STS

LECTURE NOTES

INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

(PPT: https://drive.google.com/file/d/142v1zgqe-5hFGetYE7HOPyy2CpmcqCwn/view )

Science
➔ Body of organized knowledge about nature
➔ Latin scientia - knowledge
➔ Methods of obtaining knowledge:
◆ Experiment, Observation, Hypothesis, theory, law
● *Scientific method
➔ Goals:
◆ explanation, understanding, prediction, control
● Examples: weather forecasting
➔ Way of thinking about or approaching a topic
➔ An organized, hierarchical activity that investigates nature and human nature by experiment and
observation

Technology
➔ Techne - art, craft, skill
➔ Logos - word
➔ A discourse on an art or arts
➔ The scientific study of the practical or industrial arts
➔ Applied science
➔ A system based on the application knowledge, manifested in physical objects and organizational forms,
for the attainment of specific goals
➔ Designing and use of devices, processes, and materials to solve practical problems and to satisfy
human needs and wants
➔ Examples: cashier computers, electronic eye (scanning of bar codes)

Society
➔ A large or small group of people in a particular place and time who are linked by common goals and
interests

!! Science and technology have had both a positive and negative impact on society, especially in the
following areas:
➔ Community life
◆ The shift from nomadic life to farming led to the development of the city

◆
● Networks of transportation, communication, and trade systems
● Specialized labor
 ● Government and religion
● Social class
◆ The 19th century witnessed the industrial revolution
● The invention of textile manufacturing machines
● Division of labor
● Increase in production
● Crowded cities
● Unsafe and unhealthy working conditions
➔ Health
◆ The greatest innovation of technology was longevity
● Example: ct scans
◆ A large part of technology has been dedicated to the advancement of medical science

●
● In 1796, Edward Jenner paved the way for modern immunology by discovering a
vaccine for smallpox.

●
● Sir James Young Simpson demonstrates the anaesthetic properties of chloroform on
humans.
○ Used his “drinking buddies” as test subjects. He placed different chemicals on
their drinks until he placed chloroform on their drinks (the next day, his test
humans did not remember anything after drinking) -- unethical test!

●
● Sir Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, the first antibiotic, in 1928.
◆ Some current innovations that have an impact on society

●
 ● In 1997, scientists at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland, introduced Dolly the
sheep, the first mammal ever to have been cloned. Dolly quickly became the symbol of
the controversy over the ethics of cloning.
➔ Work
◆ Technical innovations physical energy and lessened people’s workload

◆
◆ The concept of leisure developed from labor-saving technology. People use the money they
earn to take advantage of leisure time!
➔ Communication
◆ Inventions and innovations in communication that have an influence on society

◆
● Discovery of the Printing press

HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

(PPT:https://drive.google.com/drive/u/1/folders/1OLn5PdQ3ZiTstnX9f7-r_V1yazUXo0g_)

Technology
➔ Discourse or treatise on the art of arts
➔ The scientific study of the practical or industrial arts
➔ Humankind has undergone the Industrial Revolution, which has produced drastic changes in the life of
everyday humans in almost all parts of the world
➔ Examples:
◆ Power generation
● James Watt (1765)
○ Improved the steam engine sufficiently to make it a practical source of power
◆ coal
● Michael Faraday (1820 - 1860)
○ Made a contribution to the understanding of electrical, magnetic, and chemical
phenomena
○ Laid the foundation for the development of electric generators and motors
○ One of the most “gifted men in science”
● Tomas Edison (1878 - 1880)
○ Developed the first successful incandescent bulb/electric light
◆ If he tried to cut the oxygen, the filament will just produce the light and it
would not burn out
◆ He did this experiment in a vacuum with a tube
○ Paved the way for the “era of electronics”
● Nikola Tesla (1887)
○ Invented the induction motor, the first practical motor that runs on
alternating-current electricity
◆ Alternating current makes feasible the transmission of electric power over
long distances
● George Westinghouse (1887)
○ Invented the first commercially successful electric transformer
◆ Medicine
● Horace Wells and William T.G. Morton (1845 - 1846)
○ Demonstrated the first successful uses of anesthesia for dentistry and surgery
● Ignaz Semmelweis (1847)
○ Introduced the practice of antiseptic prophylaxis into medicine
◆ Used in all surgeries
● Louis Pasteur (1865 - 1867)
○ Established that bacteria are the cause of many diseases
● Felix Hoffmann (1897)
○ Synthesized aspirin and heroin
● Paul Ehrlich (1907)
○ Discovered the first effective medicinal treatment for syphilis thus helps establish
the concept of chemotherapy as an important tool in medicine
● Hermann J. Muller (1927)
○ Established the existence of gene mutation and shows that it plays a major role
in the evolution
● Alexander Fleming (1928)
○ Discovered penicillin, the first antibiotic agent
● Francis Crick and James Watson (1953)
○ Discovered the structure of DNA
◆ Transportation
● 1840-1860
○ Railroads rapidly in the U.S. and elsewhere
● George Westinghouse (1869)
 ○ Invented the compressed-air brake for railroad cars and engine
● Gottlieb Daimler (1889-1890)
○ Invented the first successful gasoline-powered automobile
● Rudolph Diesel (1892)
○ Patented the diesel engine
● Henry Ford (1896)
○ “Mass-produced” the gasoline-powered automobile
● Wildbur Wright and Ovrille Wright (1903)
○ Achieved the first successful airplane flight
◆ Communication
● Samuel F.B. Morse (1838)
○ Significantly improves the telegraph by inventing the Morse code
● Samuel Colt (1843)
○ Laid the first underwater telegraph cable, between Manhattan to the Governors
Island, New York City
● Charles Dowd (1869)
○ Proposed standard time zones as a means of avoiding railway accidents
● Alexander Graham Bell (1976)
○ Invented the telephone
● Thomas Alva Edison (1877)
○ Invented the phonograph
● George Eastman(1888)
○ Invented the roll-film camera, Kodak, and thus makes photography accessible to
amateurs
● Guglielmo Marconi (1890)
○ Develop long-range radio communication
● Thomas Alva Edison (1891)
○ Invented the motion picture camera and projector
◆ Everyday Life
● Ottmar Mergenthaler (1884)
○ Invented the Linotype machine for printing
● Tolbert Lanston (1885)
○ Invented the Monotype machine for printing
● Elisha Otis (1853)
○ Invented the elevator safety brake, which makes it safe to use elevators for
human travel
● William L.B. Jenney (1879)
○ Designed and completed the first steel-frame skyscraper
● Alva John Fisher (1910)
○ Thor - the first washing machine
● 1927
○ The invention of a way to record sound waves on motion-picture film transforms
movies from “silent” into “talkies”
● 1945
○ An atomic bomb is tested, demonstrated, and used
● 1957
○ The Societ Union surprised the western world with its successful launch of
Sputnik, the first satellite to reach outer space
● 1969
 ○ First landing on the moon of the Apollo spacecraft, carrying astronauts Neil
Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin

PROPERTIES OF LIVING ORGANISMS AND WATER SIGNIFICANT TO LIFE

(PPT: https://drive.google.com/drive/u/1/folders/1OLn5PdQ3ZiTstnX9f7-r_V1yazUXo0g_)

Biology
➔ The scientific study of life
➔ Study of living things and their vital processes
➔ In a hypothesis-driven science, scientists use the “scientific method”
◆ Propose a hypothesis
◆ Make deductions leading to predictions
◆ Test the hypothesis by seeing if the predictions come true

A Structural Hierarchy of Life, from Molecules to Ecosystems, defines the scope of biology:

➔ Properties of life
◆ All living things respond to their surroundings
◆ All living things have limited life spans and will die
➔ Ecosystems Include:
◆ All the organisms in an area, which make up a community
◆ Interbreeding organisms of the same species, a population
➔ Organisms are made up of:
◆ Organ systems
◆ Organs
◆ Tissues
◆ Cells
◆ Molecules
➔ The following features distinguish life from non-life
◆ Ability to use oxygen for metabolic process
◆ Order and regulation
◆ Growth and development
◆ Use of energy from the environment
◆ Response to environmental stimuli
◆ Ability to reproduce
 ◆ Evolutionary change
➔ Biology and Everyday life
◆ Biology is connected to a number of important issues
● Medicine
● Genetic engineering
● Environmental problems and solutions
◆ Chemistry of life
● Life requires about 25 chemical elements
○ Chemical Element is a substance that cannot be broken into other substances by
ordinary chemical means
○ About 25 different chemical elements are essential to life
○ Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen make up the bulk of living matter, but
there are other elements necessary for life
◆ The chemistry of life is sensitive to acidic and basic conditions
● A compound that releases H+ ions in solution is an acid
● A compound that accepts H+ ions in solution is a base
● Acidity is measured on the pH scale
○ 0-7 = ACIDIC
○ 8-14 = BASIC
○ PURE WATER and SOLUTIONS that are NEITHER BASIC NOR ACIDIC are
NEUTRAL, with a pH of 7
● Properties of Water
○ Water is the most important compound in life
◆ Oxygen end slightly negatively charged
◆ The hydrogen end is slightly positively charged
◆ Water is, therefore, a polar molecule
○ The charged regions on water molecules are attracted to the oppositely charged
regions on nearby molecules
◆ The attraction forms weak bonds called Hydrogen Bonds
○ Like no other common substance, water exists in nature in all three physical
states:
◆ As solid
◆ As liquid
◆ As a gas
○ Four properties of water
1. Cohesive behavior (Cohesion &adhesion)
2. Ability to moderate temperature
- It takes a lot of energy to disrupt hydrogen bonds
- Therefore water is able to absorb a great deal of heat
energy without a large increase in temperature
- As the water cools, a slight drop in temperature releases a
large amount of heat. This leads to evaporative cooling.
3. Expanding upon freezing (density)
4. Universal solvent
- Water is a great solvent because the positive and negative ends
like magnets that pull apart other substances

OVERVIEW OF HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS

(PPT: https://drive.google.com/drive/u/1/folders/1OLn5PdQ3ZiTstnX9f7-r_V1yazUXo0g_)
\Anatomy
➔ The study of the structure of an organism
➔ Study of external and internal structures
➔ The physical relationships among body parts

Physiology
➔ The study of functions and mechanisms in a living organism
➔ It deals with the functions and activities of life and the physical and chemical phenomenon involved in it

Applied (clinical) anatomy

➔ Application of anatomical study for diagnosis and treatment of disease

Descriptive (systematic) anatomy

➔ Involves the description of individual parts of the body without reference to diseases

Anatomical planes:
➔ Coronal or Frontal plane
➔ Sagittal or Lateral / longitudinal plane
➔ Axial or Transverse / horizontal plane

Anatomical terms:
➔ Anterior vs Posterior
➔ Ventral vs Dorsal
➔ Superior vs Inferior
➔ Cranial vs Caudal
➔ Proximal vs Distal
➔ Median vs Lateral
 ➔

Anatomical regions of the abdomen:

➔ Right Upper Quadrant
➔ Left Upper Quadrant
➔ Right Lower Quadrant
➔ Left Lower Quadrant

Nine Regions of the Abdomen

➔ Right and Left Hypochondriac region
➔ Right and Left Lumbar region
➔ Right and Left Iliac region
➔ Epigastric region
➔ Umbilical region
➔ Hypogastric region

Human Body Cavities

Human Organ Systems
➔ Integumentary or Skin system

◆
◆ Largest organ of the human body
◆ Composed of the skin, sudoriferous glands, and sebaceous glands, hair, and nails
◆ Major role is protection from pathogens and dehydration
◆ Accounts for 7% of the body’s weight
◆ Functions of the Integument
● Protection against biological invasion, physical damage, and ultraviolet
● Excretion of salts and small amounts of wastes (ammonia and urea)
● Synthesis fo Vitamin D
● Thermoregulation
● Cutaneous Sensation
○ Four major types of mechanoreceptors:
◆ Meissner’s corpuscles
◆ Pacinian corpuscles
◆ Merkel’s disks
◆ Ruffini’s corpuscles
◆ Epidermis
● Outer protective layer
● Composed of dead cells (keratinocytes) containing a tough and fibrous protein called
“keratin”
● Contains melanocytes, cells that produce a dark pigment called “melanin”
◆ Dermis
● The inner, living layer
● Richly supplied with blood vessels and sensory nerve endings
● Made up mainly of fibrous proteins and other large molecules
◆ Hypodermis/Subcutaneous
● Fatty tissues; also known as the subcutis
● Conserves the body’s heat
● Protects our vital inner organs
◆ Skin Appendages
● Sudorigerous (sweat) glands
○ Secret sweat
○ Types of sweat glands
◆ Eccrine Glands
◆ Apocrine glands
● Ceruminous glands
○ secret cerumen (earwax) into the external ear canal
● Sebaceous gland
○ Opens into a hair follicle to secret an oily or waxy matter, called sebum, which
lubricates the hair and skin
● Arrector pili muscle
● Hair
● Nails
◆ Skin Disorders
● Basal cell carcinoma
● Squamous cell carcinoma
● Melanoma
● **ABCD RULE
○ Asymmetry, Border irregularity, Color, Diameter
◆ Burns
● First-degree
 ○ Affects the epidermis
● Second-degree
○ Affects the epidermis and upper dermis
● Third-degree
○ Sometimes called a “full-thickness burn”
○ Type of injury destroys the full layers of epidermis and dermis
● Fourth-degree
○ This is the deepest and most severe
○ They’re potentially life-threatening
○ These burns destroy all layers of the skin, as well as the bones, muscles, and
tendons
● Complications:
○ Infections because bacteria can enter the broken skin
○ Tetanus
○ Muscle contractions
○ Blood loss and shock (often could lead to death)
○ Dangerously low body temperature (hypothermia)
○ Low blood volume (Hypovolemia)
◆ The body loses too much blood from burn
➔ Skeletal system

◆
◆
◆ Attachment for muscles
◆ protect vital organs
◆ Supports the body
◆ Houses bone marrow tissue (used for blood cell formation)
◆ The Skeleton system has two divisions

◆ (left) axial; (right) appendicular

● Axial skeleton
○ Skull
○
◆ Two parts
● Cranium
○ Protects brain, eyes, ears, nasal cavity, and oral cavity
● Facial bones
○ Attachment for muscles of chewing and turning the head
○ Vertebral bones
◆ 5 sections
● Cervical vertebrae (7)
● Thoracic vertebra (12)
● Lumbar vertebrae (5)
● Sacrum vertebrae (5 fused)
● Coccyx (3-5 small vertebrae attached to the sacrum)
○ Thoracic bones

○
◆ Provides support for organs, such as heart and lungs
◆ 12 pairs of ribs
● Attached to the vertebral column at the back
● True ribs and False ribs
 ○ 10 pairs attached to sternum in front
● Floating ribs
○ Inferior 2 pairs
○ No attachment in front
● Appendicular skeleton
○ Pectoral girdle
◆ Attaches upper extremity to the axial skeleton
◆ Articulates with Sternum anteriorly and vertebral column posteriorly
◆ Consists of
● Clavicle
● Scapula

◆
○ pelvic girdle
 ◆
◆ “Coxae”, innominate bone or hip bone
◆ Attaches lower extremity to the axial skeleton
◆ Articles with sacrum posteriorly
◆ Consists of
● Illium
● Ischium
● pubis
○ Upper extremity
◆ Consists of
● Humerus
● Ulna
● Radius
● Carpals
● Metacarpals
● phalanges
○ lower extremity
◆ Consists of
● Femur
● Patella
● Tibia
● Fibula
● Tarsals
● Metatarsals
● Phalanges
● Types of bones
○ Long bones
◆ Longer than wide
◆ Ex. Femur, humerus
○ Short bones
◆ Roughly as long as wide
◆ Ex. Carpals, tarsals
○ Flat bones
◆ Plate-shaped
◆ Ex. Sternum, scapula, pelvis
 ○ Irregular bones
◆ Shape very irregular
◆ Ex. vertebrae
● Skeletal System Disorder
○ Abnormal spinal curvatures

○
◆ Kyphosis
● Exaggerated concavity of the thoracic vertebrae
◆ Lordosis
● Exaggerated convexity of the lumbar vertebrae
◆ Scoliosis
● Lateral bending of the spinal vertebrae
○ Types of Fracture
◆ Closed or simple
● Bone breaks
● No puncture or open wound in the skin
◆ Open or Compound
● Bone breaks through the skin
 ●
➔ Muscular system
◆ Function
● Produce movement
● Maintain posture
● Stabilize joints
● Generate heat
◆ Three Types of Muscular Tissue
 ●
◆ Naming of Skeletal Muscles
● The direction of muscle fibers
○ Examples: rectus (straight)
● The relative size of muscle
○ Example: maximus (largest)
● Location of the muscle
○ Example: many muscles are named for bones (e.g. temporalis)
● Number of origins
○ Example: triceps (three heads)
> Origin: attachment to the bone that does NOT move
> Insertion: attachment to the bone that MOVES
● Location of the muscle’s origin and insertion
○ Example: Sterno (on the sternum)
● Shape of the muscle
○ Example: deltoid (triangular)
○ Trapezius (trapezoid shaped)
● Action of the muscle
○ Example: flexor and extensor (flexes or extends a bone)
●
● Types of Movement
○ Abduction
■ Movement away from midline of body
○ Adduction
■ Movement toward midline of body
○ Flexion
■ Refers to a movement that decreases the angle between two body parts
■ Act of bending or being bent
○ Extension
■ Refers to a movement that increases the angle between two body parts
■ Brings limb into a straight condition
○ Dorsiflexion
■ Backward bending of foot
○ Plantar flexion
■ Bending the sole of the foot; pointing toes
○ Pronation
■ Turning palm downward
○ Supination
■ Turning palm upward
● Muscular Disorder
○ Spasm
■ Sudden, involuntary, strong muscle contraction
○ Torticollis
■ Severe neck spasms pulling head to one side; wryneck or crick in the
neck
○ Muscular Dystrophy (MD)
■ Inherited disease with progressive muscle atrophy
○ Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS)
■ Repetitive motion disorder
■ Compression of finger tendons and median nerve as they pass through
the carpal tunnel of the wrist
➔ Respiratory system
◆ Functions of the system:
● Respiration includes the following processes
○ Ventilation (breathing) is the movement of air into and out of the lungs
○ Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air in the lungs and the
blood
○ Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood
○ Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the tissues
● Other functions of the respiratory system:
○ Regulation of blood pH
○ Voice production
○ Olfaction
◆ the sensation of smell that results from the detection of odorous
substances aerosolized in the environment
◆ Pathway of inhaled air:
● Nasal Cavity
● Pharynx
● Epiglottis
● Larynx
● Trachea
● Bronchi
● Bronchioles
● Alveoli
● Exhaled air follows the reverse pathway
◆ Anatomy of the Respiratory System
● Upper respiratory tract
○ Nasal cavity
◆ Nares or nostrils
◆ Nasal turbinates or choanae
○ Pharynx
◆ A common passageway for both air and food
◆ 3 regions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
● Lower respiratory tract
○ Larynx
◆ Extends from the base of the tongue to the trachea
◆ It is a passageway for air between the pharynx and the trachea
◆ Two pairs of ligaments
● Vestibular folds (false vocal cords)
● Vocal folds (true vocal cords) - the primary source of voice
production
○ Trachea
◆ 1.4-1.5 cm in diameter
◆ 10-11 cm in length
◆ Consists of 16-20 C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage
◆ Projects through the mediastinum and devices into the right and left
primary bronchi at the level of the 5th thoracic vertebra
○ Bronchi
◆ The trachea divides into the left and right main bronchi each of which
connects to a lung
 ◆ The left main bronchus is more horizontal than the right main bronchus
because it is displaced by the
◆ The bronchi branch out as bronchioles
◆ The bronchioles open into the alveoli (air sacs)
◆ There are about 300 million alveoli in the lungs
○ Lungs
◆ Muscles of Respiration
● The muscles of inspiration include:
○ Diaphragm
○ External intercostals - elevate the ribs and sternum
● The muscles of expiration;
○ Internal intercostals - depress the ribs and sternum
○ The human breathing process is controlled in the Medulla Oblongata of the brain
● Chemicals that influence respiration:
○ Hydrogen ion concentrations
○ Carbon dioxide concentrations
○ Oxygen concentrations
◆ Gas Exchange and Transport
● Diffusion of gases in the body
○ The cells of the body use O2 and produce CO2
○ Blood returning from tissues and entering the lungs has a decreases Po2 and an
increased Pco2
○ Blood from the heart proceeding to the organ tissues has an increased Po2 and
decreased Pco2
○ O2 diffuses from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries because the Po2 in the
alveoli is greater than that in the pulmonary capillaries
○ In contrast, CO2 diffuses from the pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli because
the Pco2 is greater in the pulmonary capillaries than in the alveoli
○ O2 diffuses from the tissue capillaries into the organ tissues because the Po2 in
the tissue capillaries is greater than that in the organ tissues
○ In contrast, CO2 diffuses from the organ tissues into the tissue capillaries
because the Pco2 is greater in the organ tissues than in the tissue capillaries
◆ Pattern of Breathing
● Eupnea
○ Normal, relaxed, quiet breathing
● Apnea
○ Temporary cessation of breathing (one or more skipped breaths)
● Dyspnea
○ Labored, gasping breathing; shortness of breath
● Hyperpnea
○ Increases rate and depth of breathing in response to exercise, pain, or other
conditions
● Hyperventilation
○ Increases pulmonary ventilation in excess of metabolic demand
● Hypoventilation
○ Reduced pulmonary ventilation
● Orthopnea
○ Dyspnea occurs when a person is lying down
● Tachypnea
 ○ Accelerated respiration
● Respiratory arrest
○ Permanent cessation of breathing

◆
◆ Disorder of the Respiratory System
● Common cold
○ Most colds are caused by the rhinovirus, but other culprits include influenza,
parainfluenza, and coronavirus.
● Laryngitis
○ Inflammation of the vocal fold
● Pharyngitis (sore throat)
○ possible causes include streptococcus bacteria, which causes tonsillitis.
● Pneumonia
○ an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs. Viruses (influenza and
SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, bacteria (Streptococcus
pneumoniae), and fungi can all cause pneumonia
● Tuberculosis
○ Caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis
○ Usually attacks the lungs, but TB bacteria can attack any part of the body such
as the kidney, spine, and brain
● Lung Cancer
○ Lung malignancy
● Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD)
○ Long-term obstruction of airflow and reduction in pulmonary ventilation
○ Chronic bronchitis
◆ Inflammation of the lining of your bronchial tubes
◆ Cigarette smoking the risk of developing chronic bronchitis
○ Emphysema
◆ Causes shortness of breath because the alveolar walls weaken and can
rupture
◆ Cigarette smoking the risk of developing emphysema
○ Asthma
 ◆ The intense bronchoconstriction caused by allergens that trigger the
release of histamine and other inflammatory chemicals
➔ Cardiovascular system
◆ Heart Anatomy

●
● Approximately the size of your fist
● Location
○ The superior surface of the diaphragm
○ Left of the midline
○ Anterior to the vertebral column, posterior the sternum
○ Under the sternum (Slightly to the left) and between the lungs
● Function:
○ To pump blood throughout the body
○ Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the cells
○ Blood carries carbon dioxide and waste products away from the cells
● Divided into 4 chambers

○
○ Right atrium (upper chambers)
○ Left atrium (upper chambers)
 ○ Right ventricles (lower chambers)
○ Left ventricles (lower chambers)

○
● Atria
○ Thin-walled
○ Deliver blood to adjacent ventricles
○ Receive coming from the outside of the heart
● Ventricles
○ Much thicker and stronger walls
○ Right ventricle
◆ supplies blood to the lungs
◆ little flow resistance
◆ Carries Deoxygenated blood
○ Left ventricle
◆ The wall is thicker than the right ventricle
◆ supply blood in the systemic circulation
◆ Carries oxygenated bloodd
○ Separated by the interventricular septum
◆ Separates the oxygenated from the deoxygenated blood
○ Thickness of the myocardium varies according to the function of the chamber
● Heart valves separate each chamber and prevent a backflow of the blood
○ Tricuspid valve - atrioventricular valve, Bicuspid (mitral) valve -
atrioventricular valve, Pulmonary valve - semilunar valve, Aortic valve -
semilunar valve
◆ Atrioventricular (AV)
● valves lie between the atria and the ventricles
● AV valves prevent backflow into the atria when the ventricles
contract
● Tricuspid valve
○ Lies between the Right atrium and Right ventricle
● Bicuspid valve or Mitral valve
○ Lies between the Left atrium and the left ventricle
◆ Semilunar valves
● lies between the ventricles and Pulmonary artery/Aorta
● Semilunar valves prevent the backflow of blood into the ventricles
● Aortic valve
○ Lies between the left ventricle and the aorta
● Pulmonary valve
○ Lies between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery
◆ Heart valves ensure unidirectional blood flow through the heart
 ● Blood vessels
○ Arteries
◆ Muscular, thick, elastic blood vessels
◆ Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to body cells, tissue &
organs
◆ Except for the pulmonary artery which carries deoxygenated blood to the
lungs
○ Capillaries
◆ Very small blood vessels
◆ Connect arterioles to venules
○ Veins
◆ Thin-walled blood vessels
◆ Carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart from blood cells, tissue &
organs
◆ Except for the pulmonary vein which carries oxygenated blood towards
the heart
◆ Functions of Blood
● Transportation
○ Oxygen and carbon dioxide
○ Nutrients
○ Waste products metabolic wastes, excessive water, and ions)
● Regulation
○ Hormones and heat (to regulate body temperature)
● Protection
○ The clotting mechanism protects against blood loss and leukocytes provide
immunity against many disease-causing agents
◆ Blood components
● Formed elements
○ Red blood cells - erythrocytes
○ White blood cells - leukocytes
○ Platelets - thrombocytes
● Plasma
○ Water plus dissolved solutes
 ◆
◆ Pathway of blood in the heart
● Right atrium -> tricuspid valve -> right ventricle -> pulmonary semilunar valve ->
pulmonary arteries -> lungs -> pulmonary veins -> left atrium -> bicuspid valve -> left
ventricle -> aortic semilunar valve -> aorta -> systemic circulation
➔ Immune system
➔ Nervous system
➔ Endocrine system
➔ Digestive system
➔ Urinary system
➔ Reproductive system