Saussure

Langue Parole
 It is the abstract system of the language made
up of linguistic signs (signified-signifier). These
signs interrelate.
 It is complete at any one moment.
 It is the concrete manifestation of language:
 It is governed by rules or principles.
what we actually say/write.
 It is common to all.
 It is individual (not collective).
 “Language is a system of differences”.
 It is dependent on time.
 It is not affected by the individual will of the
speaker.
 It exists in the totality of speakers (each
member of the community).
The linguistic sign
The linguistic sign has two primordial characteristics:

 Principle I: The arbitrary nature of the sign.

The concept or
 The bond between the signifier and the signified is representation:
arbitrary in that it is not ‘natural’. It’s unmotivated:
there’s no reason why.
 The idea of ‘sister’ is in no way connected
intrinsically to the sounds/graphemes S-I-S-T-E-R.
Comparing the same signifier in different languages
proves that.
 So, if unmotivated, then the bond has been
established by some other principle: SOCIAL
CONVENTION (or SOCIAL CONSENSUS).
 Principle II: The linear nature of the signifier.

The sound-image: T-R-E-E

 The signifier unfolds in time (as opposed to icons,
which present their meaning all at once) because its
elements (sounds/graphemes) are presented in
succession or in a sequence.

Language as a system
When considering language as a system, we are referring to the object of study of Linguistics. The linguistic sign
composes the minimal unit of analysis.

Language is a system of pure values: what is linguistic value?

 It can be either positive value or negative value. Positive value is the signification of the linguistic sign
(signified) and negative value involves relations of similarity and opposition (something similar,
something dissimilar). When looking for something dissimilar we look for the minimal unit of difference
and it can be of any level: semantic, phonetic, phonological, syntactical, pragmatic.
 It is not just the signification (meaning) of the linguistic sign (signified) but also all the relations in the
system (similarity and opposition).
  Value is determined by the whole system of the language, and so it is relational: it is a system of
interdependent terms in which the value of each term results solely from the simultaneous presence of
others; and oppositional since each sign is different from other linguistic signs that are similar yet also
different.
How would you explain this in Saussure terms?
CAT / CATS This is a proof that language is a system made up of signs which are related to one
another by means of similarities and differences. The value of each is determined by
CAT / DOG how it differs from similar but different signs. In this case, cat and cats differ at a
CAT / CUT syntactical level, since cats is in the plural and cat in the singular. Cat and dog are
similar in that both are animals, pets, have 4 legs, etc. but differ in semantics: they
are different animals. Finally, cat and cut share the consonant sounds and
graphemes but differ at a syntactical and phonetic level. Syntactical because cat is a
noun and cut is a verb, and phonetic because the vowel in cat is an /ᴂ/ and the
vowel in cut is an /ʌ/.

Mutability and immutability

There are forces at work that impinge upon a language either to ‘freeze’ it (or keep it as it is at any point in time)
and/or to change it. These forces are never individual but collective.

Why is it that language does NOT change?

 It’s vast.
 It’s good enough as it is.
 The linguistic sign is arbitrary (any sign is as good as any other).

Why is it that language DOES change?

 It’s arbitrary.
 It’s not good as it is: new terms are needed.
 Word-creation processes:
- Acronyms: NASA.
- Initialism: FBI.
- Conversion: ‘I couldn’t stomach the news’: stomach: from noun to verb.
- Brand name: Savora/mostaza – Kleenex/tissue.
- Eponym: name for object/thing: ‘el Kohinoor’.
- Backformation: folk etymology: television: televise.
- Blends: sexting: sex + texting.

The speaking (speech) circuit

The circuit opens in A’s brain, where mental concepts are associated with representations of the linguistic
sounds (sound-images) that are used for their expression. A given concept unlocks a corresponding sound-image
in the brain; this purely psychological phenomenon is followed by a pure physiological process: the brain
transmits an impulse corresponding to the image to the organs used in producing sounds. Then the sound waves
travel from A’s mouth to B’s ear: a purely physical process. Next, the circuit continues in B, but the order is
reversed. So, in short:

 Psychological process: the speaker associates a concept with a sound-image.

 Physiological process: the speaker articulates and produces the sounds that are needed to convey the
message.
 Physical process: the sound waves travel to the listener’s ear.
 Physiological process: the listener receives the sounds in his/her ears.
 Psychological process: the listener associates the message with its corresponding concept.
The syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships
Every item of language has a paradigmatic relationship with every other item which can be substituted for it
(such as cat with dog; selective or vertical axis for Jakobson), and a syntagmatic relationship with items which
occur within the same construction (for example, in The cat sat on the mat, cat with the and sat on the mat;
combinative or horizontal axis for Jakobson).