Mechanics of machining

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 Content
• Basic theory of orthogonal machining
• Shear angle evaluation
• Velocity relationships
• Shear strain and strain rate
• Models for evaluation of shear angle

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 Chip formation mechanism
• It involves study of mechanism of chip formation in machining processes

Primary Tool
deformation
Chip
zone Secondary
deformation
zone
Work piece
Tertiary
deformation zone

Mechanism of machining

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 Basic theory of orthogonal machining
 Chip is acted upon by two forces:
• Resultant of forces on tool-chip interface
• Resultant of forces on shear plane

Chip Fn
Ff

R
Fs
Fns

R’
Orthogonal cutting model

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 Merchant’s analysis of orthogonal machining
Chip is in equilibrium at R=R’
• This condition is achieved only when tool
on
Chip cutting edge is “Perfectly sharp” i.e.
a0 cutting edge radius is zero
ed • Ploughing forces are assumed zero
ls ϒne Tool • Chip is considered as a rigid body
• Chip remains straight and has infinite
ac Fs
Fc φ contact length with tool face
Work piece
Notations:-
φ-Shear angle ϒne-Normal rake
Fr ls-length of shear plane
Ft
ac-uncut chip thickness
a0-Chip thickness
Fc-Cutting force
β Fs-Shear force Ft-Thrust force
Fn
showing shear plane model of continuous
chip formation

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 Merchant’s analysis of orthogonal machining

Resultant force R is acting on tool cutting edge and

resolved in direction normal to and along the tool
face into component Fn anf Ff respectively
F f  Fc sin  ne  Ft cos ne
Fn  Fc cos ne  Ft sin  ne
Resultant force R is resolved in direction normal to
and along the shearcomponent Fns and Fs respectively
Fs  Fc cos - Ft sin
Fns  Ft cos  Fc sin 
coefficient of friction   tan   Ft / Fn

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 Evaluation of shear angle
 Shear angle (𝜑)
ac a0
Tool length of shear zone ls  
Chip face sin cos(   ne )
ac . cos(   ne )
a0
sin  
ϒne a0
Tool
Φ-ϒne
A after rearrengement
ac C
ac
D B ). cos  ne
(
φ a0
Shear Plane tan 
ac
(1  sin  ne )
Shear angle
Let 𝜑-Shear angledetermination a0
𝛾𝑛𝑒 -Normal rake
ls-length of shear plane ac
Putting rc 
ac-uncut chip thickness a0
a0-Chip thickness rc . cos ne
tan  ……… Shear angle
𝐴𝐷 (1  rc . sin  ne )
sin ∅ =
𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐶
cos ∅ − 𝛾𝑒 =
𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐶
=
sin ∅ cos ∅ − 𝛾𝑒
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 Evaluation of Chip thickness
𝑚𝑐 = mass of chip specimen
𝑎𝑤 = width of chip
𝑎𝑜 = chip thickness
𝑙𝑐 = length of chip
𝜌 = density of chip

• Orthogonal cutting theory-

1) Thin shear zone is assumed
2) The cutting edge inclination angle = 0°
3) Chip flow angle = 0°
4) Cutting edge extend on both side of workpiece

𝑚𝑐
𝑎𝑜 =
𝑙𝑐 𝑎𝑤 𝜌

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 Evaluation of cutting velocities
Chip
velocity
Tool From ΔACB and  BCD
Undeformed face
CD CD
chip thickness Cutting
velocity
sin  
Shear Plane Tool CA v
Chip New work-
piece
From Δ BDC
surface
CD CD
Shear
velocity Tool cos( -  ne )  
Work piece CB vc
Flank

Thin shear zone at high speed V sin   Vc . cos(   ne )

V sin 
Vc 
180°-(90°-φ)- Notations:- cos(   ne )
ϒne γne φ-Shear angle ϒne-Normal rake Vc-Chip
D velocity V-Cutting velocity Vs-Shearing
90 90°-φ velocity on shear plane
° B

Vc Vs
γn
e

Φ-ϒne φ

C E V A
90-ϒne
Cutting velocities 9
 Evaluation of cutting velocities
Vs sin   Vc cos ne
Vc cos ne
Vs 
sin 
V sin  cos ne
Vs 
cos(   ne ) sin 
V cos ne
Vs 
cos(   ne )

0
-20 +10 Υne = -20
Υne =
1.0 1.0 0 1.0
2.0
+20
1.8
+10
Vc/V 1.6 Vs/V
1.4
+20
1.2

1.0
0.8
10 20 30 40 50 60 10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
φ φ
 Kronenberg’s Relationship
Relation between µ and λ
Ө dӨ
Considering equilibrium of forcesin the V
Chip
radial direction
ϒne
d m.v 2 Vc

m.v.  Fn  m.V 2  90-ϒne

dt r Ff
 m.v.  m.v.d / dt Tool
face Fn
Fn  m.v.d / dt (1)
Considering equilibrium of peripheral forces Relation between coefficient of friction and chip
compression factor
m.dv d
   .Fn    .m.v. (2)
dt dt

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 Kronenberg’s Relationship
Relation between µ and λ 1.0

substituting eqn. (1) in (2)

dv   .v.d Vc/V
dv
  .d 0.5 +20

v
0
vc dv  / 2 ne
v v  0 .dˆ -20

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

vc
 e   .  e   .( / 2ne)  rc  1 /  µ
v
  e  .( / 2ne)

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 Evaluation of shear strain and strain rate
s AB BD  DA Notations-
Shear strain    ∆y-Distance between two ϒne
y CD CD successive shear plane
∆s -Distance moved along shear
Strain   cot  tan(   ne ) plane
∆t-Time to move ∆s Tool
B
. s Vs
Strain rate     Δs A
(y.t ) y Work piece Δy

For example y  25m,  ne  00 , ϒne

B C
  20 , V  30m / min
0 φ
90-φ
(Φ-ϒne)

Strain rate  2.1104 S 1 Δs

Δy
D
A
Shear strain in metal cutting

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 Shear angle solution theories
 Theory of Earnst and Merchant (1945)
Chip
Resultant force R is acting on tool cutting edge and
Cross section
through
a0

resolved in direction normal to and along the toolun-deformed

chip ls ϒne Tool

face into component Fn anf Ff respectively ac ac Fs

Fc φ
F f  Fc sin  ne  Ft cos ne Work piece
Notations:-
Fn  Fc cos ne  Ft sin  ne Ft
Fr
φ-Shear angle ϒne-Normal rake
ls-length of shear plane
ac-uncut chip thickness
Resultant force R is resolved in direction normal to a0-Chip thickness
Fc-Cutting force
β Fs-Shear force Ft-Thrust force
and along the shearcomponent Fns and Fs respective ly Fn
Figure showing shear plane model of continuous
Fs  Fc cos - Ft sin chip formation
Fig. Merchant’s circle diagram of forces
Fns  Ft cos  Fc sin 
coefficient of friction   tan   Ft / Fn

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 Shear angle solution theories
 Theory of Earnst and Merchant (1945)

F  F cos(     ) (1)
s r ne
 A
F  A  s c (2)
s s s sin 
From eqn. 1 and 2
 A
F  s c (3)
r sin  . cos(    
)
ne
By geometryF  F cos( -  ) (4)
c r ne
From eqn.3 and 4
 A .cos( -  )
F  s c ne (5)
c sin .cos(   -  )
ne

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 Shear angle solution theories
 Theory of Earnst and Merchant (1945)

To find value of  for which Fc is minimum,

differentiating eqn.5 with respect to and equating
it to zero
2   -   /2
ne
This relation agreed well with experimental results
for synthetic plastic but poorly on cutting steel with
carbide tool.

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 Shear angle solution theories
 Merchant’s modified theory

s s  k *s
o

Shear C k
stress
τs

Normal stress on plane

of shear stress σs
Dependence of τs and σs assumed in
Merchant theory

• Previously differentiation is carried out

considering Ac,τs, ϒne independent of υ
• Reconsidering that shear strength of material
increases linearly with increase in normal
stress σs on shear plane
• τs = τso + k* σs
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 Shear angle solution theories
 Merchant’s modified theory
Fns  Fr sin(     ne ) (1)

Fns   s . As

Where,
σ s  Normal stress
A s  Area of shear plane

 s . Ac
Fns 
sin 

Fns sin 
s  (2)
Ac

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 Shear angle solution theories
 Merchant’s modified theory
Fr sin(     ne ) sin 
s  (3)
Ac

Fr sin  cos(     ne )
s  (4)
Ac

From eqn. (3) and (4)

 s   tan(     ne ) (5)

substituting in  s   so  k .s

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 Shear angle solution theories
 Merchant’s modified theory
 so
s  (6)
[1  k . tan(     ne ) ]

 s . Ac cos(   ne )
Fc  (7)
sin  . cos(     ne )

Putting value of  s from eqn. (6)

 so Ac cos(   ne )
Fc 
sin  cos(     ne )[1  k . tan(     ne ) ]

On differentiating value of  is obtained

2     ne  C

Where, C - constant for given material

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 Shear angle solution theories
 Lee and Shaffer theory
• Applied theory of plasticity to the machining
deformation.
• Assumptions: Stress

• The material is rigid plastic i.e. elastic strain

is negligible during deformation and Strain
deformation take place at constant stress once Stress strain curve for rigid plastic
the yield point is exceeded material
• The behavior of material is independent of
rate of deformation
• The effect of temperature increase during
deformation are neglected
• The inertia effects resulting from acceleration
of material during deformation are neglected

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 Shear angle solution theories
 Lee and Shaffer theory ϒn
e
• Triangular plastic zone ABC where no Plastic region
deformation occurs but material is Chip
C Tool
stressed to yield point a0 45°-β
• AC is considered as free surface where A
F
45° r
no stress get transmitted β
• The maximum shear stress occurs ac φ η
through zone, is the shear stress τs on B Work piece
shear plane. The two direction of Lee and Shaffer’s slip line field for
maximum shear stresses are indicated by orthogonal cutting
two orthogonal set of straight lines (slip
lines)

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 Shear angle solution theories
 Lee and Shaffer theory
σc
σd
τ Merchant
2η

2β Tin
σb Al Lee Shaffer
O
45° Shear
angle φ M.S.
Lead

σa σa = σ2
Copper
Mohr’s circle for the stress zone
(Β-ϒne)
From the above figure 2  2  90 Fig. Comparison of theory of shear angle

     ne 
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Thank You!

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