like Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem also makes circuit analyses easy by replacing
the fixed part of a large complex circuit with an ideal current source in parallel with
impedance.
Norton’s theorem states that a linear two terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of an ideal current source In in parallel with an impedance Zn, where In is
the short circuit current through the terminals and Zn is the input or equivalent impedance at
the terminals when the independent sources are turned off. According to Norton’s theorem,
the linear circuit in Figure 4.4(a) can be replaced by that in Figure 4.4(b). The parallel
combination of In and Zn is equivalent to the original circuit in the sense that, if we connect
the same load across any two terminals a, b of each circuit, we get the same voltage and
current at the terminals of the load.

Figure 4.4: (a) Original circuit, (b) Norton’s equivalent circuit.

The main task of this theorem is to find In and Zn. The process is summarized in the
following:
1) Redraw the given circuit by replacing its passive elements with their corresponding
impedances, and keep the source as it is if it is dc, otherwise transform them into their
corresponding phasor form.
2) Marks the terminals, say a, b, across which the Norton’s equivalent is to be determined.
The terminals a, b are then short-circuited and find the current Isc=In through it, as shown
in Figure 4.5.
3) Determine the parallel impedance Zn by any one of the following methods:

97
 (a) Deactivate all the independent sources and apply a voltage source V0 across the
terminals a, b. Determine the current I0 through V0. Then Zn=V0/I0. Alternatively, we
may apply a current source I0 at terminals a, b, and find voltage V0 across the
terminals. Again Zn=V0/I0. See Figure 4.6(a) and 4.6(b).
(b) Open-circuited the terminals and determine the open-circuit voltage Voc=Vth across
the terminals a, b. Then Zth=Vth/In, as shown in Figure 4.6(c).

Figure 4.5: Circuit to find In.

Figure 4.6: Determination of Zn.

Note that the dependent source, if present in the circuit, will never be deactivated during the
analysis.
The close relationship between the Norton and Thevenin’s theorems show that the Norton
impedance Zn is identical to the Thevenin impedance Zth and the Norton current In is equal to
the short-circuit current Isc at the terminals of interest (In=Isc=Vth/Zth). The Norton equivalent
circuit, therefore, can derive from the Thevenin equivalent circuit simply by making a source
transformation.
Finally, it is noted that a linear two terminal circuit can be replaced only by the Thevenin’s
equivalent and not by the Norton’s equivalent circuit, if Zth is zero. On the other hand, a
linear two terminal circuit can be replaced only by the Norton’s equivalent circuit, if Zn
happens to be infinite.

Example 4.4: Find Thevenin and Norton equivalents of the following circuit across the
terminals x-y.

Solution: Ix=0 in the given circuit as there is no independent source. Therefore, both Vth and
IN are zero. Now, our duty is to determine the Zth=ZN. However, it is not possible to

98
determine Zth=ZN from the ratio of Vth and IN, because it is indeterminate 0/0. We use a
current source of 1<00 A as shown in the following circuit.

ix=1<00 A, therefore the dependent voltage source is of 20<00 V. Now using KCL at node 1
with voltage v, we obtain
20 − V V
= + 1  00
3 6
V = 11.33  00
Now the voltage vxy is obtained from
-V+3 ix+vxy=0.
Therefore, vxy=V-3ix=11.33<00-3<00=8.33<00.
Now Zth=ZN=-vxy/1<00=-8.33<00.
Therefore the Thevenin and Norton equivalents are

Problem 4.17: Using Norton’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit at the terminals a, b in the
following circuits.

Problem 4.18: Find the Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent circuit at the terminals a, b in
the following circuits.

Vth=22 V, Rth=9

Problem 4.19: Obtain the Norton equivalent at terminals a, b in the following circuits.

99
 Rn=100 k, In= -20 mA

Problem 4.20: Determine I0 using Norton’s Theorem in the following circuits.

Problem 4.21: Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the network external to the resistor R in
the following circuit.

Problem 4.22: Find I0 using Norton’s theorem in the following networks.

Problem 4.23: Determine Norton’s equivalent as seen from a-b terminals and use the
equivalent circuit to find I0.

100
Problem 4.24: Determine Norton’s equivalent for the circuit external to RL in the following
networks.

4.5 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide maximum power to a load.
Communication and instrumentation systems are good examples where maximum load
power is more desirable than the efficiency.
We now consider maximum power transfer in systems that can be modeled by a purely
resistive circuit. A linear two terminal circuit as shown in Figure 4.7(a) is assumed to supply
power to a resistive load RL. The circuit at the load terminals is replaced by its Thevenin’s
equivalent as shown in Figure 4.7(b).

Figure 4.7: (a) Original circuit used to transfer power to RL, (b) Thevenin equivalent.

The current I through the load is given by

Vth
I= , and the power delivered to the load can be expressed as
( Rth + RL )
Vth2
P = I RL =
2
RL . (4.1)
( Rth + RL ) 2
We can adjust the load resistor RL to obtain maximum power at the load. Therefore, we are
now left with the problem of finding the value for RL that will maximize P. To determine the
P
value of RL that will maximize P, we set equal to zero as shown below:
R L

101
 P   RL 
= Vth2  2
.=0
R L R L  ( Rth + R L ) 
( Rth + RL ) 2 − 2 R L ( Rth + R L )
 =0
( Rth + R L ) 4
 R L = Rth . (4.2)
In words, for maximum power transfer to the load resistor RL, the resistor RL must be made
equal to the Thevenin’s equivalent resistor Rth.
We can readily confirm that equation (4.2) gives the maximum power by showing that
d 2 P / dRL2  0. The maximum power at load is obtained by substituting equation (4.2) into
equation (4.1) and is given by:
V2 V2
Pmax = th = th . (4.3)
4 RL 4 Rth

Example 4.5: Determine the load RL that will provide maximum power to the load. Also
determine the maximum value of load power.

Solution: Our task is to determine the thevenin voltage and thevenin impedance for the
circuit external to the load RL as shown in the following circuit.

Vth=100 V. Now IN can be determined from the following circuit as:

Using current divider rule, we obtain the current IN=100/(100+1)=100/101 A. Therefore

Rth=Vth/IN=100101/100=101. For transfer maximum power to the load RL must be equal
to the thevenin equivalent impedance, i.e., RL=Rth=101.
The value of maximum power is obtained by using equation (4.3) as:
Pmax=1002/(4101)=24.75 Watts.

Problem 4.25: Determine the value of RL that will draw the maximum power from the rest
of the circuit in the following. Also determine the maximum power.

102
Problem 4.26: The resistor R in the following circuit is adjusted until it absorbs the
maximum power. Calculate the value of R for maximum power and the maximum power
absorbed by R.

Problem 4.27: Assume the following circuit is delivering the maximum power to R.

(a) How much power is the 100V source delivering to the circuit?
(b) Repeat (a) for the dependent source.
(c) What percentage of the total power generated by these two sources is delivered to the
load resistor R?
Problem 4.28: Calculate the maximum power that can be transferred to RL in the following
circuit.

4.6 RECIPROCITY THEOREM

The reciprocity theorem states that the current in any branch of a circuit, due to a single
voltage or current source anywhere else in the circuit, will be equal the current through the
branch in which the source was originally located if the source is placed in the branch in
which the current was originally measured.

103
The reciprocity theorem is only applicable to single source circuits. The network where
reciprocity theorem is applied should be linear and consist of resistors, inductors, capacitors
and coupled circuits. The circuit should not have any time-varying elements.
Forms of the reciprocity theorems are used in many electromagnetic applications, such as
analyzing electrical networks and antenna systems. For example, reciprocity implies that
antennas work equally well as transmitters or receivers, and specifically that an antenna's
radiation and receiving patterns are identical.

Explanation of Reciprocity Theorem

According to reciprocity theorem, the location of the voltage source and the current source
may be interchanged without a change in current. However, the polarity of the voltage source
should be identical with the direction of the branch current in each position.
The Reciprocity Theorem is explained with the help of the circuit diagram shown below:

The various resistances R1, R2, R3 is connected in the above circuit with a voltage source (V)
and a current source (I). It is clear from the figure above that the voltage source and current
sources are interchanged for solving the network with the help of Reciprocity Theorem.

Steps for Solving a Network Utilizing Reciprocity Theorem

Step 1 – Firstly, select the branches between which reciprocity has to be established.
Step 2 –The current in the branch is obtained using any conventional network analysis
method.
Step 3 – The voltage source is interchanged between the branches which are selected.
Step 4 – The current in the branch where the voltage source was existing earlier is calculated.
Step 5 – Now, it is seen that the current obtained in the previous connection, i.e., in step 2
and the current which is calculated when the source is interchanged, i.e., in step 4
are identical to each other.

Problem 4.29: Prove reciprocity theorem for the following network.

Problem 4.30: Determine I in the circuits shown in Figure (a) and (b). Is the reciprocity
theorem satisfied?

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4.7 SUBSTITUTION THEOREM
Sometimes, it is convenient to replace an impedance branch by another branch with different
circuit components, without disturbing the voltage-current relationship in the network. The
condition under which, branch replacement is possible, is given by the substitution theorem.
It states that any branch in a network may be substituted by a different branch without
disturbing the voltages and currents in the entire network, provided the new branch has the
same set of terminal voltage and current as the original branch.

Substitution theorem states that the voltage across any branch or the current
through that branch of a network being known, the branch can be replaced by the
combination of various elements that will make the same voltage and current
through that branch.

In other words, the Substitution theorem says that for branch equivalence, the terminal
voltage and current must be same. The concept of the theorem is based on the substitution of
one element from another element. This theorem gives intuition on the behavior of the
circuit. It also helps in proving several other theorems. But the substitution theorem cannot
be used for solving networks with two or more sources which are neither connected in series
nor parallel.
The substitution theorem is a general theorem and is applicable for any arbitrary network. It
is very useful in circuit analysis of networks having one non-linear element. Also, it is often
used to replace the effect of mutual inductance.

Explanation of Substitution Theorem

Simply one can say that the Substitution theorem is the replacement of one element with
another equivalent element. In a network, if any element is substituted or replaced by a
voltage or current source, the voltage and current across or through that element will remain
unchanged as the previous network.
Let us understand the theorem with the help of the circuit diagram shown below:

105
Here various resistances R1, R2, R3 are connected across with the voltage source (Vs). Current
I is flowing through the circuit, which is divided into current I1flowing through the resistance
R1 and the current I2 flowing through the resistance R2. V1, V2 and V3 are the voltage drop
across the resistance R1, R2and R3 respectively.
Now if the resistance R3 is substituted by the voltage source V3 as shown in the circuit
diagram below:

In the circuit diagram shown below, the resistance R3 is replaced by the current flowing
through that element, i.e. I1

In both the cases shown above if the element is substituted by the voltage source or the
current source, then also, the initial conditions of the circuit does not alter. This means that
the voltage across the resistance and current flowing through the resistance unaltered even if
they are substituted by other sources.

Steps for Solving Network Using Substitution Theorem

Step 1 – First obtain the concerned branch voltage and current flowing through the branch
given by Vxy and Ixy as shown below in the figure A.

Step 2 – The branch may be substituted by an independent voltage source as shown above in
figure B.
Step 3 – Similarly the branch may be replaced by an independent current source as shown
below in the circuit diagram C.

106
Step 4 – Hence it is seen that the voltage drop and the current flowing through the circuit A
shown above will be same if it is substituted by any independent voltage or current
source shown in the figure B and C.

Problem 4.31: Using the substitution theorem, draw the possible equivalent branches for the
branch a-b of the following network.

SUMMARY
1) If a linear circuit is excited by several sources all having the same frequency,
superposition theorem may be used to solve a voltage or current. But, if the sources have
different frequencies, the use of the superposition theorem is must.
2) Thevenin’s theorem is used to replace a large circuit by a single ideal voltage source in
series with impedance.
3) Norton’s theorem is used to replace a large circuit by a single ideal current source in
parallel with impedance.
4) In a dc circuit, for maximum power transfer to the load, the load resistor must be made
equal to the Thevenin’s equivalent resistor of the rest circuit.
5) The reciprocity theorem states that the current in any branch of a circuit, due to a single
voltage/current source anywhere else in the circuit, will be equal the current through the
branch in which the source was originally located if the source is placed in the branch in
which the current was originally measured.
6) The reciprocity theorem is only applicable to a single source circuits.
7) Substitution theorem states that any branch in a network may be substituted by a different
branch without disturbing the voltages and currents in the entire network, provided the
new branch has the same set of terminal voltage and current as the original branch.
8) The substitution theorem cannot be used for solving networks with more than two
sources which are neither connected in series nor parallel.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
4.1 Explain the superposition principle/theorem with its usefulness.

107
4.2 Explain Thevenin/Norton/Reciprocity/Substitution/Maximum power transfer theorem in
brief.
4.3 Determine the Thevenin/Norton equivalent of the following networks across the a-b
terminals:

4.4 Determine the vc(t) in the following circuit. Given that vs1=15 V, vs2(t)=20 cos 1000t V,
and is(t)=4 cos 2000t A.

108
CHAPTER 5

Power in AC Circuit

✓ CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

1) Know how to calculate the effective or rms value, average value, form factor,
and peak factor of ac waveform
2) Know how to calculate instantaneous and average power in ac circuit
3) Know how to calculate the real power, reactive power, complex power, and
power factor in ac circuits
4) Be able to calculate the maximum average power transfer to a load in an ac
circuit
5) Understand the cause and problems of low power factor and how to improve
the power factor in ac circuits

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we are interested in finding the power supplied or absorbed by each element
in ac circuit. The voltage across a circuit element when multiplied by the current through the
element gives the power absorbed/consumed or supplied by the element. If the current flows
from higher voltage to lower voltage terminal (as happend in the case of passive circuit
elements), the power is considered positive and is assumed to be absorbed/consumed by the
element otherwise the power is considered negative and is assumed to be generated by the
element and supplied to the rest of the circuit.
In case of circuits energized by dc source, the voltage V across a resistor and the current I
through it are related by V=IR. Therefore the power PR absorved/consumed by the resistor is
given by PR=VI=V2/R=I2R. The power absorved by an inductor or a capacitor is zero,
because the voltage across the inductor and the current through the capacitor are zero under
steady-state condition.
If the electric circuit is driven by ac sources, both the voltage across and the current through a
circuit element is time varying. Hence, the power in an ac circuit is time varying.
Before talking further about power of ac circuit, we have to first find out a way to determine
the effectiveness of ac voltage or current source in delivering power to a circuit. To
accomplish this, we must define the effective value of ac signal as a constant, the dc
equivalence of ac signal, which would deliver the same average power to a circuit. Thus in
the following section, a technique will be developed by which we can compare the
effectiveness of different sources in delivering power to a load.

5.2 EFFECTIVE VALUE OF A TIME VARYING SIGNAL

In general, the effective value or root mean square (rms) value of a time varying function say
voltage v(t) over a certain time interval t1 to t2 is defined as the dc voltage that over that time
interval would cause a resistance to dissipate the same amount of energy as v(t). Denoting

109
such a dc voltage as Vrms and using p=v2(t)/R, we can equate the energy dissipated in a
resistance R by Vrms and v(t) as
2 t t
Vrms 2
v 2 (t ) 1 2

(t2 − t1 ) =  dt  Vrms =  v 2 (t )dt (5.1)

R t1
R (t2 − t1 ) t1

Area under the curve of v 2 (t ) over the time interval t1 to t 2

 Vrms =
(t 2 − t1 )
In words, to find the effective value of any function v(t) over a certain time interval, the
function must first be squared, then the area under the squared function within the prescribed
time interval is found by integration; and then divided by that time interval to obtain the
average or mean value of the squared function. Finally square root of the mean value is to be
taken. Hence this procedure gives us another designation for the effective value, the root
mean square (rms) value. The function v(t) must not be the voltage only, it may be any
function such as voltage, current, power, pressure, velocity etc.
For periodic function, equation (5.1) will take the following form as because the effective
value over one cycle (t2-t1=T, where T is the time period) is sufficient to consider in these
cases:
t1 +T
1
= v
2
Vrms (t )dt (5.2)
T t1

If v(t) is a voltage function and is given by v(t)=Vm cos (t+), then its rms value Vrms is
obtained from

t1 +T t1 +T T
1 1 1
= t v (t )dt = T t V cos (t +  )dt = T 0 Vm cos (t +  )dt
2 2 2 2 2
Vrms m
T 1 1

Vm2 T Vm2 Vm
2T 0
 Vrms = [1 + cos 2(t +  )]dt = =
2 2
Here v(t) was a periodic function, therefore the area is calculated over a complete cycle
stating from t1 to t1+ T. It is noted that frequency and phase angle have no effect on the
effective (rms) value of a sinusoidal (sine/cosine) function.

Example 5.1: Calculate the rms value of the following current wave.

Solution: We can use equation (5.2) with v replaced by i. This is a periodic wave. We may
consider one cycle/period from t=0 to t=T. However, in this time span, there are three distinct
current functions: the first one from t=0 to t=T/4, the second one from t=T/4 to t=3T/4, and
the last one from t=3T/4 to t=T.

110
On the other hand, if we consider one cycle/period from t=-T/4 to t=3T/4, there will only be
two distinct current functions: the first one from t=-T/4 to t=T/4, and the second one from
t=T/4 to t=3T/4. This selection is a better choice as it will reduce the analytical time.
Let us now determine the equations of current functions within these time limits as follows:
As the functions follow the straight line equation, we have
t +T / 4 i + IP I
=  i = 4 P t for − T / 4  t  T / 4
− T / 4 − T / 4 − IP − IP T
and
t −T / 4 i − IP I
=  i = −4 P t + 2 I P for T / 4  t  3T / 4
T / 4 − 3T / 4 I P + I P T
Using equation (5.2) with v replaced by i, we have
1 
−T / 4 + T T /4 3T / 4
1
I rms =  i dt =   i12 dt + i dt 
2 2

T  −T / 4
2
T −T / 4 T /4 
1   1  I P2 2 
2 2
 IP   
T /4 3T / 4
IP  13I P2
=   4 t  dt +   − +  =  + + − T 
2
4 t 2 I dt 6 T T 2 I T 4 I

T  −T / 4  T   T
P
  T  6
P P

T /4 
IP
=
3

5.3 AVERAGE VALUE OF A TIME VARYING SIGNAL

The average value of an ac or time varying signal x(t) over the time interval t1 to t2 is defined
as the dc signal Xav that over that time interval would span the same area as x(t). Therefore,
t2 t2
1
X av (t 2 − t1 ) =  x(t )dt  X av =
(t 2 − t1 ) t1
x(t )dt
t1

Area under the curve of x(t ) over the time interval t 1 to t 2

 X av =
(t 2 − t1 )
x(t) may be any time varying function such as voltage, current, power, pressure, velocity etc.
If x(t) is periodic, the time interval (t2 – t1) is usually made to coincide with the period T and
the resulting average value is called the full-cycle average. In the case of time symmetric
periodic waveforms where the area spanned by the wave above and below the t-axis during
each cycle cancel each other out, it is often of interest to know the half-cycle average,
obtained by letting the time interval (t2 – t1) coincide with the half period during which
x(t)>0. For the non-periodic wave the average is calculated over the whole span of the wave.
The average value of v(t)=Vm cos(t+θ) is given by
5T / 4 5T / 4 5T /4
1 2 2Vm
(5T / 4 − 3T / 4) 3T/ 4 T 3T/ 4
Vav = v(t )dt = Vm cos(t +  )dt = sin( t +  )
T 3T /4

2Vm
 Vav =

Example 5.2: Calculate the rms and average values of the function v=2.5+5.83 cos(100t-
300).

111
Solution: Let us consider a generalized function of the above type, v=a+b cos(t-). Using
equation (5.2), the rms value of the function v is obtained as:
T T
Vrms =
1 2
 v dt =
1
 a + b cos(t −  )2 dt
T 0 T 0

 
T
1
T 0
= a 2 + b 2 cos 2 (t −  ) + 2ab cos(t −  ) dt

1  2 b2  1 2 b2   2 b2 
T
 
T 0 
= a + 1 + cos 2(t −  ) + 2ab cos(t −  ) dt = a T + T  = a + 
2  T  2   2
In the present example a=2.5 and b=5.83.
 b2   5.832 
Vrms = a 2 +  = 2.52 + = 4.82 V
 2  2 
The average value of a function can be obtained from the equation
t T T
v(t )dt =  v(t )dt =  a + b cos(t −  )dt = a
2
1 1 1
Vav = 
(t2 − t1 ) t1 T0 T0
Therefore the average value of the given function is 2.5 V.

Problem 5.1: Determine the rms and average values of the following functions.

5.4 FORM FACTOR AND PEAK OR CREST FACTOR

The form factor of a time varying function is defined by the ratio of the rms value to the
average value of the signal. Therefore the form factor of v(t)= Vm cos t is equal to
(Vm/2)/(2 Vm/)=1.11.
Peak or crest or amplitude factor of a time varying signal is the ratio of the maximum value
of the signal to its rms value. The crest factor of a sine/cosine wave is 2=1.414.

Problem 5.2: Determine the rms and average values, the form factor, and the peak factor of
the following functions.

112
Problem 5.3: Assume a dc source of 120 V delivers 3.6 W to a load. Determine the peak
value of the ac voltage and current of sine function if the ac source is to deliver the same
power to the same load.

Idc Iac=Im sin t

+ +
P=3.6 W P=3.6 W
E=120 V vac(t)=Vm sin t
dc

Problem 5.4: Find the rms and average values, and the form factor of the following periodic
waveforms (Assuming the waveforms follow the sine function):

v v

A A

0 2 4 t (sec) 0 2 4 6 t(sec)

Problem 5.5: Determine the rms value of the following signal as a function of . Determine
also the average value.
f(t)
1/ 2
V 1  1 
Ans: m    −  + sin 2 
2   2 

t


5.5 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT: INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE

POWER
When an electric circuit is driven by sinusoidal sources, both the voltage across and the
current through a circuit element is time varying. Hence, the power in an ac circuit is time
varying. This time varying power is known as instantaneous power p(t). It is obtained by the
product of the instantaneous voltage v(t) across the circuit or circuit element with the
instantaneous current i(t) through it.
p(t)=v(t)i(t) (5.3)

The instantaneous power is the power at any instant of time.

113
Consider a general case of instantaneous power absorbed by an arbitrary circuit element of
impedance Z under sinusoidal excitation, as shown in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: Simple ac network.

Let the voltage across and the current through Z are

v(t ) = Vm cos(t +  v ) (5.4)
i(t ) = I m cos(t +  i ) (5.5)

Assuming the passive sign convention, the instantaneous power absorbed by the impedance
Z is then
p(t ) = Vm I m cos(t +  v ) cos(t +  i )
(5.6)
= m m cos( v −  i ) + cos( 2t +  v +  i )
V I
2
The instantaneous power, as shown in equation (5.6), has two parts. The first part is constant
or time independent; its value depends on the phase difference between the voltage and
current. The second part is a cosine wave of twice the excitation frequency. Therefore, the
period of power signal is T/2, where T is the time period of the voltage and current signals of
Z.
A sketch of p(t) in equation (5.6) is shown in Figure 5.2, where we consider θv=400 and θi= -
200. The solid, dashed, and the dot-dashed lines represent the voltage, current and power
signals, respectively. In some part of each cycle, p(t) is positive which means that the passive
circuit element absorbs power. During the time where p(t) is negative, power is transferred
from the passive circuit element to the electric power source. This is possible because of the
presence of the energy storage elements (inductors and capacitors) in the circuit.

Figure 5.2: Instantaneous power absorbed by load impedance.

114
The instantaneous voltage, current, and power for pure resistive, inductive, and capacitive
circuit elements are shown, respectively, in Figure 5.3 (a), (b), and (c). In case of resistive
load, θv= θi. Figure 5.3(a) (where θv= θi=0 is assumed) shows that the power is always
positive with respective to time axis and that is why it is called instantaneous real power.
In case of pure inductor, θv- θi=900. Figure 5.3(b) (where θv=0 and θi=-900 are assumed)
shows that the power is positive for one-quarter and negative for the next one-quater of the
supply frequency. Therefore, the average power absorbed by an inductor over one period of
the applied voltage is zero; however, an inductor receives energy from the source (when p>0)
during one-quater of the supply frequency and returns the same amount of energy to the
source (when p<0) during the next one-quater of the supply frequency. The amount of energy
WL received by an inductor during one-quarter of the supply frequency can be obtained by
integrating p(t) from t=0 to t=T/4 where T is the time period of the supply wave.

T /4
Vm I m V I V I
 cos(2t −  / 2)dt = m m sin (2t −  / 2) 0 = m m
T /4
 WL =
0
2 4 2
(LI m )I m I 2m L
= = J
2 2

In case of pure capacitor, θv- θi=-900. Figure 5.3(c) (where θv=0 and θi=900 are assumed)
shows that the power is negative for one-quarter and positive for the next one-quater of the
supply frequency. The average power absorbed by a capacitor over one period of the applied
voltage is zero; however, a capacitor receives energy from the source (when p>0) during one-
quater of the supply frequency and returns the same amount of energy to the source (when
p<0) during the next one-quater of the supply frequency. The amount of energy WC absorbed
by a capacitor during one-quarter of the supply frequency can be obtained by integrating p(t)
from t=T/4 to t=T/2 where T is the time period of the supply wave.
T /2
V I V I V I
WC =  m m cos(2t +  / 2)dt = m m sin (2t +  / 2) T / 4 = m m
T /2

T /4
2 4 2
(CVm )Vm CVm2
= = J
2 2

(a)

115
 (b)

(c)
Figure 5.3: Instantaneous power of (a) resistor, (b) inductor, and (c) capacitor.

It is inconvenient to measure the instantaneous power as it is always changing with time. In

fact, the wattmeter, measures the average power and its unit is Watt.

The average power is the average of the instantaneous power over one period.

Thus, the average power is given by

t 0 +T
1
P=
T  p(t )dt
t0
(5.7)

Using p(t) from equation (5.6) for a generalized load in (5.7), we have

t0 +T

P=
1

Vm I m
cos( v −  i ) + cos(2t +  v +  i )dt
T t0
2

1 Vm I m t0 +T t0 +T

=   cos( v −  i )dt +  cos( 2t +  v +  i )dt 
T 2  t0 t0 

116
 Vm I m
P = cos( v −  i ) (5.8)
2
Consider two special cases of equation (5.8). In case of purely resistive circuit (load is R),
θv=θi, i.e., the voltage and current are in phase. Then
Vm I m Vm I m Vm2 1 2
P = cos(v − i ) = = = I m R = I rms
2
R (5.9)
2 2 2R 2
Equation (5.9) shows that a purely resistive circuit absorbs power at all times.
In case of purely reactive circuit (load is either L or C), θv-θi=±900 and, therefore,
V I
 P = m m cos( v −  i ) = 0. (5.10)
2
Equation (5.10) shows that a purely reactive circuit absorbs no average power. In summary,

A resistive load (R) absorbs power at all times, while a reactive load (L or C)
absorbs zero average power.

Example 5.3: A coil of inductance 159.2 mH and resistance 20 is connected in series with
a 60 resistor to a 240 V, 50Hz supply. Determine current, pf, and power supplied by the
source.
Solution: The circuit is shown in the following:

Z=(60+20)+j3140.1592=80+j50=94.34<tan-1(50/80)=320.
Assuming the phase of the supply voltage as zero, the current is given by
I=240<00/94.34<320=2.544<-320 A. Here, current lags the supply voltage. Therefore
pf=cos(00+320)=0.85 (lagging).
Now, the power supplied by the source, P=VIcos, where V and I are given in rms values.
P=2402.5440.85= 519 Watts.
Problem 5.6: Calculate the average power supplied/absorbed by the circuit elements.

Problem 5.7: Calculate the average power supplied or absorbed by each element in the
following circuit.

117
5.6 COMPLEX POWER: REAL, REACTIVE AND APPARENT
POWER
We have seen earlier that in a dc circuit, power can be obtained from current to the circuit
and the opposition to current that is resistance R. In a similar way, the power in ac circuit
2
may be obtained from the rms current and its opposition Z and is given by I rms Z . However,
this power is complex and is symbolized by S. Then
S = I rms
2
Z = I rms
2
( R + jX ) = I rms
2
R + jI rms
2
X = P + jQ (5.11)
In equation (5.11), P is average power which is measured in Watt. It is also called real power
which is the capacity of the circuit or circuit element for performing work in a particular
time. Q is defined as the reactive power with unit as VAR (Volt Ampere Reactive). It is clear
from equation (5.11) that Q is +ve for inductive load as because X>0 in this case, while Q is
–ve for capacitive load as because X>0 in this case. The complex power S may also be
expressed by
1 2 1 * VI  Vm I m V I
S = I rms Z = I m Z = II Z =
2
= ( v −  i ) = m m 
2 2 2 2 2
V I V I
= m m cos + j m m sin  = P + jQ (5.12)
2 2
where V=Vmv, I=Imi,  is the phase difference between voltage and current signals
and is equal to (v - i), and I* is the complex conjugate of current phasor I.
In rms quantities, S can be given by:
S = Vrms Irms = Vrms I rms ( v − i ) = Vrms I rms  = Vrms I rms cos + jVrms I rms sin  = P + jQ
The relation among the complex power S, real power P, and reactive power Q are
shown graphically in the above figure.

From the above discussion, we have

P=Real(S) =
1
2
( ) V I
( )
Real VI  = m m cos  = Real VrmsI rms = Vrms I rms cos  = I 2rms R and Q=
2
Imag(S)= Im ag (VI  ) = m m sin  = Im ag (Vrms I rms ) = Vrms I rms sin  = I 2rms X .
1 V I
2 2

118
The amplitude of S, S =|S| = P 2 + Q 2 =VrmsIrms, is known as the apparent power because it
seems that the power should be the product of voltage and current, by analogy with dc
circuits. The apparent power is measured in volt-ampere (VA).

Problem 5.8: Determine the power absorbed by each of the resistors in the following dc
circuit. Resistors are in ohms.
3A

+
+ 6 4
12 V 20 V

Problem 5.9: Determine the unknowns in the following circuit. Impedances are given in Ω.
Vx
I I4
a b
I1 3900 A I2
+ +
Z1 Z2
2000V
0
120 V
I3
c Z3 d

Z1=6450, Z2=4900, Z3=800

Problem 5.10: Determine the ammeter reading, the current rating of the CCCS in the
following circuit.
Z1 Z2
Z1=4Ω, Z2=2Ω
+
Ammeter
3 Ix
12V
dc Ix Im

Problem 5.11: A resistance R=2 kΩ and an inductor L=3 mH are connected in series with a
source es=10 cos (106t+900) V. Find the power absorbed/released by the inductor at t=0 and
t=2 μs.

Problem 5.12: Find the wattmeter reading in the following circuit.

119
5.7 POWER FACTOR

The factor cos  has a significant control on the power absorbed by an impedance; and thus it
is named as power factor and is also obtained from the ratio of P and S, i. e., pf=cos(v - i)=
cos  =P/S. Therefore, power factor of an ac circuit is defined as the ratio of real to the
apparent power and is between 0 and 1.
Note that  in power factor is same as impedance angle. The value of cos  completely
depends on the type of load. The loads, for which cos =1, can convert its total volt-ampere
capacity Vrm s I rm s into nonelectrical power; however, the loads, for which 0≤cos ≤1, can
convert a fraction of its total volt-ampere capacity Vrm s I rm s into nonelectrical power, and
stores the remainder as energy in the magnetic/electric field. The power factor, therefore,
determines the amount of total power (real power plus reactive power, i.e. apparent power)
required to get the real work done. For example, suppose you are trying to cross a river from
point A to point B as shown in the following figure. The shortest path requiring the least
amount of energy would be to swim in a straight line, as shown on the left. However,
suppose water is flowing downward, causing you to swim a little upward toward point C in
order to arrive at point B. The extra energy exerted from C to B would be considered
wasteful. In electrical circuits, this wasteful opposing energy is called reactive energy.

Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time,
and apparent power is the product of current and voltage of a system. Reactive
power is the power that magnetic equipment (transformer, motor and relays)
need to produce the magnetizing flux.

As  may be positive (for inductive load) or negative (for capacitive load), in addition to its
value, pf must said to be lagging or leading. Lagging pf means that current lags the voltage,
which implies an inductive load. On the other hand, leading pf means that current leads the
voltage, which implies a capacitive load.

120
Finally, it is noted that the significance of power factor lies in the fact that power supplying
companies, e.g., Nesco, Desa, Ozopadico supply customers with volt-amperees, but bill them
for watts.

5.7.1 Problems of low power factor

1) Power factor below 1 requires a power generating company to generate more than the
minimum volt-ampere necessary to supply the real power. This increases the
generation and transmission cost.
2) The supply current in the circuit would be higher than the current required at unity
power factor, so the I2R losses in the circuit would be high result in all components of
the system such as generator, conductors, transformers and switchgear would be
increased in size and cost to carry the extra current.
3) High current produces larger voltage drop in conductors and other apparatus. This
results in poor voltage regulation.

5.7.2 Causes of low power factor

Many alternating machines transformer, induction motor etc., absorb reactive power to
produce their magnetic fields which decreases power factor. The reactive power required by
the inductive loads increases the amount of apparent power in the system as shown in the
following figure.

The increase in reactive and apparent power results in a low power factor which increases the
power system losses. As we explained above that the decrease in power factor increases the
voltage drops. However, excessive voltage drops can cause overheating and premature
failure of motors and other inductive electrical equipment.

5.8 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

The customers are connected to the power plants by the transmission lines, and generally,
they require power at a specified voltage. The power company must supply both the power
used by the customer and the power absorbed by the resistance of the transmission line. If
Irms be the current through the line and Rt is the resistance of the transmission line, then the
power absorbed by the line is given by Pt=(Irms)2 Rt. The value of Irms can be obtained from
the customer’s load power P= Vrms I rms cos  and is given by Irms=P/(Vrmscos). Therefore
2 2
 P   P 
Pt=   Rt =   Rt . Increasing pf will reduce the transmission line loss and
 Vrms cos    Vrms pf 

121
hence improves the transmission efficiency. Therefore, the power company always asks the
consumer to keep their load pf as close as 1, its maximum value. Typically, power factors
above 0.95 are considered good and power factors below 0.90 are considered poor. In
Bangladesh, Power companies wants to keep the load pf very close to 0.95, although during
the irrigation session it comes down to about 0.85.
Since most domestic and industrial loads are inductive and operate at a low lagging pf, the
load pf is improved or corrected by deliberately installing a capacitor (usually a synchronous
motor is used in industry) in parallel with the load. The process of increasing the pf without
altering the voltage or current to the original load is known as pf correction or pf
improvement. The process is discussed below with the help of power triangle.
Suppose an inductive load is connected to the source. Let the complex power of the lagging
load be S1 = P + jQ1 , where P=S1 cos1, Q1= S1 sin1=P tan1 and 1=
Q X
tan −1 1 = tan −1 L is the load phase angle, and RL and XL are, respectively, the load
P RL
resistance and reactance . The power triangle is shown in the following figure:

QC
S1 V
S2 Q1 RL +jXL -jXC
1 Q2

2
P
The addition of the capacitive reactance in parallel with the inductive load, decreases the
reactive power from Q1 to Q2= Q1 - QC, as the inductive and capacitive reactive power are
opposite in polarity (inductive reactive power is positive and capacitive reactive power is
negative). This process lowers the pf angle from 1 to 2 and thus pf is increased. The value
of the capacitor can be determined by the eqns. (5.13) or (5.14) given as follows:

Q C = Q1 − Q 2 = P tan1 − P tan 2 = P tan(cos -1 ( pf1 ) − tan(cos -1 ( pf 2 ) 
 
2
V
or, = P tan(cos -1 ( pf1 )) − tan(cos -1 ( pf 2 ))
XC
where V is the load voltage in rms value.
C =

P tan(cos -1 ( pf1 )) − tan(cos -1 ( pf 2 ))  (5.13)
V
2

2
V XL
Again since P = 2
RL and tan(cos -1 ( pf1 )) = tan1 = , eqn. (5.23) can be
ZL RL
reexpresse d by

C=
X L − R L tan(cos -1 ( pf 2 ))  = X L − R L tan(cos -1 ( pf 2 ))  (5.14)
 ZL
2
 (R 2L + X 2L )

122
5.9 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
Some systems – for example, those that transmit information via electric signals – depend on
being able to transfer a maximum amount of power from the source to the load. In section
4.5, we addressed the problem of maximum power transfer to a resistive load. We now
reexamine maximum power transfer in the context of a sinusoidal steady-state circuit shown
in Figure 5.4. Our task is to determine the value of ZL that results in maximum average power
delivered to ZL in the circuit.

Figure 5.4: Finding the maximum average power transfer: (a) circuit with a load, (b) the
Thevenin equivalent.

Assume the Thevenin impedance Zth and the load impedance ZL are, respectively,
Z th = Rth + jX th and Z L = RL + jX L . Then the current I through the load is
VTh VTh
I= = (5.15)
Z th + Z L ( Rth + RL ) + j ( X th + X L )
where Vth is given in phasor form.
Then the average power delivered to the load is
2
1 2 VTh RL / 2
P = I m RL = (5.16)
2 ( Rth + RL ) 2 + ( X th + X L ) 2

In equation (5.16), VTh, Rth, and Xth are fixed quantities, whereas RL and XL are independent
variables. Therefore, to maximize P, we must find the values of RL and XL where ∂P/∂RL and
∂P/∂XL are both zero. From equation (5.16),
− VTh RL ( X L + X th )
2
P
=
 
(5.17)
X L (RL + Rth )2 + ( X L + X th ) 2 2

P VTh
=
2
(R
L + Rth ) + ( X L + X th ) 2 − 2 RL ( RL + Rth )
2

 
(5.18)
RL 2 (RL + Rth ) + ( X L + X th ) 2 2
2

Setting equations (5.17) and (5.18) to zero gives

X L = − X th (5.19)
RL = Rth2 + ( X L + X th ) 2 (5.20)

Combining equations (5.19) and (5.20) leads to the conclusion that for maximum power
transfer, ZL must be so selected that X L = − X th and RL=Rth, i.e.,
Z L = RL + jX L = Rth − jX th = Z th* (5.21)

123
 For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance ZL must be equal to
the complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance Zth, if the load is complex.

This result is known as maximum average power transfer theorem for the sinusoidal steady-
state excitation. Setting X L = − X th and RL=Rth in equation (5.16) gives the maximum
average power in the load ZL as (here Vth is the maximum value of Thevenin’s voltage)
2
VTh
P= (5.22)
8 Rth
However, if the load is purely resistive (XL=0), the condition for maximum power transfer is
obtained from equation (5.20) by setting X L = 0 as
RL = Rth2 + X th = Z th
2
(5.23)

Problem 5.13: For the following circuits, find the load impedance ZL that absorbs the
maximum average power; also calculate that maximum average power.

5.10 CONSERVATION OF AC POWER

The principle of conservation of power can apply to both dc and ac circuits. To examine this
let us consider the circuit in Figure 5.5(a), where the impedances Z1 and Z2 are connected in
parallel across an ac voltage source V. KCL gives I=I1+I2.

Figure 5.5: An ac voltage source supplied loads connected in (a) parallel, (b) series.

The complex power supplied by the source is

S=VI*=V(I*1+ I*2)=VI*1+VI*2=S1+S2 (5.24)

124
where S1 and S2 denote the complex powers delivered to loads Z1 and Z2, respectively; and
the voltage and currents are given in rms values.
If the loads are connected in series as is shown in Figure 5.5(b), KVL yields gives V=V1+V2.
Then, the power supplied by the source is

S=VI*= (V1+ V2) I*=V1I*+V2I*=S1+S2 (5.25)

From equations (5.24) and (5.25), we conclude that whether the loads are connected in series
or in parallel, the total power supplied by the source equals the total power absorbed by the
load. Thus in general,

S=S1+ S2+ S3+……………+ SN. (5.26)

This means that the total complex power in a circuit is the sum of the complex powers of the
individual components. This is also true of real power and reactive power, but not true of
apparent power. This expresses the principle of conservation of ac power:

The complex, real, and reactive powers of the sources equal the respective sums
of the complex, real and reactive powers of the individual loads.

Problem 5.14: Find the pf of the source and vs(t), if f=50Hz. (Answer: pf=0.9457 lagging;
vs(t)=765.94cos(314t-7.770)V.)

Problem 5.15: A load operates at 20 kW, 0.8 pf lagging. The load voltage is 22000 V rms
at 50Hz. The impedance of the line is (0.09+j0.3). Determine the voltage and pf at the input
to the line.

Answer: 249.534.860, 0.75 lagging.

Problem 5.16: Find the value of parallel capacitance needed to correct a load of 140 kVAR
at 0.85 lagging pf to unity. Assume that the load is supplied by a 110 V (rms), 50 Hz line.
(Answer: 36.83 mF)

125
Problem 5.17: Find the value of capacity to be connected in parallel with the load in the
following figure to make the source pf 0.95 leading, f=60 Hz. (Answer: 546.2 F)

Problem 5.18: A 20km, 34.5 kV, 50 Hz transmission line has a series impedance of
Z=0.19+j0.34 /km. The load at the receiving end absorbs 10 MVA at 33 kV. Calculate the
sending end voltage for a load pf of 0.9 lagging and also for a load pf of 0.9 leading.

SUMMARY
1) The instantaneous power of a circuit is a sinusoidal wave of twice the excitation
frequency.
2) A purely resistive load absorbs power at all times, while a reactive load (purely inductive
or capacitive) absorbs zero average power.
3) The average power absorbed by a generalized load is given by
1
  V I
P = Real VI  = m m cos( v −  i ) .
2 2
t 2
1
4) The rms value of a time varying signal is given by Vrms = 
(t 2 − t1 ) t1
v 2 (t )dt .

t
2
1
(t2 − t1 ) t1
5) The average value of a time varying signal is given by X av = x(t )dt .

6) The form factor and peak/crest factor of a sinusoidal signal are, respectively, 1.11 and
1.414.
VI  Vm I m
7) The complex power is S = = ( v − i ) = S = S cos + jS sin  = P + jQ ,
2 2
where S is the apparent power; P and Q are, respectively, real and reactive power.
8) In a network, the complex, real, and reactive powers of the sources equal the respective
sums of the complex, real and reactive powers of the individual loads.
9) The power factor is cos(v - i) and it determines the amount of total power (apparent
power) required to get the real work done.
10) The higher value of power factor increases transmission efficiency.
11) Since most domestic and industrial loads are inductive, the load pf is improved or
corrected by installing a capacitor (usually a synchronous motor is used in industry) in
parallel with the load. The process of increasing the pf without altering the voltage or
current to the original load is known as pf correction/improvement.
12) For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance ZL must be equal to the
complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance Zth, of the rest circuit.

126
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
5.1 Derive the equation of instantaneous power of a generalized impedance Z.
5.2 Show that the inductor/capacitor dono’t absorbe real power.
5.3 Show that the resistive load always absorbe real power.
5.4 Show that a generalized load absorbe real power given by P=VI cos , where V and I
are the rms value of the voltage and current of the load, and  is the phase difference
between the voltage and current.
5.5 What are complex, apparent, real, and reactive powers? Show the complex power in
terms of real and reactive powers by a power triangle.
5.6 Show that for maximum average power transfer ZL= Z*th, where the symbols have their
usual meanings.
5.7 Explain that the power transmission is less efficient at low pf load.
5.8 How do we improve the power factor a the transmission system?
5.9 Determine the load impedance required to be connected across the a-b terminals of the
networks of Problem 3.4 to achive maximum power at the load.
5.10 To what value should the load impedance ZLD be adjusted so that it will receive
maximum power from the voltage source in the following circuit.

127
CHAPTER 6

Resonance

✓ CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

1) Understand the variable-frequency performance of the basic circuit elements:

R, L, and C
2) Be enable to analyze series and parallel resonant circuits

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Ac circuits containing the energy storage devices L and C sometimes exhibit a distinctive
behavior. It follows from the fact that inductance and capacitance have dual ac
characteristics. Depending on frequency, either XL or XC may dominate the circuit. However,
at a particular frequency XL and XC may cancel each other out, making a series LC
combination to act as a short circuit, and a parallel LC combination as an open. The pf of
this circuit in this condition is, therefore, become 1. This circuit is then called resonant
circuit. They have wide applications in several areas of science and engineering. Resonant
circuits are useful for constructing filters/frequency selective circuits having the ability to
pass to the output only those input signals that reside in a desired range of frequencies. Many
devices that communicate via electric signals, such as telephones, radios, TVs, and satellites,
employ this type of frequency selective circuits.

6.2 VARIABLE FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF PASSIVE ELEMENTS

In this section, we consider the variable frequency response of basic circuit elements such as
resistor, inductor, and capacitor.
The frequency domain impedance of resistor, inductor, and capacitor are shown in Figure
6.1(a), (b), and (c).

128
Figure 6.1: Frequency dependent impedance of R, L, and C.

6.3 SERIES RESONANCE

Resonance is a condition in an ac RLC series circuit in which the inductive and capacitive
reactance are equal in magnitude, thereby resulting in purely resistive impedance.
Consider the following circuit shown in Figure 6.2. The input impedance of this circuit is
given by

Figure 6.2: Series resonant circuit.

1
Z = R + j (L − ). (6.1)
C
Since at resonance, the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal, which causes the
imaginary part of the impedance becomes zero, i.e.
1
L = (6.2)
C
The value of =0 that satisfies the condition given in equation (6.2) is

129
 1 1 1
0 =  f0 = (6.3)
LC 2 LC
This frequency f0, at which the impedance of the circuit is purely real, is called the resonant
frequency, and the circuit itself at this frequency is said to be in resonance.
Figure 6.3 illustrates the frequency response of the series RLC circuit.

Figure 6.3: Frequency response of a series RLC circuit.

At low frequencies the impedance of the RLC series circuit is dominated by the capacitive
term, and at high frequencies the impedance is dominated by the inductive term.
The current in a RLC series circuit is given by
VS Vm
I = = . (6.4)
Z  1 
2
R 2 +  L − 
 C 
The magnitude of current in a series RLC circuit as a function of  is shown in Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4: The magnitude of current in a series resonant circuit as the function of frequency.

The magnitude of current is maximum, |I|=Vm/R, at the resonance frequency 0, and the
average power dissipated in the circuit at resonance is
2
1 2 1  Vm 
P(0 ) = I R=   R. (6.5)
2 res 2 R 

130
At certain frequencies =1, 2, the dissipated power is half the maximum value (power at
resonance) which occurs when |I|=|I|res/ 2 =Vm/( 2 R) as suggested by equation (6.5).
P(0 ) 1  Vm 
2

P(1 or 2 ) = =   R. (6.6)
2 2  2R 
Here, 1 and 2 are called the half-power frequencies. They are obtained by setting
Z = 2 R in equation (6.4). Therefore,

2 2
 1  2  1 
R +  L −
2
 = 2 R → R +  L −  = 2R
2

 C   C 
2
 1 
or,  L −  =R
2

 C 
Now to solve the equation for lower half-power frequency 1, we have to use the following
equation, because at this frequency the capacitive reactance is higher in magnitude in
comparison to the inductive reactance as illustrated in Figure 6.3; therefore
 1 
 − 1 L  = R
 1C 
R 1
 12 + 1 − =0
L LC
2
R  R  1
 1 = − +   + (6.7a)
2L  2L  LC
Solution for 2, can be obtained from the following equation, because at this frequency the
inductive reactance is higher in magnitude in comparison to the capacitive reactance as
illustrated in Figure 6.3; therefore
 1 
  2 L − −  = R
 2C 
R 1
  22 − 2 − =0
L LC
2
R  R 1
2 = +   + (6.7b)
2L  2L  LC

From equations (6.3) and (6.7), 0 = 12 showing that the resonant frequency is the
geometric mean of half-power frequencies. The difference between the two half-power
frequencies is defined by half-power bandwidth B and is given by
B=2-1=R/L. (6.8)
The “sharpness” of the resonance in a resonant circuit is measured quantitatively by the
quality factor Q. At resonance, the reactive energy in the circuit oscillates between the
inductor and the capacitor. The factor relates the maximum or peak energy stored to the
energy dissipated in the circuit per cycle of oscillation:

131
 Peak energy stored in the circuit I 2 L / 2 0 L
Q = 2 = 2 m2 =
Energy dissipated by the circuit in one period at resonance ImR / 2 R
f0
I m2 L / 2 0 L
 Q = 2 = (6.9)
I m2 R / 2 R
f0
The Q can also be expressed as
1 1 L
Q= = . (6.10)
 0 RC R C
Note that the quality factor is dimensionless. The relationship between the bandwidth B and
the quality factor Q is obtained by substituting equation (6.9) in equation (6.8)
0
B= . (6.11)
Q
The manner in which the quality factor Q affects the frequency selectivity of the network is
graphically illustrated in Figure 6.5.

Q3>Q2>Q1
Or,
R3<R2<R1

Figure 6.5: Effect of Q and R on the bandwidth.

If the band of frequencies to be selected or rejected is narrow, the value of Q of the resonant
circuit must be high. The same figure can be used to explain the effect of R on the bandwidth
B. Lower value of R results high Q and consequently low bandwidth B.
Series resonance can also be obtained by varying L for a given  and C or by varying C for a
given  and L. The values of L and C that takes the circuit in resonance can be determined
from equation (6.2).
Summary on resonance in a series RLC circuit:
1) The circuit impedance is purely resistive, thus Z=R. In other words, the LC series
combination acts like a short circuit, and the entire voltage is across R.
2) The supply voltage VS and the current I through the source are in phase, so that the power
factor is unity.
3) The magnitude of the impedance is minimum and, therefore, the current is maximum for
a given supply voltage.

132
4) The voltages across the inductor (VL=QVm) and capacitor (VC=QVm) can be much more
than the source voltage.

Finally, it is noted that a resonant circuit is characterized by related parameters: the two half-
power frequencies 1 and 2, the resonant frequency 0, the bandwidth B, and the quality
factor Q. The half-power frequencies can be expressed in terms of Q as shown in the
following.

6.4 VR, VL, AND VC IN A SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT

The variation of the magnitude of voltages across the circuit elements R, L, and C, and the
current I in the series resonant circuit with the variation of frequency are plotted in Figure
6.6. Note that the VR curve has the same shape as the I curve and its maximum value is equal
to the maximum magnitude of the supply voltage. The VC curve builds up slowly from Vm
since the capacitor acts as open circuit at zero frequency. As the frequency increases, the
capacitive reactance becomes smaller, but I increases at a rate faster than that at which X C
drops. As a result, VC rises and will continue to rise due to quickly rising current, until the
frequency nears resonance. As it approaches the resonant condition, the rate of decrease of
XC will overcome the rate of change of I, and VC will start to drop. The maximum magnitude
of VC will occur at a frequency just before resonance. After resonance, both VC and I drop in
magnitude.

Figure 6.6: Current and voltages in a series resonance circuit versus frequency curves.

133
The VL curve increases steadily from zero to the resonant frequency since both the inductive
reactance XL and I increases over this frequency range. At resonance, I is maximum, but XL
is still rising. Although, I decreases after resonance, but the rate of increase of XL dominates
over the rate of decrease of I close to the resonance. Therefore, VL will reach to its maximum
value after resonance. After reaching to its maximum value, the voltage VL will drop toward
Vm since the drop in I will overcome the rise in XL. It approaches Vm because XL will
eventually be infinite, and XC will be zero.
The frequencies at which VC and VL will reach maximum can be determined by
differentiating the equations of VC and VL, with respect to frequency and solve for frequency
by setting them to zero.
 
 
Vm (1 C ) VC   Vm (1 C ) 
VC =  =  =0
 
2    
2

R 2 +  L −
1
  R 2 +  L − 1
 
  C  
   C  
R 2C
C max = 0 1 −
2L
 
 
Vm (L ) VL   Vm (L ) 
VL =  =  =0
2   2 
 1   R 2 +  L − 1  
R 2 +  L −  
 C  
  C  
0
L max =
R 2C
1−
2L
Here Cmax and Lmax are, respectively, the frequency for which VC and VL reach the
maximum values. The maximum values of VC and VL are found to be equal and are given by

Vm
V L max = VC max =
R2
RC  02
− 2
4L
The students are asked to derive the equations of VLmax and VCmax.

Example 6.1: A coil having a resistance of 10 and an inductance of 125 mH is connected
in series with a 60 F capacitor across a 120 V (rms) supply. At what frequency does
resonance occur? Also determine the quality factor of the coil and the voltage across the
inductor at resonance.
1 1
Solution: The resonant frequency, f 0 = = = 58.12 Hz
2 LC 2 125  60  10− 9
0 L 2f 0 L 2  58.12 125 10−3
Quality factor, Q = = = = 4.56
R R 10

134
The voltage across the inductor is given by
VL=(V/R)0L=QV=4.56120=547.2 V (rms).

Problem 6.1: A series resonant circuit has R=4 and L=25 mH. (a) Calculate C that will
produce a quality factor of 50. (b) Find 1, 2, and B.
Problem 6.2: Design a series resonant circuit with 0=40 rad/s and B=10 rad/s.
Problem 6.3: For the following network, determine the resonant frequency 0 and the
frequency m at which the voltage across C is maximum for R=50, L=50 mH, and C=5 F.
Also determine the pf of the circuit at m.

6.5 PARALLEL RESONANCE

A simple parallel resonant circuit is shown in Figure 6.7. The voltage V in the following
circuit is
I I
V= = .
Y 1/ R + j (C − 1/ L)

Figure 6.7: A Parallel resonant circuit.

The circuit will be in resonance, i.e., the voltage V will be in phase with the current I, if and
only if C − 1/ L = 0 . This condition results in the resonant frequency
1 1 1
0 =  f0 = . (6.12)
LC 2 LC
Figure 6.8 illustrates the frequency response of the parallel RLC circuit.

Figure 6.8: Frequency response of the parallel RLC circuit.

135
The magnitude of the voltage |V|, given in the following, as a function of frequency in a
parallel RLC circuit is shown in Figure 6.9.
Im
V = (6.13)
(1/ R) 2 + (C − 1/ L) 2

Figure 6.9: Voltage amplitude versus frequency for the parallel resonant circuit.

The half-power frequencies are obtained by setting |Y| equal to 2 / R, and writing
2 2
(1 / R) 2 + (C − 1 / L) 2 =  (1 / R) 2 + (C − 1 / L) 2 =
R R2
1
 (C − 1 / L) 2 = (6.14)
R2
Now to solve the above equation for lower half-power frequency 1, we have to use the
following equation, because at this frequency the capacitive term is smaller in magnitude in
comparison to the inductive term as illustrated in Figure 6.8; therefore
1
(1 / 1 L − 1C ) =
R
1 1
 12 + 1 − =0
RC LC
2
1  1  1
 1 = − +   + (6.15a)
2 RC  2 RC  LC
Solution for 2, can be obtained from the following equation, because at this frequency the
capacitive term is higher in magnitude in comparison to the inductive term as illustrated in
Figure 6.8; therefore
 1  1 1 1
  2 C − −  =   22 − 2 − =0
 2 L  R RC LC
2
1  1  1
2 = +   + (6.15b)
2 RC  2 RC  LC

The half-power bandwidth B and the quality factor Q for the parallel resonant circuit given in
Figure 6.7 are, therefore, given by-

136
 (6.16)

(6.17)

Notice that at resonance, the parallel LC combination acts like an open circuit, so that the
entire current flows through R. Also, the inductor and capacitor current can be much more
than the source current at resonance.
A practical parallel circuit is shown in Figure 6.10. The resistor R in the circuit is due to the
winding resistance of the coil.

Figure 6.10: A practical parallel resonant circuit.

The characteristic behavior of a parallel resonant circuit is analyzed by calculating its

admittance Y; the circuit will be in resonance if the imaginary part of Y, the susceptance,
becomes zero. The input admittance Y of the above circuit
1 1 ( R − jL) 1
Y = jC + + = jC + +
R + jL RS ( R + jL)( R − jL) RS
( R − jL) 1 1 R  L 
= jC + + = + 2 + j C − 2 
2 
R + (L)
2 2
RS RS R + (L) 2
 R + (L) 

The frequency for the given R, L, and C at which the resonance in the above circuit occurs is,
therefore, obtained from
  L 
 
 0C − 2
0
=0
 R + ( L) 2 
 0 
1 R2 1 1 R2
 = −  f = − (6.18)
0 LC L2 0 2 LC L2

The above equation shows that, the resonance in the parallel circuit shown in Figure 6.10 can
also be obtained by varying R, L, and C independently for a given frequency .
At resonance, the admittance of the above circuit is
1 R
Y = Y0 = + 2
RS R + (0 L) 2
However,

137
 L
 02 L2 = − R 2  R 2 +  02 L2 = L / C
C
1 RC
 Y0 = + .
RS L

Example 6.2: Determine the resonant angular frequency and input impedance of the
following circuit at resonance.

Solution: The admittance of the above circuit is:

1 ( R − jL)
Y = jC + = jC +
R + jL ( R + jL)( R − jL)
( R − jL) R  L 
= jC + = 2 + j  C − 2 
2 
R + (L)
2 2
R + (L) 2
 R + (L) 
The circuit will resonate if
 L 
2
1 R
 C − 2  = 0  0 =
2 
−  (i)
 R + (L)  LC  L 
Therefore, at resonance
R
Y = Y0 = 2 (ii)
R + (0 L) 2
L
From (i) we have (0 L) 2 = − R 2 . Now from (ii) we obtain
C
RC L
Y0 = which yields Z 0 = .
L RC

Problem 6.4: Given a series circuit with R=2 , L=2 mH, and C=5 F. Determine the
resonant frequency, the quality factor, and the bandwidth for the circuit. What will be the
new Q and BW if R is changed from 2 to 0.2.

Problem 6.5: Determine R, L, and C of a series circuit, if the resonant frequency and BW of
the circuit are 1000 rad/sec and 100 rad/sec, respectively (we have to choose at least one of
the parameters to determine the others).

Problem 6.6: A series RLC circuit resonates at 1000 rad/sec. If C=20F, and it is known that
the impedance at resonance is 2.4 , compute L, Q, and BW.

Problem 6.7: Determine the value of C in the following network for the circuit to be in
resonance.

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Problem 6.8: The tuner circuit of an AM radio is portrayed in the following figure. Given
that L=1H, what must be the range of C to have the resonant frequency adjustable from one
end of the AM band to another? (The frequency range for AM broadcasting is 540 to 1600
kHz.

Answer: 9.9 nF to 86.9 nF.

Problem 6.9: For an FM radio receiver, the incoming wave is in the frequency range from 88
to 108 MHz. The tuner circuit is a parallel RLC circuit with a 4H coil. Calculate the range
of the variable capacitor necessary to cover the entire band.
Answer: 0.543 pF to 0.818 pF.

Problem 6.10: The frequency of the source, in the following circuit, is adjusted until i is in
phase with v. If the peak value of v is 10V, find that angular frequency as well as the peak
value of i at that frequency.

Problem 6.11: If =100 krad/s in the following circuit, find Zs to cause V to be in phase
with I.

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SUMMARY
1) Occurrence of resonance requires the presence of L and C in a circuit.
2) At resonance, the impedance of the circuit becomes purely resistive.
3) The impedance in a series circuit becomes smallest at resonance and it comes only from
the resistance of the circuit.
4) The impedance in a parallel circuit becomes largest at resonance.
5) The power factor at resonance is one.
1 1
6) The resonant frequency of a series RLC circuit is f 0 = .
2 LC
7) The resonant frequency of parallel connected pure R, L, and C circuit is same to that of
1 1
series circuit, i.e, f 0 = .
2 LC
8) The half power frequencies (1, 2) are those at which the power dissipated by the circuit
is one half of that dissipated at the resonant frequency.
9) The bandwidth of a resonant circuit is the frequency band between half-power
frequencies: B=2- 1.
10) The quality factor Q is a measure of the sharpness of the resonance peak. It is given by
Q=0/B.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
6.1 What is resonance?
6.2 Explain the characteristics of series/parallel resonant circuit.
6.3 What are half-power frequencies?
6.4 Determine the half-power frequencies of series/parallel resonant circuit.
6.5 What is bandwidth?
6.6 Determine the bandwidth of series/parallel resonant circuit.
6.7 What do you mean by quality factor of a coil?
6.8 Determine the quality factor of series/parallel resonant circuit.
6.9 Determine the equation of frequency at which the voltage across C(L) in a series RLC
circuit is maximum.

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CHAPTER 7

Magnetic Circuit

✓ CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

1) Understand the use of magnetic circuit in real life

2) Understand the behavior of magnetic material
3) Know the basic concepts of magnetic circuits
4) Know how to draw the equivalent electrical circuit for a given magnetic circuit
5) Understand the methods of solving magnetic circuit
6) Understand how to deal with a non-linear magnetic circuit using B-H
Characteristic of the magnetic material

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Magnetism plays an integral part in almost every electrical device used today in industry,
research, or at home. Practically all transformers and electrical machinery such as generators,
motors, circuit breakers, televisions, computers, tape recorders, telephones, etc., use magnetic
material for shaping and directing the magnetic fields which act as the medium for
transferring and converting energy. Thus it is important to analyze and describe magnetic
field quantities for understanding these devices.

7.2 MAGNETIC MATERIALS

The magnetic materials are classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic
depending on their magnetic behavior. Diamagnetic materials have a very weak and negative
susceptibility to external magnetic field. In addition, diamagnetic material does not retain
magnetic properties when the external field is withdrawn. Most elements in the periodic
table, including copper, gold, antimony, bismuth, silver, lead, silicon, mercury, water, air,
hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon graphite are diamagnetic. Diamagnetic materials are slightly
repelled by the magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials are weakly attracted to magnets and
have a small positive susceptibility to magnetic fields. Paramagnetic materials also do not
retain magnetic properties when the external field is removed. These are sensitive to
temperature and materials like aluminium, uranium and platinum become more magnetic
when their temperature reduces. Other paramagnetic materials include magnesium, titanium,
tungsten, molybdenum, and lithium. Ferromagnetic materials have a large and positive
susceptibility to an external magnetic field. They exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields
and are able to retain their magnetic properties after the external field has been removed.
Iron, nickel, and cobalt are examples of ferromagnetic materials and usually used to fabricate
permanent magnets due to the ability to retain their magnetism properties for long time. In
electrical machines, magnetic field is produced by passing an electrical current through coils
wound on ferromagnetic materials.

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7.3 MAGNETIC FIELDS
In the region surrounding a permanent magnet there exist a magnetic field, which is
represented by magnetic flux lines. Unlike electric flux lines, magnetic flux lines do not have
origin or terminating points but exist in continuous loops, as shown in Figure 7.1. The
symbol for magnetic flux is  (phi).

Figure 7.1: Magnetic field due to a permanent magnet.

Magnetic field is also present around every current carrying wire. Its direction is found
simply by using a method, commonly known as the right-hand rule. It states that
If the conductor is held with the right hand with the thumb indicating the
direction of current in the conductor then, the fingertips will indicate the
direction of the magnetic flux or vice versa.

The magnetic field from a straight conductor and a current carrying coil are shown in Figure
7.2.

Figure 7.2: Magnetic field (a) due to a straight current carrying conductor, (b) due to a
current carrying coil.

Although the magnetic flux lines have no physical existence, they do form a very convenient
and useful basis for explaining various magnetic effects and to calculate the magnitudes of
various magnetic quantities.

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7.4 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
Each magnetic circuit shown in Figure 7.3 is an arrangement of ferromagnetic materials
called a core that forms a path to contain and guide the magnetic flux in a specific direction.
The complete closed path followed by any group of magnetic flux lines is referred as
magnetic circuit. Note that the magnetic flux always takes the shortest path across an air gap.

Figure 7.3: Examples of magnetic circuits.

Magnetomotive Force

In the magnetic circuit, the driving force, analogous to voltage in an electrical circuit, is
called the magnetomotive force (mmf) that causes a magnetic field to appear in the
corresponding magnetic circuits. The mmf is created by wrapping N turns of wire, carrying
current i, around a magnetic core. By definition, the mmf is currentturns, and has units of
ampere-turns.

F (mmf)= Ni (ampere-turns) (7.1)

The response to that mmf is creation of magnetic flux . The magnetic flux is proportional to
the mmf, the driving force, and inversely proportional to a quantity called reluctance  (unit:
ampere-turns/Wb or simply At/Wb), which is analogous to electrical resistance, resulting in
the “Ohm’s law” of magnetic circuits given by

= F/ or F= (7.2)

Reluctance depends on the dimensions of the core as well as its materials:

=l/(A) (7.3)
Here the parameter  is the material’s permeability that indicates how readily the core
material accepts the magnetic flux in it. The permeability of the free space is 0=4π10-7
Wb/At-m. Oftentimes, materials are characterized by their relative permeability, r (defined
by the ratio of permeability of that material to that of free space), which for ferromagnetic
material may be in the range of hundreds to hundreds of thousands. In equation (7.3), l is the
mean path length for the magnetic flux and A is the area through flux is passing. As will be

143
shown later, however, the relative permeability is not a constant for a given material. It varies
with the magnetic field intensity H.

Magnetic Field Intensity

Magnetic field intensity (sometimes called magnetizing force) is defined as the

magnetomotive force per unit length of the magnetic circuit, and it may vary from point to
point throughout the magnetic circuit. With N turns of wire carrying current i, the mmf
created in the circuit is Ni ampere-turns. If, now, l representing the mean path length for the
magnetic flux, the magnetic field intensity H is therefore
Ni
H= At/m (7.4)
l
It is noted that H is independent of the type of core material.
With the help of equations (7.1) to (7.4), we have
Ni
H= =/l=/(A)=B/
l
B=H (7.5)

In SI system of units, magnetic flux is measured in webers. The number of flux lines per unit
area (/A) is called the flux density, is denoted by B, and is measured in teslas (1 tesla (T)=1
Wb/m2).
The basis of equation (7.4) is the Ampere circuital law which is stated as
The magnetic field intensity H around a closed path is equal to the total current passing
through the surface enclosed by the path as is given by

 H  dl = Ni (7.6)

Hysteresis

The magnetization behavior of the ferromagnetic materials is described by the B-H curve
(hysteresis loop) as shown in Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4: Hysteresis loop.

144
The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux density B of a ferromagnetic material
while the magnetic field intensity (magnetizing force) H is changed. A ferromagnetic
material that has never been previously magnetized or has been thoroughly demagnetized
will follow the dashed line as H is increased and reached to point “a” where an additional
increase in H will produce very little increase in B. At this point, the material is said to reach
the magnetic saturation. If now, H is reduced down to zero, the curve will move from point
“a” to point “b”. At this point, it can be seen that some magnetic flux remains in the material
even though the magnetizing force H is zero. This is referred to as the point of retentivity and
indicates the level of residual magnetism in the material. As the magnetizing force is
reversed, the curve moves to point “c”, where the flux has been reduced to zero. This is
called the point of coercivity. The reversed magnetizing force required to remove the residual
magnetism from the material is called the coercive force or coercivity of the material. As the
magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again become
magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction as at point “d”. Reducing H to zero
brings the curve to point “e”. It will have a level of residual magnetism equal to that achieved
in the other direction. Increasing H back in the positive direction will return B to zero. Notice
that the curve did not return to the origin because some force is required to remove the
residual magnetism. Further increase in H brings the curve from point “f” to point to point
“a” where it completes the loop. The complete close loop abcdefa is called as a hysteresis
loop.
Magnetization nature of ferromagnetic material can be explained as follows: Ferromagnetic
materials (like iron) are composed of microscopic regions called magnetic domains, that act
like tiny permanent magnets and that can change their direction of magnetization. Before an
external magnetic field is applied to the material, the domains' magnetic fields are oriented in
random directions, effectively cancelling each other out, so the net external magnetic field is
negligibly small. When an external magnetizing field H is applied to the material, it
penetrates the material and aligns the domains, causing their tiny magnetic fields to turn and
align parallel to the external field, adding together to create a large magnetic field B which
extends out from the material. This is called magnetization. The stronger the external
magnetic field H, the more the domains align, yielding a higher magnetic flux density B.
Eventually, at a certain external magnetic field, the domain walls have moved as far as they
can, and the domains are as aligned as the crystal structure allows them to be, so there is
negligible change in the domain structure on increasing the external magnetic field above
this. The magnetization remains nearly constant, and is said to have saturated.

Figure 7.5: Hysteresis loop for (a) Hard and (b) Soft material.

145
Hard materials (usually used in electrical machines) have wider hysteresis loops as compared
to that of soft magnetic materials (usually used in making transformer core) as shown in
Figure 7.5. The hard magnetic materials have the ability to retain its magnetic property for a
longer time in comparison to soft materials. Alloys which are composed of iron, cobalt and
aluminium are generally acted as hard magnetic materials. On the other hand, pure iron,
silicon iron alloys, nickel iron alloys, sheet steel, etc., are example of soft magnetic material.

From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties, as explained in the
following, of a material can be determined:
1) Retentivity: It is a material’s ability to retain a certain amount of residual magnetic field
when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation. The value of B at point
“b” on the hysteresis curve).
2) Residual flux density: The magnetic flux density that remains in a material when the
magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual flux density and retentivity are the same
when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of
residual flux density may be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force
did not reach the saturation level.
3) Coercive force: The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a
magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point “c”
on the hysteresis curve).
4) Permeability, : A property of a material that describes the ease with which a magnetic
flux is established in the component.
5) Reluctance: It is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment
of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit.

The magnetization curve for Sheet steel, Cast steel, and Cast iron are shown in Appendix C.

7.5 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Some analogous electric and magnetic quantities are listed in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1: Analogous Electric and Magnetic Circuit Quantities

The differences between electric and magnetic circuits are as follows:

1) The path of the magnetic flux flows is perpendicular to the current flows in the circuit. In
other words, the directions of B and J are perpendicular.

146
2) For a given temperature, electric resistance is constant and does not depend on current
density. However, the magnetic reluctance depends on magnetic field intensity and flux
density since the permeability is not constant.
3) Current flowing in an electrical circuit involves dissipation of energy, but for magnetic
circuit, energy is needed to generate magnetic flux.

Assumptions in magnetic circuit analyses

1. Leakage flux and Fringing effect

Strictly speaking all the flux produced by the mmf will not be confined to the core. There
will be some flux lines which will complete their paths largely through the air as depicted
in the following figure. Since the reluctance of air is much higher compared to that of the
core, the leakage flux produced is rather small. In our discussion on magnetic circuit
here, we shall neglect leakage flux and assume all the flux produced will be confined to
the core only.

In the above magnetic circuit, an air gap is present. For an exciting current, the flux lines
produced are shown. These flux lines cross the air gap from the top surface of the core to
the bottom surface of the core. So the upper surface behaves like a north pole and the
bottom surface like a south pole. Thus all the flux lines will not be vertical and confined
to the core face area alone. Some lines of force in fact will reach the bottom surface via
bulged out curved paths are called fringing flux and the phenomenon is called fringing
effect. Obviously, the effect of fringing will be smaller if the air gap is quite small. Effect
of fringing will be appreciable if the air gap length is more. In short the effect of fringing
is to make flux density in the air gap a bit less than in the core as in the air same amount
of flux is spread over an area which is greater than the core sectional area. Unless
otherwise specified, we shall neglect the fringing effect in our analyses. However, effect
of fringing sometimes taken into account by considering the effective area in air to about
10 to 12% higher than the core area.

2. The length of the flux path

In the practical magnetic circuit, the thicknesses over which the flux lines are spread are
much smaller compared to the overall dimensions of the core. Under this condition we
shall not make great mistake if we calculate H at the middle of the core and take this to
be H everywhere within the core. The length of the flux path corresponding to the mean
length is approximated to calculate the total flux produced within the core easily with less
error.

147
Magnetic circuits

A series magnetic circuit and its electrical equivalent are shown in the following.

A series magnetic circuit with an air gap in the core and its electrical analogous is shown in
the following.

As the same flux is passing through the material and air gap, we have from ACL
H i li + H g l g = NI
 

0 r A
li +
0 A
( )
l g = NI   Ri + R g = NI   =
(
NI
Ri + R g )
So as expected, these two reluctances are connected in series. In fact, for series magnetic
circuit having different reluctance segments, total reluctance will be the sum of individual
reluctances.

Example 7.1: Consider a rectangular cross-sectional area of the toroidal magnetic core as
shown in the following figure with r1=3.5 cm, r2=4 cm, and a height of 1 cm. Assume
=20000 and Bsat=0.3 T. Determine (a) Core flux; (b) Mmf required to produce this flux.

148
Solution: (a) The Cross-sectional area of the core, A=(r2-r1)h=5010-6 m2. Therefore core
flux, =BA=1510-6Wb.
(b) mmf=Hl=Bl/.
Now l=2r=2(r2+ r1)/2=23.5610-2m.
mmf= Bl/=28.125 At.

Problem 7.1: Determine I in the following magnetic circuit to establish a flux of 0.7510-4
Wb in the core.

Answer:

Example 7.2: For the toroidal-shaped magnetic circuit of Fig. X3.12, the outside diameter
D2 = 15 cm , the inside diameter D1 = 10 cm , the thickness t = 5 cm , and the air gap length
 = 1 mm . If  = 1 mWb and the core is solid ferromagnetic material with the B-H
characteristic given below, find the current flowing in the 200-turn coil. Neglect leakage and
fringing.

The core flux density is

  0.001
Bc = = = = 0.8 T
Ac D2 − D1 t 0.15 − 0.10 0.05
( )
2 2
From given B-H curve, H c = 135 A-t / m .
 D + D2   0.15 + 0.10 
Core length, c =  1  − =   − 0.001 = 0.392 m
 2   2 

149
F c = Hc c = 135 ( 0.392 ) = 52.88 A-t

F g = H g =
Bg
=
( 0.8)( 0.001) = 636.62 A-t
o 4  10−7

Fc + F g 52.88 + 636.62
I= = = 3.45 A
N 200

Problem 7.2: Determine the value of I required establishing a magnetic flux of =1.5410-4
Wb in the section of the core indicated in the following figure. The relative permeability for
the steel at region bcde, be, and efab are 2=4972, 1=4821, and T=2426, respectively.

Answer: 1.76 A

150
Problem 7.3: The core of the following magnetic circuit is made of cast steel. Calculate the
current I that needed to establish a flux of g=610-3Wb at the air gap if fringing field is
neglected.

Core Material: Cast steel, Cross-sectional area

throughout: 210-2m2, lg= lbc=0.2510-3m, g=3,
lab=lcd=0.25m, lda=0.20m, ldea=0.35m.

Answer: 4.65 A

Problem 7.4: The core of the magnetic device as shown in the following figure is made of
cast-iron and it is symmetrical both left and right arms. Find the current I that to establish a
flux of 30 Wb at the right arm of the core. (Use magnetization curve is used to solve the
problem).

Answer: 6.415 A
Problem 7.5: Calculate the magnetic flux  for the magnetic circuit.

Answer:

151
Example:

152
153
Problem 7.6: In the following magnetic circuit, the magnetic material has a square cross-
sectional area of 4 cm2. Find the air-gap flux density. Assume the permeability of the
ferromagnetic material to be =1000 0. Also neglect leakage and fringing effect.

Problem 7.7: Assume the relative permeability of the magnetic material to be 1000 and the
cross-sectional area to be the same throughout. Determine the current needed in the coil to
produce a flux density of 1 T in the center limb, if the excitation coil has 500 turns.

154
Problem 7.8: In the following magnetic circuit, the center leg has the same cross-sectional
area as each of the outer legs. The coil has 400 turns. The permeability of iron may be
assumed to be infinite. If the air-gap flux density in the left leg is 1.2 T, find (a) the air-gap
flux density in the right leg (b) the flux density in the center leg and (c) the current needed in
the coil.

SUMMARY
1) Magnetic circuit is essential in developing most electrical devices such as motor,
generator, transformer etc.
2) The analysis of magnetic circuit is highly dependable on Ampere’s circuital law.
3) Ampere’s circuital law states that the magnetic flux intensity H around a closed path is
equal to the total current passing through the surface enclosed by the path as is given by
 H  dl = Ni

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
7.1 What is magnetomotive force?
7.2 What do you mean by reluctance of a magnetic material?
7.3 What are retentivity, coercive force, and residual magnetism?
7.4 Explain ampere’s circuital law.
7.5 What is hysterisis loop?
7.6 Explain the B-H curve of ferromagnetic material in brief.
7.7 Explain the saturation mechanism in a ferromagnetic material in brief.
7.8 How does the B-H curve of a hard magnetic material differe from that of a soft
magnetic material?
7.9 List up some analogous electric and magnetic quantities.
7.10 Briefly explain the differences between electric and magnetic circuits.

155
Appendix-A (Review of Complex number and Complex algebra)

A complex number z can be written in rectangular form as:

z = x + jy
where j = − 1 ; x is the real part of z; y is the imaginary part of z.The complex number z
can also be written in polar or exponential form as:
z = r = re j
The relationship between the retangular form and the polar form of a complex number is
shown in Figure A.1.

Figure A.1: Representation of a complex number z = x + jy = r .

The interrelationship among the rectangular, polar, and exponential representation of a

complex number are tabulated in Table A.1, in the following.

Table A.1: Interrelationship among three representation of complex number.

Rectangular Polar Exponential
z = x + jy z = r z = re j
x = r cos  r= x2 + y2 r= x2 + y2
y = r sin   = tan −1 ( y / x)  = tan −1 ( y / x)
The important phasor operations are explained in the followings:
1) Addition and subtraction with complex numbers in rectangular form is easy. For addition,
simply add up the real components of the complex numbers to determine the real
component of the resultant, and add up the imaginary components of the complex
numbers to determine the imaginary component of the resultant. Here are the examples:
(a) (2+j5)+(4-j3)=(2+4) +j(5-3)=6+j2, (b) (175-j34)+(80-j15)=(175+80) +j(-34-15)=255-
j49, (c) (-2+j5)+(-4-j3)=(-2-4) +j(5-3)=-6+j2.
When subtrating complex numbers in rectangular form, simply subtract the real part of
the second complex number from that of the first complex number to arrive the real
component of the difference and subtract the imaginary part of the second complex
number from that of the first complex number to arrive the imaginary component of the
difference. Few examples are: (a) (2+j5)-(4-j3)=(2-4) + j(5+3)=-2+j8, (b) (175-j34)-(-80-
j15)=(175+80) + j(-34+15)=255-j19, (c) (-2+j5)-(4+j3)=(-2-4) +j(5-3)=-6+j2.

156
2) For multiplication and division, polar is the favored form to work with. When
multiplying complex numbers in polar form, simply multiply the magnitudes of the
complex numbers to determine the magnitude of the product, and add the angles of the
complex numbers to determine the angle of the product. Few examples are here:

The magnitude of the division of two complex numbers in polar forms is obtained by
dividing the magnitude of the first complex number by that of the second complex
number, and subtract the angle of the second complex number from that of the first
complex number to obtain the angle of the division. The reciprocal of a complex number
can also be obtained by the division rule. The examplexs are:

3) A phasor can be rasied to a given power n, where n is an integer, by multiplying the

phasor by itself n times. If a phasor A=A, the nth power of A is then given by An=
Ann.
4) The inverse of the process of raising a phasor to a given power can be employed to extract

the roots of a given phasor. If A= A, then one of the n roots of n A is n A  as its
n
multiplication by itself n times will equal A. The remaining (n-1) roots are determined by
adding 2m, where m is an integer and is given by m=1, 2,...., (n-1), radians to  before
 + 2πm
deviding argument by n. Therefore, for all n roots n A = n A  where m=0, 1,
n
2,...., (n-1). It is noted that the only positive magnitudes are employed in this case.
5) The logarithm of a phasor A=A=Aej to the base e is given by
ln Ae j = ln A + ln e j = ln A + j , here  must be given in radians.
6) The complex conjugate of a phasor can be obtained by multiplying the imaginary part of
the phasor in rectangular form or the phase angle of the phasor in polar form by -1. If
A=A= A cos  +j A sin , the complex conjugate of the phasor A is given by A*
=A-= A cos  - j A sin .
Again, if the phasor of any sinusoidal function x(t)=Xm cos(t+θ) is X= Xm , then the
phasor of dx(t)/dt=jX and that of x(t)dt=X/(j) as shown in the following:

157
dx(t )
dt

= −X m sin( t +  ) = X m cos(t +  + 90  ) = Real X m e j / 2 e j e jt 
  
= Real jX m e j e jt = Real jXe jt . 
dx (t )
Phasor of is jX.
dt
Xm Xm  X m − j / 2 j jt 
 =  +  =  +  − =

x (t ) dt sin( t ) cos( t 90 ) Real   e e e 
   
 1   1 
= Real  X m e j e jt  = Real  Xe jt .
 j   j 
X
Phasor of  x(t )dt is .
j

Problem A.1: Express each of the following as a single phasor in Cartesian and polar forms:
10 − 30 0 + (3 − j 4)  125 − 90 0
(a)  4 − j 3 + ln 10 172 0
 (b)
(2 + j 4)(3 − j 5)
(c) log e
j5
0
(d) -10 cos (400t+20 )

Problem A.2: Find the voltage v(t) in a circuit described by the following equation using
phasor approach.
Ans:

158
Appendix-B (Time domain analysis of ac circuit)

Analysis of R-L Series Circuit in time domain

Using KVL in the above circuit, we have

vS = vR + vL
di
or, v S = Ri + L
dt
Assume, the current through the series combination of R and L is i=Imcos(t+θi), the voltage
vS is given by
vS = RI m cos(t +  i ) − LI m sin( t +  i ) (B.1)
Equation (B.1) can be rewritten as:

I m R 2 + (L) 2
vS = R cos(t +  i ) − L sin( t +  i )
R 2 + (L) 2
 R L 
= I m R 2 + (L) 2  cos(t +  i ) − sin( t +  i )
 R 2 + (L) 2 R 2 + (L) 2 
R L L
If we assume cos  = , then we have sin  = and tan  = .
R 2 + (L) 2 R 2 + (L) 2 R
Therefore, the above equation of vS takes the following form:
v S = I m R 2 + (L) 2 cos  cos(t +  i ) − sin  sin( t +  i )
(B.2)
= I m R + (L) cos(t +  i +  )
2 2

Analysis of R-C Series Circuit in time domain

We know the current i(t) through C and the voltage vC(t) across it are related by i=C(dvC/dt).

159
Applying KVL to the circuit we get
dv
vs = Ri + vc = RC C + vC
dt
Since the steady state circuit response is similar to that of the forcing function and only differ
in magnitude and phase, we may assume vC as vC=A cos (t+). Therefore,
dvC
= −A sin( t +  )
dt
dv
 RC C + vC = vs  −RCA sin( t +  ) + A cos(t +  ) = VP cos t
dt
Multiplying and dividing the left sides of the above equation by (RC )2 + 1 , we obtain
 RC 
A (RC ) + 1−
1
sin( t +  ) + cos(t +  ) = VP cos t .
2

 (RC )2 + 1 (RC )2 + 1 

Assuming a right triangle with base=1, perpendicular=RC. Then hypotenuse= (RC )2 + 1

and let us define tan-1(RC). Therefore, the above equation can be written as
A (RC ) + 1− sin  sin( t +  ) + cos cos(t +  ) = VP cos t
2

VP
 A cos(t +  +  ) = cos t
(RC )2 + 1
VP
A= and t +  +  = t or,  = − = − tan −1 RC
(RC ) 2
+1
VP
Therefore, v C = cos(t − tan −1 RC )
(RC ) 2
+1

These examples illustrate that solving even a simple one-loop circuit containing one resistor
and one inductor or capacitor is very complicated, because of the presence of integro-
differential equations, compared to the solution of a single loop circuit containing only two
resistors. To avoid this approach, we will establish a correspondence between sinusoidal
function and complex number. We will then show that this relationship leads to a set of
algebraic equations for current and voltages that makes the circuit analysis simple.

160
Appendix-C (B-H curve of few ferromagnetic materials)

161
162
Appendix-D (List of Greek letters)

163
 Index
A Dependent current source
Dependent voltage source
AC current source
Diamagnetic material
AC response of passive elements
in time domain
E
AC response of passive elements
in phasor domain Effective value
AC response of passive elements Electric current
in frequency domain Electric field
AC voltage source Electrical network
Active circuit elements Electric power
Admittance Electromotive force
Ampere’s circuital law Energy
Angular frequency
Apparent power F
Average power
Ferromagnetic material
Average value
Form factor
Frequency
B
Frequency domain analysis
Bandwidth
Bilateral circuit element G
Ground
C
Capacitance H
Capacitor
Half power frequency
Causes of low power factor
Hard magnetic material
Charge
Hysteresis loop
Circuit,
Circuit analysis
I
Circuit elements
Circuit response Ideal current source
Coercive force Ideal voltage source
Coercivity Impedance
Complex number Independent source
Complex power Inductance
Conductance Inductor
Conservation of ac power Instantaneous power
Connection of sources
Crest factor K
Current
Kirchhoff’s current law
Current divider rule
Kirchhoff’s voltage law
Current source
Current controlled current source
L
Current controlled voltage source
Lagging
D Leading
Linear circuit element
DC current source
Loop
DC voltage source
Loop analysis
DC response of passive elements
Deactivating
M
a voltage source
a current source Magnetic circuit
Magnetic domain Reactive power
Magnetic field intensity Real power

164
Magnetic flux Reciprocity theorem
Magnetic flux density Reluctance
Magnetic material Residual flux
Magnetization Residual flux density
Magnetizing force Resistance
Magnetomotive force Resistor
Maximum average power transfer theorem Resonant frequency
Maximum power transfer theorem Retentivity
Mesh Right hand rule
Mesh analysis Rms value
Mmf Root mean square value

N S
Natural response Series circuit
Network theorems Series connection
Nodal analysis Series-parallel circuit
Node voltage Series resonance
Norton’s equivalent circuit Short circuit
Norton Impedance SI unit
Norton’s theorem Sinusoidal function
Soft magnetic material
O Source transformation
Substitution theorem
Ohm’s law
Steady-state analysis
Open circuit
Supermesh
Supernode
P
Superposition principle
Passive sign convention Susceptance
Parallel circuit
Parallel connection T
Parallel resonance
Tellegen’s theorem
Paramagnetic material
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
Peak factor
Thevenin impedance
Permeability
Thevenin’s theorem
Phase angle
Phase difference
V
Phasor
Phasor diagram of Variable frequency response of passive elements
parallel circuit Voltage
series circuit Voltage controlled current source
series-parallel circuit Voltage controlled voltage source
Phasor representation of a sinusoid Voltage divider rule
Power factor Voltage regulation
Power factor correction
Practical source W
Problems of low power factor
Wye-delta transformation
Q
Quality factor

R
Reactance

165