Human Factors

Preliminary Module 9 General

Notes 9.1 9.1.1 - HO - 1

9 Human Factors

General

Introduction

The Term ’Human Factor’

’Human factor’ is a term used mainly in the United States. Variants include ’human
factors engineering’, an extension of an earlier phrase, ’human engineering’. In
Europe and the rest of the world, the term ’ergonomics’ is more prevalent. ’Cognitive
ergonomics’ is another term used.

’Human factors’ is an umbrella term for several areas of research that include human
performance, technology, design and human/computer interaction. It is a profession
that focuses on how people interact with products, tools, procedures and any
processes likely to be encountered in the modern world.

Human factors practitioners can come from a variety of backgrounds; though

predominantly they are psychologists (cognitive, perceptual and experimental) and
engineers. Designers (industrial, interaction and graphic), anthropologists, technical
communication scholars and computer scientists also contribute.

Whereas ergonomics tends to focus on the anthropometrics for optimum human/ma-

chine interaction, human factors is more focused on the cognitive and perceptual
factors.

Areas of interest for human factors practitioners may include the following:
V workload
V fatigue
V situational awareness
V usability
V user interface
V learnability
V attention
V vigilance
V human performance
V human reliability
V human/computer interaction
V control and display design
V stress
V visualisation of data
V individual differences
V aging
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 General
Notes 9.1 9.1.1 - HO - 2

V accessibility
V safety
V shift work
V work in extreme environments including virtual environments
V human error
V decision making.

Simply spoken, the term ’human factors’ involves working to make the environment
function in a way that seems natural to people. Although the terms ’human factors’
and ’ergonomics’ have not been widely known in recent times, the field’s origin is in
the design and use of aircraft during World War II to improve aviation safety.

The basic definition of human factors are the relations between

V humans and humans
V humans and machines
V humans and working processes
V humans and their environment.

EASA Part 145

EASA Part 145 states personnel requirements and responsibilities with respect to
human factors.

Para 145.A.30[e] states the following:

The organization shall establish and control the competence of personnel

involved in any maintenance, management and/or quality audits in accordance
with a procedure and to a standard agreed by the competent authority. In addition
the necessary expertise related to the job function, competence must include an
understanding of the application of human factors and human performance
issues appropriate to that person’s function in the organization.

’Human factors’ means principles which apply to aeronautical design, certifi-

cation, training, operations and maintenance and which seek safe interface
between the human and other system components by proper consideration of
human performance. Human performance means human capabilities and
limitations which have an impact on the safety and efficiency of aeronautical
operations.

Para 145.A.35[d] states the following:

The organisation shall ensure that all certifying staff and category B1 and B2
support staff receive sufficient continuation training in each two year period to
ensure that such staff have up--to--date knowledge of relevant technology,
organization procedures and human factor issues.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 General
Notes 9.1 9.1.1 - HO - 3

Incidents Attributed to Human Factors

Aviation is the safest means of transportation. However, accidents happen from time
to time.

Refer to Figure 1.

As a matter of fact approx. 80 % of all aviation accidents are caused by human

errors. The part within these 80 % which is contributed to maintenance related errors
or faults is estimated by 6 to 25 %.

Obviously aircraft have become safer over the years so that the causes for aircraft
accidents have changed from technical faults to human errors.

Refer to Figure 2.

The accident shown in Figure 2, lower part, (a Boeing 737--200 which lost 18 feet of
its fuselage) could have been avoided if the maintenance crew would have carried
out the inspection as described in the relevant manuals. An inspection of structure
and rivets had to be carried out before the flight. The staff was experienced:
V certifying staff had 22 years experience
V supervisor had 33 years experience.

The staff did not detect cracks or damaged rivets. An investigation after the accident
discovered that there must have been approx. 240 cracks before.

Refer to Figure 3.

So called ’fender bender’ incidents are not really noticed by public. Theses incidents
happen quite often on the runway, taxi way, apron or in the hangar, documented only
by the airlines themselves and causing costs in the order of millions of US dollars.

Murphy’s Law

Murphy’s law is a popular adage in Western culture that most likely originated at
Edwards Air Force Base in 1948. The law broadly states that things will go wrong in
any given situation, if you give them a chance.
’If there is more than one way to do a job, and one of those ways
will result in disaster, then somebody will do it that way.’

It is most often cited as

’Whatever can go wrong, will go wrong’
or, alternately,
’Anything that can go wrong, will’.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 General
Notes 9.1 9.1.1 - HO - 4

a) Accident rates
Accident rate (accidents
50

40
per million departures)

30

20

10

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

b) Hull loss accidents from 1995 to 2004

Flight crew
Aircraft
Weather
Misc./other
Maintenance
Airport/air traffic
control

c) Reasons for aircraft accidents

100 %

80 %

60 %

40 %

20 %
C 0682

0%
1903 Today

Figure 1 Aircraft Accident Statistics

 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 General
Notes 9.1 9.1.1 - HO - 5

C 0681

Figure 2 Human Error

 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 General
Notes 9.1 9.1.1 - HO - 6

Incident happened during jacking

Damage caused by ground equipment

C 0683

Figure 3 Fender Benders

 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance & Limitations
Notes 9.2 9.2.1 - HO - 1

Human Performance and Limitations

Information Handling

Human performance and limitations are basically identified by the performance

shaping factor (PSF).
The PSF describes the human related factors to improve the downgrade perform-
ance with respect to quality and safety of the work to be done.
PSF is divided into two parts:
V internal PSF
V external PSF.

Internal PSF

Internal PSF covers the following:

V status of practice and training
V education
V stress
V medical condition
V frustration
V trouble.

External PSF

External PSF covers the following:

V insufficient equipped workshop
V bad environment
V inadequate training support
V tools and equipment.

The Senses
Refer to Figure 1.
To gain information each individual has five senses. These senses are:
V sight
V hearing
V smell
V touch
V taste.

Sight

Refer to Figure 2.
The eyes receive optical signals and transmit them to the brain where they are
decoded and analysed.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance & Limitations
Notes 9.2 9.2.1 - HO - 2

Refer to Figure 3.

Pictures are transferred through the pupil and displayed on the retina. The informa-
tion like colour, size and illumination are transferred into electro--chemical signals
and transmitted to the brain.

Refer to Figure 4.

Because of the two eyes all information is sent twice to the brain where it is
interpreted. The information from the right eye is being superposed with the
information received from the left eye so that a three--dimensional view is produced.
That means that the interpretation of the received information must be learnt. That is
the reason why it is so easy to bluff the brain with visual deceptions. However, if the
brain has decoded the deception once it has learnt which makes it easier to
recognise it next time.

Hearing

Refer to Figure 5.

The ear is a very sensitive organ. It is possible to hear frequencies between 20 Hz

and 20,000 Hz. The loudness or sound pressure is measured in dB. The range starts
with 0 dB without upper limit.

Sound waves are led through the auditory canal and cause the tympanic membrane
to oscillate and in turn malleus and incus. These oscillations are transferred to the
cochlea which is filled with liquid and houses many fine haircells. The cells convert
the oscillations in electro--chemical signals which are transferred to the brain.

The power of hearing decreases with increasing age and decreases faster if it has
been exposed to high loudness over longer periods.

Ear protection must be worn in areas exceeding 90 dB. If the exposure exceeds four
hours the limit is 85 dB which is comparable with the loudness of a driving car.

Excessive loudness has different consequences. The damages are irreversible and
will lead to decreased ability to hear words and acoustic warning signals.

Ultrasonic (exceeding 20,000 Hz) and infrasonic waves (below 20 Hz) are not
audible but are received from the hear and transmitted. These waves lead to
sickness and can damage the brain and the spinal chord and can cause malfunction-
ing of the equilibrium.

Some animals, such as dogs, dolphins, bats and mice have an upper frequency limit
that is much higher than that of the human ear and thus can hear ultrasound.
Children can hear some high--pitched sounds that older adults cannot hear, as in
humans the upper limit pitch of hearing gets lower with age (a cell phone company
has used this to create ring signals only hearable by younger humans).

The frequency limit is caused by the middle ear that acts as a low--pass filter. If
ultrasound is fed directly into the skull bone and reaches the cochlea without passing
through the middle ear, much higher frequencies (up to approx. 200 kHz) can be
heard. This effect (sometimes called ’ultrasonic hearing’) was first discovered by
divers exposed to a high--frequency (50 kHz) sonar signal.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance & Limitations
Notes 9.2 9.2.1 - HO - 3

Normally, humans are ’connected’ with all five senses to the environment, however
the importance of each sense differs. We retain only 20 % of what we hear and 30 %
of what we see, but if we hear and see at the same time the percentage increases up
to 50 % and up to 75 % if we have to explain it in our own words. As a matter of fact,
the more senses are applied the more information is retained.

Learning Behaviour

Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes or values through

study, experience or teaching, which causes a change of behaviour that is persistent,
measurable and specified or allows an individual to formulate a new mental construct
or revise a prior mental construct (conceptual knowledge such as attitudes or
values).

It is a process that depends on experience and leads to long--term changes in

behaviour potential. Behaviour potential describes the possible behaviour of an
individual in a given situation in order to achieve a goal. But potential is not enough; if
individual learning is not periodically reinforced, it becomes more and more shallow,
and eventually will be lost in that individual.

Learning takes place in three different ways:

V Cognitive learning
Cognitive learning applies to processes such as memory, attention, percep-
tion, action, problem solving and mental imagery. Research also includes
one’s awareness of strategies and methods of cognition, known as meta-
cognition.
V Affective learning
Includes the learning of behaviours which refers to the actions or reactions of
an object or organism, usually in relation to the environment. Behaviour can
be conscious or unconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary.
V Motor learning
Motor learning is the process of improving the smoothness and accuracy of
movements. It is obviously necessary for complicated movements such as
playing the piano and climbing trees, but it is also important for calibrating
simple movements like reflexes, as parameters of the body and environment
change over time.

The Brain

Refer to Figure 6.

The human brain is divided into two halves. The left and the right half. Generally
speaking the left half is responsible for rational intelligence and the right part for
emotions.

Normally, the left half should be used for maintenance activities, however, it is
important to understand that depending on the type of job both halves have to
cooperate, because some problems can only be solved by intuition and phantasy.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance & Limitations
Notes 9.2 9.2.1 - HO - 4

As a matter of fact approx. 80 % of all decisions made are guided by emotions and
only 20 % by the ratio.

It is therefore important to develop individual strategies in case the emotions override

the ratio. In case of annoyance and irritation the following strategy could be helpful:
V stop, take a deep breath and count to ten
V check the situation and ask yourself:
S what has happened?
S why have I responded in that way?
S does it change anything if I stay annoyed?
S what must happen to cease the situation so that I feel comfortable?
V decision making after all previous points have been clarified.

Claustrophobia and Physical Access

Claustrophobia is an anxiety disorder that involves the fear of enclosed or confined

spaces. Claustrophobes may suffer from panic attacks, or fear of having a panic
attack, in situations such as being in elevators, trains or aircraft.

Conversely, people who are prone to having panic attacks will often develop
claustrophobia. If a panic attack occurs while they are in a confined space, then the
claustrophobe fears not being able to escape the situation. Those suffering from
claustrophobia might find it difficult to breathe in closed auditoriums, theatres, and
elevators. Like many other disorders, claustrophobia can sometimes develop due to
a traumatic incident in childhood.

Indications for claustrophobia may be:

V hysteria
V hysteric yelling
V crying
V getting cramped
V passiveness
V depressiveness.

Claustrophobia can be treated in similar ways to other anxiety disorders, with a range
of treatments including cognitive behaviour therapy and the use of anti--anxiety
medication.

Typical areas in an aircraft enhancing or causing claustrophobia are

V fuel tanks
V engine air intake
V avionic compartment
V tail cone area.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance & Limitations
Notes 9.2 9.2.1 - HO - 5

Persons suffering from claustrophobia should not be forced into a critical situation by
V supervising person/authority
V making jokes on the person
V persuading.

It will be dangerous for the person and the environment if he is forced into a situation
under claustrophobia. Treatment should only be done by specialists like psychothera-
pists.
 How we learn How we remember
Notes
Preliminary

Taste 1
Touch 1.5

Smell 3.5

Hearing 11
9.2
Module 9

Sight 83

Percent part played by each sense Percent retained

Figure 1 How People Learn and Remember

Performance & Limitations
Human Factors

9.2.1 - HO - 6
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance & Limitations
Notes 9.2 9.2.1 - HO - 7

Pupil
Cornea
Iris
Posterior chamber Anterior chamber
Zonular fibers
Lens
Ciliary muscle

Suspensory ligament
Retina

Choroid

Vitrous humour
Selera

Optic disc

Optic nerv
Fovea
C0740

Figure 2 The Eye

 Notes
Preliminary
Bright ambient light:

Perception by Cones
(red, blue, green)
Colour picture, bright and sharp

Module 9
9.2
Dark ambient light:

Perception by Rods
black and white

Performance & Limitations

grey, less sharp

C 0742

Human Factors
9.2.1 - HO - 8
Figure 3 Vision at Day and Night
 Notes

The brain determines the distance using the perspective information derived from both eyes
Preliminary
9.2
Module 9

Figure 4 Optical Deception

Performance & Limitations
Human Factors

9.2.1 - HO - 9
 Notes
Preliminary
Semi circular canals
Pinna
Elliptical Vestibular
window nerve
Incus
Malleus

Auditory
nerve

Module 9
Cochlea

9.2
Tympanum
cavity

Stapes

Performance & Limitations

Circular
Auditory window
canal

Human Factors
9.2.1 - HO - 10
Tympanic Eustachian tube
membrane

C 0743 A
(eardrum)

Figure 5 The Ear

 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance & Limitations
Notes 9.2 9.2.1 - HO - 11

C 0770 A

Figure 6 The Brain

 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Social Psychology
Notes 9.3 9.3.1 - HO - 1

Social Psychology

Responsibility, Motivation, Peer Pressure, Teamwork and Leadership

Responsibility

’Responsibility’ means that each individual has substantial or total responsibility for
the events and circumstances that happen to him or her in his/her life. ’Responsibility’
says that the individual’s mental contribution to his or her own experience is
substantially greater than is normally thought.
’I must have wanted this’ is the type of catch phrase used by adherents of this
doctrine when encountering situations, pleasant or unpleasant, to remind them that
their own desires and choices led to the present outcome.
Refer to Figure 1.
Collective responsibility is a concept according to which people are to be held
responsible for other people’s actions by tolerating, ignoring or harbouring them,
without actively collaborating in these actions.

Motivation

Introduction

The motivation of an individual depends largely on the necessity to change a

situation, so as to say, it depends on motives and needs.

Motives are causes why somebody acts. Motivation is the creation of motives or
needs.
Motivation can be intrinsic, coming from the individual’s needs, e.g. ’I am hungry, I
will have to eat’ or can be extrinsic, coming from the outside or the environment, e.g.
’If you do a proper job today and finish early, you will have a day off tomorrow’.
However, a motive does not guarantee the desired action but makes it more likely.

Hierarchy of Human Needs

The relations between needs and motives are very complex. There are several
models which explain motivation. The most popular one being the model developed
by Maslow.
Refer to Figure 2.

Maslow’s primary contribution to psychology is his ’Hierarchy of Human Needs’,

which he often presented as a pyramid. Maslow contended that humans have a
number of needs that are instinctoid, that is, innate. These needs are classified as
’conative needs’, ’cognitive needs’ and ’aesthetic needs’.

Note: ’Neurotic needs’ are included in Maslow’s theory but do not exist within the
hierarchy.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Social Psychology
Notes 9.3 9.3.1 - HO - 2

Maslow assumed that needs are arranged in a hierarchy in terms of their potency.
Although all needs are instinctoid, some are more powerful than others. The lower
the need is in the pyramid, the more powerful it is. The higher the need is in the
pyramid, the weaker and more distinctly human it is. The lower (or: basic) needs on
the pyramid are similar to those possessed by non--human animals, but only humans
possess the higher needs.

The first four layers of the pyramid are what Maslow called ’deficiency needs’ (or:
’D--needs’). The individual does not feel anything if they are met, but feels anxious if
they are not met.

Needs beyond the D--needs are ’growth needs’ (or: ’being values’ (’B--needs’)).
When fulfilled, they do not go away, rather, they motivate further.
V The base of the pyramid is formed by the physiological needs, including the
biological requirements for food, water, air and sleep.
V Once the physiological needs are met, an individual can concentrate on the
second level, the need for safety and security. Included here are the needs
for structure, order, security and predictability.
V The third level is the need for love and belonging. Included here are the
needs for friends and companions, a supportive family, identification with a
group and an intimate relationship.
V The fourth level is the esteem needs. This group of needs requires both rec-
ognition from other people that results in feelings of prestige, acceptance and
status, and self--esteem that results in feelings of adequacy, competence and
confidence. Lack of satisfaction of the esteem needs results in discourage-
ment and feelings of inferiority.
V Finally, self--actualisation including e.g. self--realisation, acceptance of facts,
creativity, sits at the apex of the original pyramid.
According to Maslow, a person can only be motivated to a higher motivation level if
the lower one has been satisfied.
As a conclusion it is possible to force someone to do something but it is impossible to
force someone to really want to do it.
The wish to do something is the result of an own internal process.

Motivation in Learning

Learning is a voluntary process. Evidence indicates that only little learning takes
place in the absence of motivation.

The reasons which motivate a person to learn may, of course, be quite different from
those which motivate another. For some people, it is the interest or challenge of the
task (intrinsic motivation). For others, it is the anticipated reward or punishment
(extrinsic motivation, e.g. money, certification). For others, it is the need for recogni-
tion or status.

Up to a certain point the stronger the motivation is, the more learning takes place.
But beyond a critical level, the trainee becomes too anxious and does no longer learn
effectively (some of the energy that has been arisen is spilling over into tension which
disturbs learning).
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Social Psychology
Notes 9.3 9.3.1 - HO - 3

Stimulus, Response and Reinforcement

Motivation alone does not cause learning. Attention has to be given to the particular
stimulus, and to the checking of the accuracy of the response. Rewarded behaviour
can be learnt and tends to be repeated under similar conditions in the future,
whereas non--rewarded behaviour tends not to be learnt. Once we observe or
discover the things that are reinforcing (rewarding) to a trainee, it becomes possible
to shape his behaviour by reinforcing the desired responses.

Reinforcement and reward are always important aspects of the learning process.
Evidence seems to indicate that the more frequent and prompt reinforcement is, the
more effective learning will be.

If the trainer has a genuine interest in the trainees, he will seek active ways of
rewarding successful responses as ’reinforcers’:
V a kind remark
V a personal compliment
V sometimes simply personal attention
V encouragement.

Success is also a great reinforcer (perhaps the best!). As the old saying goes,
’success breeds success’. In self--discovery techniques and programmed learning,
success is a built--in reinforcer and a motivator for learning.

Application

From experience we know that learning is easier when we can see its relevance
or applicability to our own situation. Wherever possible, there should be a close
relationship between the training program and the work to be performed.
Obviously, if procedures for machine maintenance are being taught, they should
be those currently in use.

! If we cannot apply what we learn, we tend to forget it.

Peer Pressure

Peer pressure comprises a set of group dynamics whereby a group of people in

which one feels comfortable may override the personal habits, individual moral
inhibitions or individual desires to impose a group norm of attitudes or behaviours.

It requires members to conform to the overall value of the group. These reference
groups are sometimes referred to as membership groups, when the individual is
’formally’ a member (of, for example, a political party or trade union).

Individuals may like to belong to aspiration groups (social cliques, such as e.g.
yuppies). They may also recognise dissociative groups with which they would not
wish to associate.

Peer pressure can sometimes be used to a great extent by marketers: if they can
sway the few opinion--leaders in a reference group they will capture the whole group.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Social Psychology
Notes 9.3 9.3.1 - HO - 4

An example of peer pressure is the classroom seating in many schools: even though
the seats for students are not assigned they are still claimed by certain students, and
sitting on that person’s chair would be considered an insult to that person. Even
though there is no rule against sitting in another student’s seat, it would cause peer
pressure.
The term ’group dynamics’ implies that individual behaviours may differ depending on
individuals’ current or prospective connections to a sociological group. Group
dynamics is the field of study within the social sciences that focuses on the nature of
groups. Urges to belong or to identify may make for distinctly different attitudes
(recognised or unrecognised), and the influence of a group may rapidly become
strong, influencing or overwhelming individual proclivities and actions. The group
dynamics may also include changes in behaviour of a person when he is represented
before a group, the behavioural pattern of a person vis--a--vis group.
The problem with peer pressure can be that the individual is scared to communicate
an own, probably correct, statement. Experiments have proved that failure rate of an
individual will increase significantly if he is under peer pressure.

Cultural Issues

Culture has been called the way of life for an entire society. As such, it includes
codes of manners, dress, language, religion, rituals, norms of behaviour and systems
of belief.
Culture is different not only between countries, but there may be cultural differences
in one country as well. In the working environment, especially in the aircraft industry
where so many experts from different countries have to work together, cultural issues
gain more and more importance.
Supervisors and managers have to counteract any problems between different
cultures and, what is even more important, every individual has to know about the
differences and to exercise understanding and tolerance.

Teamwork

All that has been said before regarding peer pressure, group dynamics and culture is
important for teamwork.
Teamwork is the concept of people working together cooperatively, like in a sports
team.
Large ambitious goals usually require that people work together, so teamwork has
become an important concept in organizations. Effective teams are an intermediary
goal towards getting good, sustainable results. Industry has seen increasing efforts
through training and cross--training to help people to work together more effectively
and to accomplish shared goals, whether colleagues are present or absent.
A survey revealed that Americans think that ’being a team player’ was the most
important factor in getting ahead in the workplace. This was ranked higher than
several factors, including ’merit and performance’, ’leadership skills’, ’intelligence’,
’making money for the organization’ and ’long hours’.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Social Psychology
Notes 9.3 9.3.1 - HO - 5

The meaning of being a team player has been re--evaluated, though, by those who
analyse workplace dynamics through the lenses of racial, cultural and gender
diversity. In this view, evaluating employees on being a team player may sometimes
be a shortcut to imposing the default cultural norms. People who behave outside of
the implicit and default norms may be perceived to not be team players. Implicit and
default norms often include unwritten, unspoken cultural norms. It is the difference
between individuation, maintaining a sense of self and identity in an organization,
and losing or dying to self in the organization.
Aside from any required technical proficiency, a wide variety of social skills is
desirable for successful teamwork, such as
V Listening
It is important to listen to other people’s ideas. When people are allowed to
freely express their ideas, these initial ideas will produce other ideas.
V Questioning
It is important to ask questions, interact and discuss the objectives of the
team.
V Persuading
Individuals are encouraged to exchange, defend and then to ultimately
re-- think their ideas.
V Respecting
It is important to treat others with respect and to support their ideas.
V Helping
It is crucial to help one’s co--workers, which is the general theme of team-
work.
V Sharing
It is important to share with the team to create an environment of teamwork.
V Participating
All members of the team are encouraged to participate in the team.

Management, Supervision and Leadership

The topics ’management’, ’leadership’ and ’supervision’ are all interrelated and are
the essential parts of the working environment.

Management
’Management’ characterises the process of leading and directing all or part of an
organization through the deployment and manipulation of resources (human,
financial, material, intellectual or intangible). The word ’manage’ comes from the
Italian ’maneggiare’, which in turn derives from the Latin ’manus’ for hand.
From this perspective, management consists of five functions:
V planning
V organizing
V leading
V co-- ordinating
V controlling.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Social Psychology
Notes 9.3 9.3.1 - HO - 6

Leadership

’Leadership’ organizationally and narrowly is the ability of an individual to influence,

motivate and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the
organization of which they are members.

Supervision

’Supervision’ means the action of a person watching over the work of another who is
less skilled, usually in a work, professional or educational context.
Refer to Figure 3.

An appropriate stile in leadership and management compared to an authoritarian

stile is shown in Figure 3.

Professional Demands on the Individual

A professional oriented person will always try to get professionals around him. He
must identify himself with the working environment and mainly with professional
behaviour, which features the following characteristics:
V consolidated knowledge
V orderliness
V immediate service
V customer oriented
V on schedule
V accurate even in details
V good presentation.
A professional working staff should be able to answer the following questions without
problems:
V What is my product or my service?
V Who is my customer?
V Who is my supplier?
V What are the requirements of my customer and my supplier?
V Does my product or service fulfil the requirements of my customer?
V What is my working process?
V How can I judge the work or service I have done?
V How can I improve my working process?

Assertiveness

How shall a new, young colleague react if the certifying staff is old and experienced?
He should
V revert to the appropriate documentation (approved data)
V the certifying staff explain the correct task
V report this problem in writing if necessary
V keep himself objective and do not react emotionally.
 Notes
Preliminary
Accountable
manager
Quality
manager

Line maintenance Base maintenance Workshop Manager

manager manager manager (other task)

Supervisor Supervisor

Module 9
9.3
Team A Team B Team C

Team leader Structure

Team members Engine
Mechanics Cabin
Systems
Avionics

Social Psychology
Human Factors
C 0744 A

9.3.1 - HO - 7
Figure 1 Responsibility Tree
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Social Psychology
Notes 9.3 9.3.1 - HO - 8

Self --
Actualisation

Esteem

Love/Belonging

Safety

Physiological
C 0745 A

Figure 2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs

 Notes
Preliminary
Positive Motivation Authoritarian
Honest appreciation Any service is taken for granted
V real time V no complaint is confused with suffi-
V not only words cient praise

V appreciation of all performances V payment for the employee is enough

Supervisor
V recognition of even small progress
V reward special service
V critique when necessary but always in
appropriate and constructive way
V no time, there are more important
things to do
V complaints even for negligible errors
Missing appreciation
V the ’boss’ is not satisfied with my work

Module 9
V I will have to try harder

9.3
Accepting appreciation
V He must have seen it I did a good job
V confirmation to be on the right way
Appreciation still missing
V strengthen the right approach Employee
Resignation
V satisfaction about the work done
V You cannot do anything right for him
V identification with the company
V I am not able to change anything
V respect for the supervisor

C 0746
V Ok, if he wants it like this

Social Psychology
Internal quitting

Human Factors
9.3.1 - HO - 9
Figure 3 Management Styles
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance
Notes 9.4 9.4.1 - HO - 1

Factors Affecting Performance

Fitness, Stress and Workload

Fitness

In its most general meaning, physical fitness is a general state of good physical
health. A person with a physical impairment may be physically fit and healthy,
although his/her performance on tasks requiring full bodily function in the area of
impairment will be affected. Physical fitness is a result of regular physical activity,
proper diet and nutrition, and proper rest for physical recovery within the parameters
allowed by the genome.

Physical fitness is often divided into the following types:

V flexibility
V cardiovascular endurance
V muscular strength and endurance
V body composition
V agility
V balance
V speed.

Many sources also mention mental and emotional health as an important part of
overall fitness. This is often presented in textbooks as a triangle made up of three
sub--sections which represent physical, emotional and mental fitness. Hence, one
may be physically fit but may still suffer from a mental illness or have emotional
problems. The ’ideal triangle’ is balanced in all areas.

To keep up fitness, the following has to be considered:

V intellect:
-- keeping business and work up-- to--date
-- accepting changes in technology
-- undergoing training on new software and hardware, aircraft types and
procedures
V intuition:
-- being awake, not believing everything
-- being sensitive to perceive the environment
V emotion:
-- in case of trouble, wait one night before arguing
-- self-- training to control the tamper
-- being aware that the environment will react on the behaviour
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance
Notes 9.4 9.4.1 - HO - 2

V instinct:
-- training the instinct for safer and faster reactions
-- developing the so--called ’sixth sense’, anticipating unexpected events/
accidents
V body:
-- keeping the body fit.

Only if all five elements are well trained and in balance, the individual will be able to
keep up a high level of working performance over a long period.

Stress

Stress is physical or psychological stimulus that can produce mental tension or

physiological reactions that may lead to illness.

Any factor that causes stress is called a ’stressor’. There are two kinds of stressors:
V processive stressors
V systemic stressors.

Processive stressors are those that require appraisal of a situation or involve a high
level of cognitive processing of the incoming sensory information. Processive
stressors can be experienced in the exposure to a new environment.

Systemic stressors cause a disturbance in the organism’s homeostasis (maintaining

inner stability) as well as tissue necrosis, hypertension and/or hypoxia.

Often, both types of stressors occur simultaneously. They are usually accompanied
by pain and/or intensive emotions.

People exposed to stress over longer periods may suffer from stomach ulcer,
excessive blood pressure or heart attack.

Stress as per definition is not completely adverse to the human. On one hand, stress
helps to survive and to concentrate all energy on solving a problem.

There are two types of stress:

V eustress is positive stress which releases positive energy in order to stimu-
late and empower vital and motivating factors
V disstress is negative stress and harms the individual if it is exposed to it over
longer periods of time.

Refer to Figure 1.

Whenever a stressful event occurs, the body undergoes a series of hormonal and
biochemical changes in order to put it in a fight or flight mode. The heart rate
increases, adrenalin rushes through the blood stream, and the digestive and immune
systems temporarily shut down in order to concentrate all forces on stress counter-
acting.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance
Notes 9.4 9.4.1 - HO - 3

If the stressors continue and the individual stays on high alert for a prolonged period
of time, exhaustion and burn out will be experienced. Nobody can avoid stress, but
everybody can return to a state of balance and regulation through a variety of means,
like
V exercise
V humour
V games, music
V prayer
V meditation.

These activities provide calming and relaxing sensory input for stress relief and can
be selected according to lifestyle and preference. It may be that persons become so
accustomed to high levels of stress that they no longer remember real relaxation,
and often habits and states of mind which have been developed become pathogenic
when growing older.

Time Pressure and Deadlines

Refer to Figure 2.

A tight time planning or scheduling will certainly cause a reaction from the group,
team or person involved.

A time delay can be one of the consequences. But more often and more worse, if the
amount of work cannot be managed in due time, the work will not be done properly
which finally will lead to malfunctions, damages and probably accidents.

The demands on an individual and the pressure put on him must be well balanced. If
the pressure should be put professionally on a person it must encounter the
individual’s
V qualification
V knowledge
V skills
V attitude.

Excessive demands will lead to the following consequences:

V fatigue, stress, loss of efficiency
V higher work intensity, mental pressure
V working overtime, leisure time decreased
V over-- fatigue, increase of accidental risk
V psychosomatic disorders.

Pareto Principle

Refer to Figure 3.

The Pareto principle (also known as ’the 80--20 rule’, ’the law of the vital few’ or ’the
principle of factor sparsity’) states that for many phenomena, 80% of the conse-
quences stem from 20% of the causes.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance
Notes 9.4 9.4.1 - HO - 4

Sleep and Fatigue, Shiftwork

Fatigue

The word ’fatigue’ is used in everyday living to describe a range of afflictions, varying
from a general state of lethargy to a specific work--induced burning sensation within
one’s muscles. Physiologically, fatigue describes the inability to continue functioning
at the level of one’s normal abilities due to an increased level of effort.

Fatigue becomes particularly noticeable during heavy and/or monotonous work.

Fatigue has two known forms: one manifests as a local, muscle--specific incapacity to
do work. The other manifests as an overall, bodily or systemic, sense of energy
deprivation.

Fatigue can be dangerous when performing tasks that require constant concentra-
tion, such as driving a vehicle or maintaining an aircraft. When a person is sufficiently
fatigued, he/she may experience so--called microsleeps that will cause loss of
concentration.

Sleep

Sleep is the state of natural rest. It is characterised by a reduction in voluntary body

movement, decreased reaction to external stimuli, an increased rate of anabolism
(the synthesis of cell structures), and a decreased rate of catabolism (the breakdown
of cell structures). For humans, sleep is necessary for life. The capability to arise
from sleep is a protective mechanism and also necessary for health and survival.

Note: Sleep is different from unconsciousness.

The cycle between sleep and wakefulness involves different stages of sleep.
Currently, scientists divide sleep into two general types:
V rapid eye movement phases
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is characterised by desynchronisation of
the electroencephalograph (EEG), loss of skeletal muscle tone, and
sympathetic nervous system
V non-- rapid eye movement phase
non--rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep is characterised by parasympathetic
nervous system activity.

Shiftwork

Shiftwork is understood as alternating working times. The problem is that in the

aircraft maintenance and industry many activities have to be done between midnight
and 05:00 to prepare the aircraft for the next flight = first flight of the day.

Every organism has its own inner ’clock’ which controls the time being awake or
sleeping or being hungry. This timing is controlled via light and darkness. The
changing of this timing due to night shift will bring the system out of balance and can
cause problems.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance
Notes 9.4 9.4.1 - HO - 5

Refer to Figure 4.
The ideal working times with good performance and low failure rate are:
V morning between 07:00 and 12:00
V late afternoon between16:00 and 20:00.
The critical working time during the late night between 02:00 and 04:00 causes
V reduced performance
V fatigue problems
V reduced concentration
V high probability to make mistakes.
Shiftworkers mainly working at night often suffer from sleep disorder or do sleep only
for short periods due to the following reasons:
V less sleep during daytime
V more disturbance due to daily noise
V change between day and night shifts
V difficult to be handled by older people.
This can lead to the health disorders and mentally and social disorders like being:
V crabby, nervous or bad tempered
V unconcentrated
V sleepy, tired.
In fact, many shiftworkers have only 4.5 to 6 hours of sleep per day. However,
shiftwork does not make every shiftworker ill but there is always a high potential or
risk of becoming ill. Therefore shiftworkers are permanently medically monitored.

Nutrition

Nutrition has a great influence on human performance. This is even more important
for shiftworkers. Food gives the energy but can lead also to tiredness. Coffee pushes
but can also have the reverse effect. Besides their health effect, drugs may have
undesired side effects.
The amount of food taken is important for the individual performance. The more food
in the stomach the more blood is necessary for digestion. ’Fast’ carbohydrates like
pure sugar have only short--time effects whereas bread, pastas, beans, potatoes,
bran, rice and cereals, which are all high in carbohydrates, help to keep the
performance at a constant high level over a period of several hours.

Alcohol, Medication and Drugs

Addiction

Addiction is a chronic disorder proposed to be precipitated by a combination of

genetic, biological/pharmacological and social factors. Addiction is characterised by
the repeated use of substances or behaviour despite clear evidence of morbidity
caused by such use.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance
Notes 9.4 9.4.1 - HO - 6

Alcoholism is the consumption of or preoccupation with alcoholic beverages to the

extent that this behaviour interferes with the alcoholic’s normal personal, familiar,
social or work life. The chronic alcohol consumption caused by alcoholism can result
in psychological and physiological disorders. Alcoholism is one of the world’s most
costly drug problems. With the exception of nicotine addiction, alcoholism is more
costly to most countries than all other drug problems together.

While the use of alcohol is required to trigger alcoholism, the biological mechanism of
alcoholism is unknown. For most people, moderate alcohol consumption poses little
danger of addiction. However, the development of alcoholism is more complex than
the use of alcohol. Other factors must exist for alcohol use to develop into alcohol-
ism. These factors may include a person’s social environment, emotional health and
genetic predisposition. In addition, an alcoholic can develop multiple forms of
addiction to alcohol simultaneously such as psychological, metabolic and neuro-
chemical. Each type of addiction must be treated individually for an alcoholic to fully
recover.

Long term physic health effects of alcoholism are:

V death from many sources, primarily alcoholic toxemia
V pancreatis, or inflammation of the pancreas
V heart disease
V polyneuropathy, or damage to the nerves leading to poor sensation of pain
and impaired mobility
V cirrhosis of the liver, a chronic disease characterised by destruction of liver
cells
V depression, insomnia, anxiety and suicide
V increased incidence of many types of cancer
V sexual dysfunction.

The social problems arising from alcoholism can be significant. Being drunk or hung
over during work hours can result in loss of employment, which can lead to financial
problems including the loss of accommodation. Drinking at inappropriate times and
behaviour caused by reduced judgment can earn criminal convictions, such as drunk
driving or public disorder.

An alcoholic’s behaviour and prioritisation while drunk can profoundly impact the
family and friends around them possibly leading to marital conflict and divorce. This
can contribute to lasting damage to the emotional development of the alcoholic’s
children, even after they reach adulthood. The alcoholic could suffer from loss of
respect from others who may see the problem as self--inflicted and easily avoided.

Possible symptoms which may help to identify alcoholism are:

V fluffiness, erratic behaviour
V forgetting things more often
V error recurrence
V boozy breath
V absence from work
V loss of driving licence
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance
Notes 9.4 9.4.1 - HO - 7

V looking for occasions to have a drink

V denying noticeable problems
V isolation within the team.

Treatment

Alcoholism and all other addictions are medically seen diseases. It does not help to
ignore the problem but it will endanger life and equipment, particularly in the
workshop. These diseases will become worse when they are
V not addressed
V ignored
V played down
V covered up.

The person has finally to accept that he needs help, possibly from a good friend or a
colleague and from specialists like work medic or an addiction delegate in the
company.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance
Notes 9.4 9.4.1 - HO - 8

Stress can be built up

In business life/work
In private life
V working atmosphere
V family stress
V safety of job
V health
V becoming redundant
V alcohol, drugs
V workload
V family member seriously ill
V lack of competence
V financial problems
V responsibility
V lack of status
V payment

And will lead to

Possible stress symptoms

V higher error rate
V disregardful work
V increase of absence times
V unpunctuality
V less identification with job
and company
C 0747

V etc.

Figure 1 Stress
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance
Notes 9.4 9.4.1 - HO - 9

Challenge
of a
new project

Target time
Result:
is too short
Time delay 12

9 3

6 Reaction:
Reactions: High pressure
Errors, on personnel
problems

Consequence:
C 0748

Stress

Figure 2 Time Pressure

 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance
Notes 9.4 9.4.1 - HO - 10

.... is used for ob-

taining 20 % of
the required result

80 %
of the 12
working time .... .... is used
9 3 for obtaining

6
80 %
of the required
result

20 %
of the
C 0749 A

working time ....

Figure 3 Pareto Principle

 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Performance
Notes 9.4 9.4.1 - HO - 11

Performance

4:00 10:00 16:00 22:00 4:00

C 0750
Time

Figure 4 Human Performance Depending on

Time
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Physical Environment
Notes 9.5 9.5.1 - HO - 1

Physical Environment

Noise, Climate and Motion

Noise and Fumes

Noise

Refer to Figure 1.

’Noise’ is commonly meant as being ’sound of greater than usual volume’. Thus, a
loud activity may be referred to as being ’noisy’. However, conversations of other
people may be called noisy by other people not being involved in the talks.

Actually, noise can be any unwanted sound such as the noise of aircraft, neighbours
playing loud music or road noise spoiling the quietness of the countryside.

Industrial noise is usually considered mainly from the point of view of environmental
health, rather than nuisance, as sustained exposure causes permanent hearing
damage.

Effects of excessive noise can be:

V mechanically: damage of eardrum
V hearing performance: deafness
V physical disease:
-- vascular (arterial) constriction
-- increasing blood pressure
-- physical strain of circulation
V physiological effects:
-- acoustic communication difficulties
-- problem of concentration
-- nervousness.

In consequence, the exposure to excessive noise must be kept at a minimum, and

ear protection must be worn in areas where the noise exceeds 90 dB. If the exposure
exceeds four hours, the limit is 85 dB which is comparable to the loudness of a
driving car.

Fumes

Exhaust gas is gas which occurs as a result of the combustion of fuel such as
gasoline/petrol, diesel or coal. It is discharged into the atmosphere through an
exhaust pipe or chimney.

Although much of such exhaust is relatively harmless carbon dioxide, part of it is

noxious or toxic, such as carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides
(NOx) and particulate matter.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Physical Environment
Notes 9.5 9.5.1 - HO - 2

Diesel exhaust has a characteristic smell.

Emission standards often focus on reducing pollutants contained in exhaust gas.
Smoke is a suspension in air (aerosol) of small particles resulting from incomplete
combustion of a fuel. It is commonly an unwanted by--product of fires and fireplaces
(including stoves and lamps), but may also be used for
V pest control (called ’fumigation’)
V communication (smoke signals)
V defense (smoke-- screen)
V inhalation of tobacco or other drugs.
Smoke is sometimes used as a flavouring agent and preservative for various
foodstuffs. Smoke is also sometimes a component of internal combustion engine
exhaust gas, particularly diesel exhaust.
Smoke inhalation is the primary cause of death of victims of indoor fires. The smoke
kills by a combination of thermal damage, poisoning and pulmonary irritation caused
by carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide and other combustion products.
Smoke particles are actually an aerosol (or mist) of solid particles or liquid droplets
that are close to the ideal range of sizes for scattering of visible light.
Smoke from oxygen--deprived fires contains a significant amount of compounds that
are flammable. A cloud of smoke, in contact with atmospheric oxygen, therefore has
the potential of being ignited -- either by another open flame in the area, or by its own
temperature. This leads to effects like e.g. backdraft and flashover.
Many compounds of smoke from fires are highly toxic and/or irritant. The most
dangerous one is the carbon monoxide, leading to carbon monoxide poisoning,
sometimes with supporting effect of hydrogen cyanide and phosgene. Smoke
inhalation can therefore quickly lead to incapacitation and loss of consciousness.

Illumination
Refer to Figure 2.
Lighting refers to either artificial light sources, such as lamps, or to natural illumina-
tion of interiors from daylight. Artificial lighting is provided today by electric lights, but
previously by gas lighting, candles or oil lamps.
Proper lighting can enhance task performance or aesthetics. It is valuable to provide
the correct light intensity and colour spectrum for each task or environment.
Otherwise, energy is wasted and over--illumination can lead to adverse health and
psychological effects.
Specification of illumination requirements is the basic concept of deciding how much
illumination is required for a given task. Clearly, less light is required to illuminate a
hallway or bathroom compared to that needed for a word processing work station.
Analysis of lighting quality particularly emphasises use of natural lighting, but also
considers spectral content if artificial light is to be used. Greater reliance on natural
light reduces energy consumption, and will favourably impact human health and
performance. For example, tests have shown that results have improved for children
who learn in the presence of more natural light.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Physical Environment
Notes 9.5 9.5.1 - HO - 3

Lighting Requirements

The average required light intensity measured in lux for a particular task in aircraft
maintenance is given in the following table.

Preflight and post flight check 750 -- 850 Lux

Standard maintenance tasks 850 -- 1,200 Lux
Inspection standard task 750 Lux
difficult 1,000 Lux
very difficult 1,700 Lux
Inspection beneath fuselage 1,000 -- 1,500 Lux.

Climate and Temperature

Refer to Figure 3.

The ideal environmental working conditions are shown in Figure 3. Temperature and
air circulation vary with the work load.

Increasing temperature out of the ideal range will lead to an increase in the error rate
caused by
V diminishing awareness
V growing indifferences
V difficult concentration.

The higher the temperature, the more rests must be considered.

Motion and Vibration

Vibration refers to mechanical motion. The motion may be:

V periodic (in the form of oscillations)
V aperiodic (in the form of random noise)
V a mixture of both.

Vibration is occasionally desirable. For example, the motion of a tuning fork, the reed
in a woodwind instrument or harmonica, or the cone of a loudspeaker is desirable
vibration, necessary for the correct functioning of the various devices.

The vibrating alert in a cell phone or the much larger vibrations of a vibratory
compactor are additional examples where vibrations are desired.

More often, vibration is undesirable, wasting energy and creating unwanted sound.
For example, the motions of engines, electric motors or any mechanical device in
operation are usually unwanted vibrations. Such vibrations can be caused by
imbalances in the rotating parts, uneven friction, the meshing of gear teeth, parts that
are dragging together, etc. Careful designs usually minimise unwanted vibrations or
add dampers to suppress their transmission outside of the point of generation.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Physical Environment
Notes 9.5 9.5.1 - HO - 4

Working Environment

The ideal working environment comprises all the elements mentioned so far, which
are
V noise, as low as possible
V fumes or exhaust gases at a minimum
V illumination adapted to the actual work
V temperature and air movement according to the type of work
V motion and vibrations at a minimum.

Each of these elements influences the individual work performance. However, it is

impossible to ensure an ideal working environment due to the fact that in aircraft
maintenance some conditions are adverse with e.g. respect to temperature and
noise. This in turn means that the working conditions have to be adapted to the
actual environmental conditions.

More rests as well as beverages have to be provided when working in a warm or hot
environment. Ear protection has to be provided and worn in a noisy environment and
proper ventilation has to be ensured.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Physical Environment
Notes 9.5 9.5.1 - HO - 5

Watch
Suburbia road

River

Discussion

Pub

Dance music

Workshop
Rock concert

Jack hammer

C 0751 A
B747
(at 30 m distance)
dB (A)

Figure 1 Noise
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Physical Environment
Notes 9.5 9.5.1 - HO - 6

Illumination
Figure 2
 Notes
Preliminary

Office work

Light workmanship

Heavy workmanship

Heaviest workmanship
9.5
Module 9

Temperature (°C) Air circulation (m/s)

Figure 3 Ideal Working Environment

Physical Environment
Human Factors

9.5.1 - HO - 7
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Tasks
Notes 9.6 9.6.1 - HO - 1

Tasks

Work, Tasks, Visual Inspections and Complex Systems

Physical Work and Repetitive Tasks

Because of the frequency of continuously repeated tasks, complacency may arise. If

somebody is used to do a specific job he does not think about it and is not aware of
all dangers and risks included.
Complacency is often linked to an expectation attitude. The individual sees what he
is used to see and not what is actually visible. If this phenomenon is accompanied by
adverse factors like stress, fatigue or missing tools the failure rate will increase
significantly.
The best means against complacency are
V to be concentrated during the whole process
V to be aware of the actual activity
V to check all conditions
V to use the manual even if the task has been carried out million times before.

Visual Inspection

Typical visual inspections are required

V during preflight and post-- flight checks
V during special inspections after hard landing or lightning strike
V during scheduled maintenance
V when defects have been discovered during maintenance
V after structural repairs
V after the change of time-- limited parts.
Refer to Figure 1.
The accident on a Boeing 737--200 which lost 18 feet of its fuselage, could have
been avoided if the maintenance crew would have carried out a thorough visual
inspection of structure and rivets before the flight, as described in the relevant
manuals.
The staff was experienced: certifying staff had 22 years experience and the
supervisor had 33 years experience. The staff did not detect cracks or damaged
rivets. An investigation after the accident discovered that there must have been at
least 240 cracks before.
Refer to Figure 2.

All what has been mentioned before regarding repetitive tasks and the arising danger
is valid for visual inspections as well. This can be an explanation for the machined
part shown in Figure 2 which left the production line with obvious errors.
Refer to Figure 3.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Tasks
Notes 9.6 9.6.1 - HO - 2

Complex Systems

There are many definitions of complexity, therefore many natural, artificial and
abstract objects or networks can be considered to be complex systems, and their
study (complexity science) is highly interdisciplinary.

Complexity in this sense means that none of the system elements can be regarded
isolated. One of these elements when altered will always have an effect on the other
elements and on the whole system.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Tasks
Notes 9.6 9.6.1 - HO - 3

C 1961

Figure 1 Loss of Fuselage in Flight

 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Tasks
Notes 9.6 9.6.1 - HO - 4

Visual Inspection Errors

Figure 2
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Tasks
Notes 9.6 9.6.1 - HO - 5

Quality refers to the distinctive characteristics

or properties of a person, object, process or
other thing. Such characteristics may enhance
a subject’s distinctiveness, or may denote
some degree of achievement or excellence.

Quality refers to the distinctive characteristics

or properties of a person, object, process or
other thing. Such characteristics may enhance
a subject’s distinctiveness, or may denote
some degree of achievement or excellence.

Result: 30
C 0767

Figure 3 Visual Test

 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Communication
Notes 9.7 9.7.1 - HO - 1

Communication

Communication Procedures

Terms of Communication

Refer to Figure 1.

Whenever communication takes place, there is always a transmitter and a receiver.

There must be another ingredient: response from the receiver. We are only aware of
this if we get feedback.

For example, when talking to someone the person should also listen and watch as
well. It is only by doing this to find out the receiver’s response to the message. Such
a response is called ’feedback’.

It is similar to a radio conversation between two persons, during which, at different

times, the participants will be either transmitting or receiving signals of some kind in a
specific code, i.e. spoken words or Morse. Just as with the radio conversation, all
forms of message passing are subject to ’interference’.

This interference limits the effectiveness of communication and justifies close consider-
ation.

The Transmitter

The transmitter is, initially, the person who decides that a message is to be sent. The
message may be an original idea of the transmitter or an information the transmitter
himself has received from another source.

When preparing to pass a message, the transmitter’s first step should be to ensure
that the material to be communicated is clear in his own mind. In other words, he
must prepare his message for transmission. To do this he needs to seek a logical
order of presentation -- logical not only to himself but also to the receiver.

The receiver has certain needs/characteristics which the transmitter must consider.
Every receiver is different, therefore each receiver’s needs/characteristics are
different. For this reason, the means to convey a message must be carefully chosen
to suit the receiver.

The ’Code’

In short, there is some sort of coding which will convey the meaning of a particular
idea effectively. These are examples:
V words
V actions
V diagrams
V pictures
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Communication
Notes 9.7 9.7.1 - HO - 2

V signs
V sounds
V smells
V signals.

The objective is to pass a specific mental image from the mind of the transmitter to
the mind of the receiver, without distortion. The code chosen largely depends on the
receiver’s outlook, intellect, age, vocabulary, etc.

Some of the decisions to be made when choosing a code are:

V If words are to be used, what is the receiver’s vocabulary? Will he/she under-
stand?
V Should the words be spoken or written or both?
V Which language should be used?
V Should some form of diagram be used to support the worded message?
V Would a diagram alone be sufficient?
V Might a series of pictures and sound commentary be the best method?

These and many more questions should be asked when choosing a code. The
choice of code will depend on the material to be communicated and the characteris-
tics of the receiver.

Interference

Having chosen a suitable code for his/her message, the transmitter then sends the
message. However, it is very unlikely that the information will be absorbed by the
receiver exactly as it has left the transmitter.

There are many things which influence the communication during the stages of
transmission and reception. These are influences which reduce the communication’s
effectiveness, called ’interference’. It is impossible to identify all known types of
interference. Some of the more common examples are
V distractions
V semantics
V manner
V attitude and interests of transmitter and receiver
V psychological distortion (barriers)
V physical isolation
V bad listening
V cultural/racial difference.

The Receiver

The transmitter must consider the receiver while preparing to communicate. The
message must be transmitted in such a way that the receiver will understand its full
meaning and be able to respond as desired.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Communication
Notes 9.7 9.7.1 - HO - 3

The receiver’s task in the cycle is to collect the information transmitted to him in
whatever code the transmitter is using. He must then decode the message and try to
understand it. Having understood the message, he must, in some way, show the
transmitter that his message has been received and, at the same time, indicate the
degree of understanding (feedback).
Whatever response results from communication, overt or covert action may not
necessarily take place immediately, nor will it always be observable. Sometimes,
behaviour resulting from the reception of information may not take place for years! This
is particularly true when talking about formal education. It is also true for management/
supervisory development programmes. Even when a response takes place, any
apparent change in behaviour may not be noticeable.
Response may therefore be slow and not always visible. But it is the transmitter’s job
to observe as much response as he can.

Feedback
The way in which the receiver shows that he has understood the message may vary.
Again, there are many methods, e.g.
V actions
V words
V expressions
V manner.
When talking, it may be a nod or a smile at an appropriate point in the conversation.
With a letter or memo it could be an answering letter or certain action. If the
transmitter is observant, he will get the feedback which completes the communication
loop.
Feedback reverses the communication process. This is a return message passing
from the receiver (who is now the transmitter) to the former transmitter, who is now
the receiver. The latter decodes this message and either ends the communication at
this point (if all is well and nothing further is to be transmitted) or modifies the original
message and re--transmits it. The latter course of action should always follow if it is
clear to the original transmitter that the full meaning of the message has not been
understood.

Conclusion

Transmitter and receiver both have definite roles and responsibilities which must be
observed if communication is to be effective. For these reasons, close consideration
should be given to the basic factors of communication.
The most important factor to be emphasised in conclusion is feedback. Only by
disciplining to get feedback in every communication situation, it can be found out
whether or not the other person has understood the message exactly the way it was
meant.

Written Communication

In the working environment, written communication has the same importance as

verbal communication. Job cards, maintenance manuals, check lists, log books are
just some examples where written communication is important.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Communication
Notes 9.7 9.7.1 - HO - 4

If a message is to be passed, the following must be considered:

V it must be readable
V it must contain all necessary information
V it must be formulated precisely
V it must be easily understood
V it must be free of emotions.
while taking into account
V knowledge of the receiver
V experience with this particular subject
V language
V attitude of the receiver.

Work Logging and Recording

The complete documentation of the work done is of utmost importance in aircraft
maintenance and operation. The pilots rely on the information provided and evaluate
the condition of aircraft and systems.
Furthermore, the correct reporting is very important because in the case of an
incident or accident it can be definitely proved who did the mistake or forgot an
important item etc.
For handling of aircraft documentation the following is important:
V only the actual documentation with cross references and additional reports
must be used
V the documentation must be available on site close to the workbench or air-
craft
V computer network must be used if available.
The procedure is as follows:
V the entry and signature in worksheets and job cards must be done immedi-
ately after end of the work without delay
V the entry must always follow the official approved procedures
V the report must be in clear words and easily readable.

Keeping Up to Date
Aircraft systems become more and more sophisticated and difficult. Manufacturers
try to keep their documents up to date in order to ensure the correct working
procedures.
Not understanding the importance of actual information will lead to negligence,
expressed in the statement: ’I know what to do, so why do I have to understand what
is written in the manual’.
To avoid this attitude the maintainer has always to keep in mind:
V he has to ensure that he understands his task
V he has to keep his knowledge up to date
V if in doubt, never hesitate to ask questions.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Communication
Notes 9.7 9.7.1 - HO - 5

Dissemination of Information

The necessary information can be transferred by means of

V documentation nearby the working place
V sufficient time between the shifts
V shift log book
V visual management.

The transfer of information mainly during shift and task handover must include:
V work sheets
V actual drawings
V job cards
V work order
V wiring diagram manual.

These information must be communicated:

V work done during the last shift
V the next step in the procedure
V work prepared for the certifying staff.

The correct way of information dissemination can be gathered from:

V quality handbook
V maintenance organization exposition
V procedures to disseminate information and documentation.

Maintenance organizations will get their EASA approval only if they have defined and
practice clear procedures for:
V update
V control
V distribution
V monitoring

of the required documentation.

! Never use unauthorised documents or such which are not under revision (e.g.
courseware prepared for training purposes only)!

Refer to Figure 2.

’Visual management’ means a clear and visible plan so that all staff involved can see
the next task and when to start it.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Communication
Notes 9.7 9.7.1 - HO - 6

Transmitter Code Interference Receiver

B 6428
Feedback Response

Figure 1 The Communication Process

 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Communication
Notes 9.7 9.7.1 - HO - 7

Visual Management (Example)

Figure 2
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Human Error
Notes 9.8 9.8.1 - HO - 1

Human Error

Errors and Avoiding of Errors

Error Models and Theories

The Error Iceberg

Any time an incident happens it has disastrous consequences which will lead to
casualties or to a loss of material and to time delays.

Normally the causes of the incidents will be intensively investigated. Very often the
results of such investigations show that it was a chain of smaller incidents, mistakes
and inattentiveness which led in the end to the incident. These phenomena can be
compared with an iceberg. Only the tip of the iceberg is visible and all small chain
links are hidden under the surface.
Refer to Figure 1.

The tip of the iceberg shows the serious incidents which are visible for everybody
and will cause official investigations by local authorities.
The middle section contains all occurrences like inflight shutdowns, delays, fender
benders etc. which can be officially investigated.
The major part is in the lower section which is invisible. It includes all the many
occurrences which have not been announced officially and which will not be
recognised outside the working area.

Meanwhile, many aircraft companies investigate serious incidents; however most

incidents do not have direct influence and remain invisible under the surface.
It is everybody’s task to break the chain in order to ensure flight and working place
safety.
Refer to Figure 2.

To determine the probability of failure occurrence several factors have to be

considered:
V reliability of a system or component defined by the mean time between failure
(MTBF)
V redundancy
V behaviour of a system, component or function in case of a fault:
-- fail passive
-- fail save
-- fail operational.
75 % of all errors are introduced during the product definition, development and
planning phases.
80 % of these errors will be discovered and corrected during final testing or customer
operation.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Human Error
Notes 9.8 9.8.1 - HO - 2

SHEL Model

Refer to Figure 3.

The approach of the SHEL model is that each individual is part of a closed system.
The system consists of humans, buildings, tools, facilities, rules and the environment.

The acronym SHEL stands for:

V Software, including all components which make the system work, like instruc-
tions, procedures and practices
V Hardware, including all facilities like hangars, offices, vehicles and test equip-
ment
V Environment means the surrounding environmental conditions
V Liveware are the individuals acting in the environment.

Human factor specialists concentrate on the interfaces between individual and the
other system elements taking into consideration that the factor ’human’ can never be
looked at isolated from the other elements.

The purpose of the SHEL model is to show that one system element cannot be
changed without influencing and changing all other system elements. If, as an
example, the hardware is changed any influences on all other system elements have
to be considered, i.e. the influences on the individuals, on the relationship/interfaces
between them and on the documentation.

Lack of Communication

What can happen if there are problems with the interfaces, the following real accident
has been clearly shown:

8:56 Lockheed aircraft L1011 departed from Miami to Nassau, approx. 162 nm
(300 km).
9:15 While descending through 15,000 feet, engine no. 2 oil quantity and pres-
sure warning illuminated. Engine no. 2 was shut down, the crew decided to
return to Miami.
9:23 Oil pressure warning for engines no. 1 and 3 illuminated.
9:28 Engine no. 3 flamed out with oil quantity zero.
9:33 Engine no. 1 flamed out (oil quantity zero) while crew attempted to restart
no. 2.
9:38 After aircraft had descended from 12,000 to 4,000 feet without power, en-
gine no. 2 could be restarted.
9:46 One-- engine landing at Miami, no occupants were injured.

The accident investigation showed:

V Three engines were damaged because of oil-- leakages caused by a mainten-
ance error on the three engine master chip detectors.
V According to the maintenance program, the master chip detectors had been
removed by two mechanics and given to the foreman for inspection.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Human Error
Notes 9.8 9.8.1 - HO - 3

V Because of several reasons the mechanics decided to install new chip de-
tectors taken from the store and not those one’s from the foreman’s office/
cabinet.
V In contrast to the detectors used before, the originally-- packed chip detectors
had no pre--installed o--ring seals.
V This fact was neither recognised by the mechanics nor by the foreman.

The two mechanics were interviewed after the accident and said, that
V they did not have received a special training for the task
V they had never seen the procedure for the task
V they were not aware of previous problems with master chip detectors
V they were aware that work card 7204 required replacement of o--ring seals;
but they assumed that the master chip detectors drawn from stock had new
o--ring seals because they carried ’serviceable’ tags attached and because
those issued from the cabinet in the foreman’s office always had new o--ring
seals
V they assumed someone on the day shift or the technical field representative
had replaced the o--ring seals
V they had never replaced an o--ring seal on a master chip detector before.

Swiss Cheese Model

Refer to Figure 4.

The Swiss cheese model compares the ideal situation with the reality. In the ideal
model it is supposed that a process always starts with the planning, followed by
development and production, and runs up to the operation without interference.

However, in reality there are so many pitfalls, possible errors and influences that an
accident maybe likely if the persons involved in the process do not take care, be
aware, communicate, use the right documentation and adhere to the relevant
procedures.

Types of Error in Maintenance Tasks

The main mistakes in maintenance are:

V incorrect installation of components
V fitting of wrong parts
V electrical wiring of wrong parts (including cross connection)
V loose objects left in the aircraft
V inadequate lubrication
V cowling, access panels not secured
V fuel/oil caps and refuel panel not secured
V landing gear ground lock pins not removed before departure.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Human Error
Notes 9.8 9.8.1 - HO - 4

Handling of Errors

Implications of Errors

The chain of events will lead to an accident if

V malfunctions are not detected
V abnormalities are ignored
V abnormalities are recognised but misinterpreted
V wrong or no reactions started.

Avoiding and Managing of Errors

The error chain can be broken if

V malfunctions are detected
V abnormalities are recognised
V dangerous situations are recognised
V correct reactions initiated.

In most cases it is not possible to reduce the criticality of a fault by redundant design
only. The way to minimise the probability of errors or faults is therefore:
V safety margin in design loads
V special testing of prototype parts
V adequate inspection intervals
V special inspection after hard landing
V redundant system layout.
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Human Error
Notes 9.8 9.8.1 - HO - 5

Serious
events

Operational
significant
events
(inflight shutdowns, delays,
fender benders, cancellations)

Unreported errors and near misses

that are currently unreported and
locally handled
C 0684 A

Figure 1 The Error Iceberg

 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Human Error
Notes 9.8 9.8.1 - HO - 6

Criticality of fault

Bulb in galley lighting system.

No risk. Flight can be continued
without influence of this fault.

Probability of fault occurrence

Criticality of fault

Loss of a ball--jack--screw
(horizontal stabiliser trim).
This will result in a high risk
to operate the aircraft.

Probability of fault occurrence

Criticality of fault

Criticality is still high, but by

means of material, strength,
redundancy and inspection,
failure occurance is improbable.
C 0685 A

Probability of fault occurrence

Figure 2 Criticality of Fault Versus Probability of

Fault Occurrence
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Human Error
Notes 9.8 9.8.1 - HO - 7

System elements in the right order

L
H
E

Mismatch of sytem elements resulting in a difficult situation

S
L
H
E
C 0686

Figure 3 The SHEL Model

 Notes

Dangerous
Preliminary

Ideal system Real system

situation

No
Accident
Different layers, from
9.8

-- development
Module 9

-- production to
-- flight crew operation

Figure 4 Swiss Cheese Model

Human Error
Human Factors

9.8.1 - HO - 8
 Human Factors
Preliminary Module 9 Hazards in the Workplace
Notes 9.9 9.9.1 - HO - 1

Hazards in the Workplace

Recognising and Avoiding Hazards and Dealing with Emergencies

Recognising and Avoiding Hazards

A hazard is a source of potential harm. A hazard has three modes:

1. dormant (there are no people around; there is no risk)
2. armed (there is a person or are people in the vicinity; there is risk)
3. active (human reaction time is too slow to combat the effect of the hazard; it
is too late to prevent the consequences of the hazard).

Worker safety and health is the prevention and reduction of the number of occupa-
tional safety and health hazards at the places of employment, providing safe and
healthful working conditions.

For more information refer to Chapter 7.1.1.

Dealing with Emergencies

This has been already mentioned in the previous Chapters 7.1.1 and 7.1.2 ’Safety
Precautions -- Aircraft and Workshop’.