MENSCHEN FÜR MENSCHEN

FOUNDATION
AGRO-TECHNICAL AND TECHNOLOGY
COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

Lecture Note on
Principles of Metal cutting
(Mat 2103)
Compiled By: Paulos Shewatatek

August, 2019
Harar, Ethiopia

1
MAT 2103 Principle of Metal Cutting
1. Basic Information on the Subject

School Agro – Technical and Technology College, Harar

Degree Course B.Sc. in Manufacturing Technology

Semester I

Subject code MAT 2103 Principle of Metal Cutting

ECP 4
(ECTS)

Contact 5
hours

Status* Compulsory

Number of 30
Participants

Responsible Lecturer

Involvement of other staff Assistant for practical/tutorial Computer Programming

members Applications

Courses

2. Course will be taken in the following degrees:

Manufacturing Technology

3. Competence to be attained in the subject / contribution to the qualification of the degree:

After the course students will be enabled:

 To demonstrate modern theory in metal cutting, chip formation orthogonal and obliging
cutting etc.
 To acquired knowledge in tool nomenclature and cutting process.
 To acquired knowledge on thermal aspects of machining, tool materials, tool wear and to
life.
 To study in detail the wear mechanisms and chattering in machining.

2
4. Participation requirements/pre-requisite/

5. Examination details:

Exam. number Examination Duration in Participation Percentage of final

type minutes requirements grade

MAT 2103 Practical Lab.hr None 30

Practical(assi - None 20
gnment +
project)

Written (mid 120 None 20

exam)

Written(final 180 None 30

exam)

6. Total Student workload for the courses

Course Teaching Contact hours Student Total ECP

method additional workload
Hours Total workload
hours
/week

Lecture 2 30 45 75

Practical 3 45 45

Total 5 75 45 120 4

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7. Detailed description of the course contents

INTRODUCTION
Basic mechanism of chip formation-Thin and Thick zone models-Types of chips-Chip breaker-
Orthogonal Vs Oblique cutting- force and velocity relationship and expression for shear plane
angle in orthogonal cutting-Energy Consideration in machining-Modern theories in Mechanics of
cutting -Review of Merchant and Lee Shaffer Theories- critical comparison.
TOOL NOMENCLATURE AND CUTTING FORCES
Nomenclature of single point tool-Systems of tool Nomenclature and Conversion of rake angles-
Nomenclature of multi point tools like drills, milling cutters and broaches. Forces in turning,
drilling and milling - specific cutting pressure- measurement of cutting forces.

THERMAL ASPECTS OF MACHINING

Thermodynamics of chip formation - Heat distributions in machining-Effects of various
parameters on temperature - Method of temperature measurement in machining-Hot machining -
cutting fluids.

TOOL MATERIALS, TOOL LIFE AND TOOL WEAR

Essential requirements of tool materials-Developments in tool materials-ISO specifications for
inserts and tool holders-Tool life-optimum tool life - Conventional and accelerated tool life tests-
Concepts of machinability and machinability index- Economics of machining
WEAR MECHANISMS AND CHATTER IN MACHINING
Reasons for failure of cutting tools and forms of wear-mechanisms of wear-chatter in machining-
Factors effecting chatter in machining - types of chatters-Mechanism of chatter based on Force Vs
Speed graph, Mechanism of grinding-Various parameters affecting grinding process

Teaching methods/size of class/necessity of tutorials

 Lecture, Exercises
General conditions/organisational necessities

 Minimum of 90% attendance during lecture hours; and 100% attendance during
project work sessions, except for some unprecedented mishaps
Literature and Materials

1. SHAW .M.C., “Metal cutting Principles ",Oxford clarendon Press,1984.

2. BHATTACHARYA. - “Metal Cutting Theory and Practice ", New central Book
Agency(p) Ltd.,Calcutta1984.
3. VENKATESH .V.C. & CHANDRASEKHARAN.H. - " Experimental Techniques
in Metal cutting ", Prentice Hall of India,1982
4. JUNEJA.B.L AND SEKHON.G.S- " Fundamentals of metal cutting and machine

4
 tools ", New Age International(p) Ltd., 1995
5. XING SHENG LI & LOW I.M., Editors Advanced Ceramic TRANSTECH
PUBLICATIONS,1994.
6. KUPPUSWAMY.G.- " Principles of metal cutting ", Universities Press(India)Ltd.,
1996
7. BOOTHROY.D.G. and KNIGHT. W.A “Fundamentals of Machining and Machine
tools "-Marcel Dekker, New York, 1989.

Chapter One: Machining Theory: Basic mechanisms of chip formation, Thin and thick zone
models, Types of a chips, Chip breaks, orthogonal Vs oblique cutting forces and velocity
relationship and expression of shear plane orthogonal cutting, Cutting Force, Energy
consideration in machining, Specific cutting pressure.
Chapter Two: Thermal aspect of machining: Heat distribution in machining, effects of varies
parameter on temperature, Methods of temperature measurement in machining, to machining,
cutting fluids.
Chapter Three: Tools materials, tools life and tool wear: Essential requirements of tools
material developments in tools materials, ISO-specification of tool materials, Tool life, Concepts
for machinability and mechanability index, Economics of machining
Chapter Four: Tool wear, Wear Mechanisms And Chatter In Machining , Reasons for
failure of cutting tools and forms of wear-mechanisms of wear-chatter in machining, Factors
effecting chatter in machining, Types of chatters mechanism of chatter based on Force Vs Speed
graph, Mechanism of grinding-Various parameters affecting grinding process.

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 CHAPTER ONE
Machining Theory and Basic Mechanisms
of chip Formation

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Introduction to metal cutting

Metal cutting (Machining) is:

- Process where a stronger metal is used to cut a softer metal.

- One of the most popular and commonly used manufacturing processes.

- Lathe has been used since mid-seventeenth century.

- Parts after heat treatment are usually distorted and hence need machining

- Accurate dimension, sharp corners

- Desired texture - such as shiny finish, mirrored surface etc.

- With modern machine it can be very economical

Machining can be:

Conventional

- Milling, turning, shaping, grinding

Unconventional

Chemical, electro-discharge machining

Abrasive processes - such as grinding, deburring.

Metal cutting is commonly used because casting and forging cannot give precisions shapes. Its
often easier to machine parts to get complicated shapes.

Disadvantages of machining

- Higher cost of labor and tools

- Scrap metal results
- Longer cycle time

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Mechanics of Chip Formation

Most important factors in all machining process:

- Geometry of cutting tool

- Machining conditions:

- Speed of tool

- Speed of workpiece

- Hardness of workpiece

- Hardness of tool

- -Work holding and fixtures

- Coolant, type of process, accuracy issues, etc.
- Machine condition - such as stiffness

Indirect Effects during Machining

- Type of chips formed

- Temperature rise

- Surface finish

- Tool wear etc

Different machining processes

1. Turning - Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating workpiece to form a
cylindrical shape

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 2. Drilling

Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a rotating tool (drill bit) that has two

cutting edges

9
Fig. Lathe Machine

10
Fig. Different Lathe Machine operations

11
Fig. Drilling Machine

3. Milling

Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved slowly relative to work to generate plane or straight
surface

12
Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling

Fig. Milling Machines

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Machine TOOLS

A machine tool is a non-portable power operated and reasonably valued device or system of
devices in which energy is expended to produce jobs of desired size, shape and surface finish by
removing excess material from the preformed blanks in the form of chips with the help of cutting
tools moved past the work surface(s). Or it is a power-driven machine that performs machining
operation, including grinding.

Functions in machining

 Holds workpart
 Positions tool relative to work
 Provides power at speed, feed, and depth that have been set.
 The term is also applied to machines that perform metal forming operations.

Machining requirements

• The essential basic requirements for machining work are schematically illustrated in Fig.
below

Fig. Machining Requirements

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Cutting Fluids

Functions of cutting fluids:

• Cooling

• Lubrication

• Flush debris

Types of cutting fluids

Coolants

• Water used as base in coolant type cutting fluids

• Most effective at high cutting speeds where heat generation and high temperatures are
problems

• Most effective on tool materials that are most susceptible to temperature failures (e.g.,
HSS)

Lubricants

• Usually oil based fluids

• Most effective at lower cutting speeds

• Also reduces temperature in the operation

Cutting Conditions:

Each machining operation is characterized by cutting conditions, which comprises a set of three
elements:

Cutting velocity V: The traveling velocity of the tool relative to the workpiece. It is measured in
m/s or m/min.

Depth of cut d: the axial projection of the length of the active cutting tool edge, measured in
mm. In orthogonal cutting it is equal to the actual width of cut bD.
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Feed f: the relative movement of the tool in order to process the entire surface of the
workpiece. In orthogonal cutting it is equal to the thickness of cut hD and is measured in mm tr-1
in turning, or mm/min in milling and drilling.

Fig.: Speed, feed, and depth of cut in turning.

Roughing vs. Finishing

In production, several roughing cuts are usually taken on the part, followed by one or two
finishing cuts

 Roughing - removes large amounts of material from starting workpiece.

Creates shape close to desired geometry, but leaves some material for finish cutting

- High feeds and depths, low speeds

 Finishing - completes part geometry

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 - Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish

- Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds

Introduction to Mechanisms of chip formation

The basic Mechanism involved in metal cutting is that of a localized shear deformation
on the work material immediately ahead of the cutting edge of the tool. The relative
motion between the tool and the workpiece during cutting compresses the work material
near the tool and induces a shear deformation (called the primary deformation), which
forms the chip. The chip passes over the rake face of the cutting tool and receives
additional deformation (called the secondary deformation) because of the shearing and sliding
of the chip against the tool.

These two plastic deformation processes have a mutual dependence. The material element that
rubs the rake face has been heated and plastically deformed during its passage through the
primary shear process; therefore, the secondary process is influenced by the phenomena
on the shear plane. At the same time, the shear direction is directly influenced by the
rake face deformation and friction processes. The shear direction influences the heating and
straining of the chip in the primary process. In terms of metal cutting theory, this means
that shear stress and shear direction must be determined simultaneously. Such theoretical
analyses are usually based on the mechanics of the process.

Fig. Basic Mechanisms of chip formation

Types of cutting

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Depending on whether the stress and deformation in cutting occur in a plane (two-dimensional
case) or in the space (three-dimensional case), we consider two principle types of cutting:

Orthogonal cutting the cutting edge is straight and is set in a position that is perpendicular to
the direction of primary motion. This allows us to deal with stresses and strains that act in a
plane.

Oblique Cutting the cutting edge is set at an angle (the tool cutting edge inclination λ s). This is
the case of three-dimensional stress and strain conditions.

According to the number of active cutting edges engaged in cutting, we distinguish again two
types of cutting

Single-point cutting: the cutting tool has only one major cutting edge

Examples: turning, shaping, boring

Multipoint cutting: the cutting tool has more than one major cutting edge

Examples: drilling, milling, broaching, reaming.

Abrasive machining is by definition a process of multipoint cutting.

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Chip Types

There are four types of chips that are commonly produced in cutting,

* Discontinuous chips

• * Continuous chips

Ž * Continuous chips with built up edge

* Serrated chips

A. Discontinuous chip comes off as small chunks or particles. When we get this chip it may
indicate,

- Brittle work material (Cast iron)

- Small or negative rake angles

- Coarse feeds and low speeds

- Large depth of cut

- High tool-chip friction

B. Continuous chip looks like a long ribbon with a smooth shining surface.

This chip type may indicate,

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 - Ductile work materials (Low carbon steel)

- Large positive rake angles

- Fine feeds and high speeds

- Small depth of cut

- Sharp cutting edge on the tool

- Low tool-chip friction

C. Continuous chip with built up edges

- Ductile material (Aluminium)

- Low to medium cutting speed

- Tool-chip friction causes portion of the chip adhere to rake face

- BUE formation is cyclical; it forms and breaks off.

* BUE is the product of the localized high temperature and extreme pressure at the tool-chip
interface.

* It affects the tool geometry and surface quality of the machined surface.

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D. Serrated chip

- Semi-continuous-saw-tooth appearance (Ti alloy)

- Cyclical chip formation of alternating high shear strain then low shear strain.

- Most closely associated with difficult-to-machine metals at high cutting speed.

Continuous chips with a built up edge still look like a long ribbon, but the surface is no longer
smooth and shining. Under some circumstances (low cutting speeds of ~0.5 m/s, small or
negative rake angles), work materials like mild steel, aluminum, cast iron, etc., tend to develop
so-called built-up edge, a very hardened layer of work material attached to the tool face, which
tends to act as a cutting edge itself replacing the real cutting tool edge. The built-up edge tends to
grow until it reaches a critical size (~0.3 mm) and then passes off with the chip, leaving small
21
fragments on the machining surface. Chip will break free and cutting forces are smaller, but the
effect is a rough machined surface. The built-up edge disappears at high cutting speeds

Chip control

Discontinuous chips are generally desired because they

- are less dangerous for the operator

- do not cause damage to workpiece surface and machine tool
- can be easily removed from the work zone
- can be easily handled and disposed after machining.

There are three principle methods to produce the favourable discontinuous chip

1. proper selection of cutting conditions

2. use of chip breakers

3. change in the work material properties

1. Proper selection of cutting conditions

Cutting velocity changes chip type as discussed. Since the cutting speed influences to the great
extend the productivity of machining and surface finish, working at low speeds may not be
desirable. If the cutting speed is to be kept high, changing the feed and depth of cut is a
reasonable solution for chip control. At constant cutting speed, the so-called chip map defines the
area of desirable chip type as a function of feed and depth of cut:

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2. Chip breaker

Chip break and chip curl may be promoted by use of a so-called chip breaker. There are two
types of chip breakers

- External type, an inclined obstruction clamped to the tool face

•- Integral type, a groove ground into the tool face or bulges formed onto the tool face

23
3. Change in the work material properties

Some elements, for instance lead, when added to steel make chip type and chip removal more
favorable. Such steels are referred to as free-machine steels. Increasing the work material
hardness (for example by quenching) generally results in production of discontinuous chips.

Shear Zone

Basically, the chip is formed by a localized shear process that takes place over very
narrow regions. Classically called the shear zone or shear plane, this deformation evolves
out of a radial compression zone that travels ahead of the shear process as the tool
passes over the workpiece. Like all plastic deformations, this radial compression zone has
an elastic compression region that converts to a plastic compression region as the
material approaches the cutting edge. This plastic compression generates dense dislocation
tangles and networks in annealed metals. When this work-hardened material reaches the tool,
the material shears in the direction of the free surface.

Orthogonal Machining Fundamentals

Orthogonal machining setups are used to model oblique machining processes. Processes such as
turning, drilling, milling, and shaping are all three-force, or oblique, cutting methods. However,
the orthogonal model shown in Fig. below is an excellent illustration of the behavior of oblique
processes without the complications of the third dimension.

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Chip ratio (r)

It is defined as the ratio of the uncut chip thickness t, to the cut chip thickness tc. It is analytically
computed by the relation:

25
where is the density(ρ) of the work material and t is the feed or uncut chip thickness. Chip
thickness is usually greater than the depth of cut, t, and is constrained by the rake face of the
cutting tool.

Shear angle

There are numerous other ways to measure or compute the shear angle, both during
(dynamically) the cutting process and after (statically) it has been halted. The shear angle
can be measured statically by instantaneously interrupting the cut through the use of
quick-stop devices. These devices disengage the cutting tool from the workpiece while
cutting is in progress, leaving the chip attached to the workpiece. Optical microscopy
and scanning electron microscopy are then used to observe the shear angle. High-speed
motion pictures have also been used to observe the process at frame rates as high as
30,000 frames per second. More recently, machining stages have been built that allow the
process to be performed inside a scanning electron microscope and recorded on video-
tape for high-resolution, high-magnification examination of the deformation process.

For constancy of volume, it was observed that:

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Mechanics of Machining

Orthogonal machining has been defined as a two-component force system, while oblique
cutting involves a three-force situation. Figure 4(c) shows a free body diagram of a chip that
has been separated at the shear plane. The resultant force R

consists of the friction force, F, and the normal force, N, acting on the tool/chip
interface contact area (length times width w). The resultant force R' consists of a shear force,
Fs, and a normal force, Fn, acting on the shear plane area, As.

The forces R and R' are assumed to be equal, opposite, and colinear. Determination of these
forces necessitates a third set that can be measured. A dynamometer, mounted in the
workholder or the toolholder, can be used to measure Fc and Ft. This set has resultant R'',
which is equal in magnitude and colinear to the other resultant forces in the diagram. To express
the desired forces(Fs, Fn, F, N) in terms of the dynamometer components Fc and Ft and
appropriate angles, a circular

force diagram is developed in which all six forces are collected in the same force circle. This is
shown in Fig. 7. In Fig. 7, β is the angle between the normal force, N, and the resultant
force R. It is used to describe the friction coefficient, μ , on the tool/chip interface area,
which is defined as F/N so that: (Eq 7)

The friction force, F, and its normal force, N, can be shown to be:

Where

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When the back rake angle, α , is zero, then F= Ft and N= Fc.

The forces parallel and perpendicular to the shear plane can be shown (from the force circle
diagram) to be:

The shear force, Fs, is of particular interest because it is used to compute the shear
stress on the shear plane. The shear stress, τs, is defined as:

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Recalling that t is the depth of the cut and w is the width of the workpiece, the shear stress is:

For a given polycrystalline metal, this shear stress is a material constant that is not
sensitive to variations in cutting parameters, tool material, or the cutting environment.

The two force components act against the tool:

Cutting force FC: This force is in the direction of primary motion. The cutting force constitutes
about 70~80 % of the total force F and is used to calculate the power required to perform the
machining operation,

P = VFC

Thrust force FD: This force is in direction of feed motion in orthogonal cutting.

The thrust force is used to calculate the power of feed motion.

In three-dimensional oblique cutting, one more force component appears along the third axis.
The thrust force FD is further resolved into two more components, one in the direction of feed

29
motion called feed force Ff, and the other perpendicular to it and to the cutting force FC called
back force Fp, which is in the direction of the cutting tool axis.

Merchant’s Circle Diagram (MCD) and its use

In orthogonal cutting when the chip flows along the orthogonal plane, πO, the cutting force
(resultant) and its components PZ (FC )and PXY remain in the orthogonal plane. Fig. below is
schematically showing the forces acting on a piece of continuous chip coming out from the shear
zone at a constant speed. That chip is apparently in a state of equilibrium

Fig. Development of Merchants Circle Diagram.

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The circle(s) drawn taking R or R1as diameter which contains all the force components
concerned as intercepts. The two circles with their forces are combined into one circle having all
the forces contained in that as shown by the diagram called Merchant’s Circle Diagram (MCD)
in Fig. below.

Fig. Merchant’ s Circle Diagram with cutting forces.

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The significance of the forces displayed in the Merchant’s Circle Diagram are:

PS– the shear force essentially required to produce or separate the chip from the parent body by
shear

Pn– Inherently exists along with PS

F – Friction force at the chip tool interface

N – force acting normal to the rake surface

PZ– main force or power component acting in the direction of cutting

Velocity

The magnitude of PS provides the yield shear strength of the work material under the cutting
condition. The values of F and the ratio of F and N indicate the nature and degree of interaction
like friction at the chip-tool interface. The force components PX, PY, PZ are generally obtained by
direct measurement. Again PZ helps in determining cutting power and specific energy
requirement. The force components are also required to design the cutting tool and the machine
tool.

Advantageous use of Merchant’s Circle Diagram (MCD)

proper use of MCD enables the followings :

 Easy, quick and reasonably accurate determination of several other forces from a few
known forces involved in machining
 Friction at chip-tool interface and dynamic yield shear strength can be easily determined
 Equations relating the different forces are easily developed.

Some limitations of use of MCD

 •Merchant’s Circle Diagram(MCD) is valid only for orthogonal cutting.

 by the ratio, F/N, the MCD gives apparent (not actual) coefficient of friction

32
  It is based on single shear plane theory.

MCD can be done by taking the following sequential steps:

 Determine PXY from PX= PXY sinϕ, where Px and ϕ are known.
 Draw the tool and the chip in orthogonal plane with the given γo
 Choose a suitable scale ( eg. 100N =1 cm) for presenting Pz and PXY in cm.
 Draw PZ and PXY along and normal to Vc
 Draw the cutting force R as the resultant of PZ and PXY
 Draw the circle (Merchant’s circle) taking R as diameter
 Get F and N as intercepts in the circle by extending the tool rake surface and
joining tips of F and R
 Divide the intercepts of F and N by the scale and get the values of F and N.

 For determining Ps (and Pn) the value of the shear angle βo has to be evaluated from.

 where γo is known and ζ has to be obtained from

 so and φ are known and a2 is either known, if not, it has to be measured by micrometer or
slide calliper
 Draw the shear plane with the value of βo and then Ps and Pn as intercepts.
 Get the values of Ps and Pn by dividing their corresponding lengths by the scale
 Get the value of apparent coefficient of friction, μa at the chip tool interface simply
from the ratio,

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 Get the friction angle, η, if desired, either from tanη = μa or directly from the MCD
drawn.
 Determine dynamic yield shear strength (τs) of the work material under the cutting
condition using the simple expression.
 Get the friction angle, η, if desired, either from tanη= μa or directly from the MCD drawn
 Determine dynamic yield shear strength (τs) of the work material under the cutting
condition using the simple expression

where, As = shear area

t = depth of cut (known)

Fig. Shear area in orthogonal turning

Evaluation of cutting power consumption and specific energy requirement

Cutting power consumption is a quite important issue and it should always be tried to be reduced
but without sacrificing MRR.

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Cutting power consumption, PC can be determined from,

PC = PZ.VC + PX.Vf

where, Vf = feed velocity

= Nso/1000 m/min [N=rpm]

Since both PX and Vf, specially Vf are very small, PX.Vf can be neglected and then PC ≅ PZ.VC

Specific energy requirement, which means amount of energy required to remove unit
volume of material, is an important machinability characteristics of the work material.
Specific energy requirement, Us, which should be tried to be reduced as far as possible, depends
not only on the work material but also the process of the machining, such as turning,
drilling, grinding etc. and the machining condition, i.e., VC, so, tool material and
geometry and cutting fluid application.

Compared to turning, drilling requires higher specific energy for the same work-tool
materials and grinding requires very large amount of specific energy for adverse cutting edge
geometry (large negative rake). Specific energy, Us is determined from

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Problem

During turning a ductile alloy by a tool of γo = 10o, it was found PZ= 1000 N PX= 400 N, PY= 300
N and ζ = 2.5. Evaluate, using MCD, the values of F, N and μ as well as Ps and Pn for the above
machining.

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 CHAPTER TWO

Thermal aspect of Machining

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Sources of heat generation in machining

During machining heat is generated at the cutting point from three sources, as indicated in Fig.
below. Those sources and causes of development of cutting temperature are:

•Primary shear zone (1) where the major part of the energy is converted into heat

•Secondary deformation zone (2) at the chip – tool interface where further heat is generated due
to rubbing and / or shear

•At the worn out flanks (3) due to rubbing between the tool and the finished surfaces.

Fig. Sources of heat generation in machining

The heat generated is shared by the chip, cutting tool and the blank. The apportionment of
sharing that heat depends upon the configuration, size and thermal conductivity of the tool –
work material and the cutting condition. Fig. below visualizes that maximum amount of heat is
carried away by the flowing chip. From 10 to 20% of the total heat goes into the tool and some
heat is absorbed in the blank. With the increase in cutting velocity, the chip shares heat
increasingly.

38
Fig. Apportionment of heat amongst chip, tool and blank

Effects of the high cutting temperature on tool and job.

The effect of the cutting temperature, particularly when it is high, is mostly tool

 Rapid tool wear, which reduces tool life

 Plastic deformation of the cutting edges if the tool material is not enough hot-
hard and hot-strong
 Thermal flaking and fracturing of the cutting edges due to thermal shocks
 Built-up-edge formation

The possible detrimental effects of cutting temperature on the machined job are:

 Dimensional inaccuracy of the job due to thermal distortion and expansion-

contraction during and after machining
 Surface damage by oxidation, rapid corrosion, burning etc.

 induction of tensile residual stresses and microcracks at the surface / subsurface

However, often the high cutting temperature helps in reducing the magnitude of the cutting
forces and cutting power consumption to some extent by softening or reducing the shear
strength, τs of the work material ahead the cutting edge. To attain or enhance such

39
benefit the work material ahead the cutting zone is often additionally heated externally.
This technique is known as Hot Machining and is beneficially applicable for the work
materials which are very hard and hardenable like high manganese steel, Hadfield steel,
Ni- hard, Nimonic etc.

Determination of cutting temperature

The magnitude of the cutting temperature need to be known or evaluated to facilitate

assessment of machinability which is judged mainly by cutting forces and temperature and
tool life

 Design and selection of cutting tools

 Evaluate the role of variation of the different machining parameters on cutting
temperature
 Proper selection and application of cutting fluid
 Analysis of temperature distribution in the chip, tool and job.

The temperatures which are of major interests are:

θs : average shear zone temperature

θi : average (and maximum) temperature at the chip-tool interface

θf : temperature at the work-tool interface (tool flanks)

θavg : average cutting temperature

Cutting temperature can be determined by two ways :

1. Analytically – using mathematical models (equations) if available or can be

developed. This method is simple, quick and inexpensive but less accurate
and precise.
2. Experimentally – this method is more accurate, precise and reliable.

40
1. Analytical estimation of cutting temperature, θs

(a) Average shear zone temperature, θs

Equation(s) have to be developed for the purpose. One simple method is presented here.

The cutting energy per unit time, i.e., PZVC gets used to cause primary shear and to overcome
friction at the rake face as,

PZ.VC = PS.VS + F.Vf

Where, VS = slip velocity along the shear plane

And, Vf = average chip – velocity

So, PS.VS = PZ.VC – F.Vf

Equating amount of heat received by the chip in one minute from the shear zone and the heat
contained by that chip, it appears,

where, A = fraction (of shear energy that is converted into heat)

q1 = fraction (of heat that goes to the chip from the shear zone)

J = mechanical equivalent of heat of the chip / work material

Cv= volume specific heat of the chip

θa = ambient temperature

a1.b1 = cross sectional area of uncut chip

= tso

Therefore,

41
Or,

Generally A varies from 0.95 to 1.0 and q from 0.7 to 0.9 in machining like turning.

(b) Average chip – tool interface temperature, θi

Using the two dimensionless parameters, Q1 and Q2 and their simple relation
(Buckingham),

Where,

EC = specific cutting energy

cv = volume specific heat

λ = thermal conductivity

c1 = a constant, n = an index close to 0.25

Therefore,

Using the above equation, one can estimate the approximate value of average θ I from the known
other machining parameters.

Experimental methods of determination of cutting temperature

Amongst θS, θi, and θf, θi is obviously the highest one and its value is
maximum almost at the middle of the chip – tool contact length.
Experimental methods generally provide the average or maximum value of θi.
Some techniques also enable get even distribution of temperature in the chip, tool
and job at the cutting zone.

42
The feasible experimental methods are :

• Calorimetric method – quite simple and low cost but inaccurate and gives only
grand average value

• Decolourising agent – some paint or tape, which change in colour with variation
of temperature, is pasted on the tool or job near the cutting point; the as such
colour of the chip (steels) may also often indicate cutting temperature

• Tool-work thermocouple – simple and inexpensive but gives only average or

maximum value

• Moving thermocouple technique

• Embedded thermocouple technique

• Using compound tool

• Indirectly from Hardness and structural transformation

• Photo-cell technique

• Infra ray detection method

The aforesaid methods are all feasible but vary w.r.t. accuracy, preciseness
and reliability as well as complexity or difficulties and expensiveness. Some of the
methods commonly used are briefly presented here.

Tool work thermocouple technique

Fig. below shows the principle of this method

43
Fig. Tool-work thermocouple technique of measuring cutting temperature

In a thermocouple two dissimilar but electrically conductive metals are connected at two
junctions. Whenever one of the junctions is heated, the difference in temperature at the
hot and cold junctions produce a proportional current which is detected and measured by
a milli-voltmeter. In machining like turning, the tool and the job constitute the two
dissimilar metals and the cutting zone functions as the hot junction. Then the average cutting
temperature is evaluated from the mV after thorough calibration for establishing the exact
relation between mV and the cutting temperature. Fig. below typically shows a method of
calibration for measuring average cutting temperature, θavg, in turning steel rod by uncoated
carbide tool.

44
Fig. Calibration for tool – work thermocouple

Moving thermocouple technique

This simple method, schematically shown in Fig. below, enables measure the gradual variation
in the temperature of the flowing chip before, during and immediately after its formation.
A bead of standard thermocouple like chrome- alumel is brazed on the side surface of the layer
to be removed from the work surface and the temperature is attained in terms of mV.

Fig. Moving thermocouple technique

45
Embedded thermocouple technique

In operations like milling, grinding etc. where the previous methods are not applicable,
embedded thermocouple can serve the purpose. Fig. 2.7.6 shows the principle. The standard
thermocouple monitors the job temperature at a certain depth, hi from the cutting
zone. The temperature recorded in oscilloscope or strip chart recorder becomes
maximum when the thermocouple bead comes nearest (slightly offset) to the grinding zone.
With the progress of grinding the depth, hi gradually decreases after each grinding pass and the
value of temperature, θm also rises as has been indicated in Fig. below For getting the
temperature exactly at the surface i.e., grinding zone, hi has to be zero, which is not possible.
So the θm vs hi curve has to be extrapolated upto hi = 0 to get the actual grinding zone
temperature. Log – log plot helps such extrapolation more easily and accurately.

Fig. Embedded thermocouple technique

Measurement of chip-tool interface temperature by compound tool

In this method a conducting tool piece (carbide) is embedded in a nonconducting tool

(ceramic). The conducting piece and the job form the tool- work thermocouple as shown in

46
Fig. below which detects temperature θi at the location (Li) of the carbide strip. Thus θi can
be measured along the entire chip-tool contact length by gradually reducing Li by
grinding the tool flank. Before that calibration has to be done as usual.

Fig. Compound rake used for measuring cutting temperature along rake surface

Photo-cell technique

This unique technique enables accurate measurement of the temperature along the shear
zone and tool flank as can be seen in Fig. below. The electrical resistance of the cell,
like PbS cell, changes when it is exposed to any heat radiation. The amount of change in
the resistance depends upon the temperature of the heat radiating source and is measured in
terms of voltage, which is calibrated with the source temperature. It is evident from Fig.
belowthat the cell starts receiving radiation through the small hole only when it enters
the shear zone where the hole at the upper end faces a hot surface. Receiving radiation
and measurement of temperature continues until the hole passes through the entire shear zone
and then the tool flank.

47
Fig. Measuring temperature at shear plane and tool flank by photocell technique

Infra-red photographic technique

This modern and powerful method is based on taking infra-red photograph of the hot surfaces of
the tool, chip, and/or job and get temperature distribution at those surfaces. Proper calibration
is to be done before that. This way the temperature profiles can be recorded in PC as
indicated in Fig. below. The fringe pattern readily changes with the change in any
machining parameter which affect cutting temperature.

Fig. Temperature distribution at the tool tip detected by Infra ray technique

48
Role of variation of the various machining parameters on cutting temperature

The magnitude of cutting temperature is more or less governed or influenced by all the
machining parameters like :

 Work material : - specific energy requirement, ductility

 process parameters : - cutting velocity (VC)
- feed (so)
- depth of cut (t)
 cutting tool material : - thermal properties
- wear resistance
- chemical stability
 tool geometry - rake angle (γ)
- cutting edge angle (φ)

- clearance angle (α)

- Nose radius

 cutting fluid - method of application

-thermal and lubricating properties

Many researchers studied, mainly experimentally, on the effects of the various parameters on
cutting temperature. A well established overall empirical equation is,

where, Cθ = a constant depending mainly on the work-tool materials

Equation above clearly indicates that among the process parameters VC affects θi most
significantly and the role of t is almost insignificant. Cutting temperature depends also
upon the tool geometry. Equation above depicts that θi can be reduced by lowering the

49
principal cutting edge angle, φ and increasing nose radius, r. Besides that the tool rake
angle, γ and hence inclination angle, λ also have significant influence on the cutting
temperature.

Increase in rake angle will reduce temperature by reducing the cutting forces but too much
increase in rake will raise the temperature again due to reduction in the wedge angle of the
cutting edge. Proper selection and application of cutting fluid help reduce cutting
temperature substantially through cooling as well as lubrication.

Control of cutting temperature

It is already seen that high cutting temperature is mostly detrimental in several respects.
Therefore, it is necessary to control or reduce the cutting temperature as far as
possible. Cutting temperature can be controlled in varying extent by the following general
methods:

 proper selection of material and geometry of the cutting tool(s)

 optimum selection of VC – so combination without sacrificing MRR
 proper selection and application of cutting fluid
 application of special technique, if required and feasible

Selection of material and geometry of cutting tool for reducing cutting temperature
and its effects.

Cutting tool material may play significant role on reduction of cutting temperature
depending upon the work material. As for example,

 PVD or CVD coating of HSS and carbide tools enables reduce cutting temperature by
reducing friction at the chip-tool and work-tool interfaces.
 In high speed machining of steels lesser heat and cutting temperature develop if
machined by cBN tools which produce lesser cutting forces by retaining its sharp
geometry for its extreme hardness and high chemical stability.
 The cutting tool temperature of ceramic tools decrease further if the thermal
conductivity of such tools is enhanced (by adding thermally conductive materials

50
 like metals, carbides, etc in Al2O3 or Si3N4) Cutting temperature can be sizeably
controlled also by proper selection of the tool geometry in the following ways;
 large positive tool–rake helps in reducing heat and temperature generation by
reducing the cutting forces, but too much increase in rake mechanically and
thermally weakens the cutting edges
 compound rake, preferably with chip–breaker, also enables reduce heat and
temperature through reduction in cutting forces and friction

 even for same amount of heat generation, the cutting temperature decreases with the
decrease in the principal cutting edge angle, φ as

 nose radiusing of single point tools not only improves surface finish but also helps in
reducing cutting temperature to some extent.

Selection of cutting velocity and feed

 Cutting temperature can also be controlled to some extent, even without sacrificing
MRR, by proper or optimum selection of the cutting velocity and feed within
their feasible ranges. The rate of heat generation and hence cutting temperature
are governed by the amount of cutting power consumption, PC where;

PC = PZ.VC = tsoτsfVC

 So apparently, increase in both so and VC raise heat generation

proportionately. But increase in VC, though further enhances heat generation by faster
rubbing action, substantially reduces cutting forces, hence heat generation by
reducing τs and also the form factor f. The overall relative effects of variation of
VC and s o on cutting temperature will depend upon other machining conditions.
Hence, depending upon the situation, the cutting temperature can be controlled
significantly by optimum combination of VC and so for a given MRR.

51
Control of cutting temperature by application of cutting fluid

Cutting fluid, if employed, reduces cutting temperature directly by taking away the heat
from the cutting zone and also indirectly by reducing generation of heat by reducing cutting
forces

Purposes of application of cutting fluid in machining and grinding

The basic purposes of cutting fluid application are :

• Cooling of the job and the tool to reduce the detrimental effects of cutting temperature
on the job and the tool

• Lubrication at the chip–tool interface and the tool flanks to reduce cutting forces and
friction and thus the amount of heat generation.

• Cleaning the machining zone by washing away the chip – particles and debris which,
if present, spoils the finished surface and accelerates damage of the cutting edges

• Protection of the nascent finished surface – a thin layer of the cutting fluid sticks to the
machined surface and thus prevents its harmful contamination by the gases like SO2, O2,
H2S, NxOy present in the atmosphere.

However, the main aim of application of cutting fluid is to improve machinability through
reduction of cutting forces and temperature, improvement by surface integrity and
enhancement of tool life.

Essential properties of cutting fluids

To enable the cutting fluid fulfil its functional requirements without harming the Machine –
Fixture – Tool – Work (M-F-T-W) system and the operators, the cutting fluid should
possess the following properties:

 For cooling :
- high specific heat, thermal conductivity and film coefficient for heat transfer
- spreading and wetting ability
 For lubrication:

52
 - high lubricity without gumming and foaming
- wetting and spreading
- high film boiling point
- friction reduction at extreme pressure (EP) and temperature
 Chemical stability, non-corrosive to the materials of the M-F-T-W system
 less volatile and high flash point
 high resistance to bacterial growth
 odourless and also preferably colourless
 non toxic in both liquid and gaseous stage
 easily available and low cost.

Principles of cutting fluid action

The chip-tool contact zone is usually comprised of two parts; plastic or bulk contact zone
and elastic contact zone as indicated in Fig. below

Fig. Cutting fluid action in machining

The cutting fluid cannot penetrate or reach the plastic contact zone but enters in the elastic
contact zone by capillary effect. With the increase in cutting velocity, the fraction of
plastic contact zone gradually increases and covers almost the entire chip-tool contact zone

53
as indicated in Fig.below. Therefore, at high speed machining, the cutting fluid becomes unable
to lubricate and cools the tool and the job only by bulk external cooling .

Fig. Apportionment of plastic and elastic contact zone increase in cutting velocity.

The chemicals like chloride, phosphate or sulphide present in the cutting fluid chemically reacts
with the work material at the chip under surface under high pressure and temperature
and forms a thin layer of the reaction product. The low shear strength of that reaction layer
helps in reducing friction. To form such solid lubricating layer under high pressure and
temperature some extreme pressure additive (EPA) is deliberately added in reasonable amount in

the mineral oil or soluble oil. For extreme pressure, chloride, phosphate or sulphide type
EPA is used depending upon the working temperature, i.e. moderate (200 0C ~ 3500 C), high
(3500 C ~ 5000 C) and very high (5000 C ~ 8000 C) respectively.

54
Types of cutting fluids and their application

Generally, cutting fluids are employed in liquid form but occasionally also employed in
gaseous form. Only for lubricating purpose, often solid lubricants are also employed in
machining and grinding. The cutting fluids, which are commonly used, are :

 Air blast or compressed air only.

Machining of some materials like grey cast iron become inconvenient or difficult if any
cutting fluid is employed in liquid form. In such case only air blast is recommended for
cooling and cleaning

 Water

For its good wetting and spreading properties and very high specific heat, water is
considered as the best coolant and hence employed where cooling is most urgent.

 Soluble oil

Water acts as the best coolant but does not lubricate. Besides, use of only water may impair the
machine-fixture-tool-work system by rusting So oil containing some emulsifying agent and
additive like EPA, together called cutting compound, is mixed with water in a suitable
ratio ( 1 ~ 2 in 20 ~ 50). This milk like white emulsion, called soluble oil, is very
common and widely used in machining and grinding.

 Cutting oils

Cutting oils are generally compounds of mineral oil to which are added desired type and
amount of vegetable, animal or marine oils for improving spreading, wetting and
lubricating properties. As and when required some EP additive is also mixed to reduce
friction, adhesion and BUE formation in heavy cuts.

 Chemical fluids

55
These are occasionally used fluids which are water based where some organic and or inorganic
materials are dissolved in water to enable desired cutting fluid action. There are two types of
such cutting fluid;

⎯ Chemically inactive type – high cooling, anti-rusting and wetting but less lubricating

⎯ Active (surface) type – moderate cooling and lubricating.

 Solid or semi-solid lubricant

Paste, waxes, soaps, graphite, Moly-disulphide (MoS2) may also often be used, either applied
directly to the workpiece or as an impregnant in the tool to reduce friction and thus
cutting forces, temperature and tool wear.

 Cryogenic cutting fluid

Extremely cold (cryogenic) fluids (often in the form of gases) like liquid CO2 or N2 are
used in some special cases for effective cooling without creating much environmental pollution
and health hazards.

Selection of Cutting Fluid

The benefits of application of cutting fluid largely depends upon proper selection of the
type of the cutting fluid depending upon the work material, tool material and the machining
condition. As for example, for high speed machining of not-difficult-to-machine
materials greater cooling type fluids are preferred and for low speed machining of both
conventional and difficult-to- machine materials greater lubricating type fluid is preferred.
Selection of cutting fluids for machining some common engineering materials and
operations are presented as follows :

Grey cast iron : Generally dry for its self lubricating property Air blast for cooling and flushing
chips, Soluble oil for cooling and flushing chips in high speed machining and grinding

Steels : If machined by HSS tools, sol. Oil (1: 20 ~30) for low carbon and alloy steels and neat
oil with EPA for heavy cuts, If machined by carbide tools thinner sol. Oil

56
for low strength steel, thicker sol. Oil ( 1:10 ~ 20) for stronger steels and staright
sulphurised oil for heavy and low speed cuts and EP cutting oil for high alloy steel, Often steels
are machined dry by carbide tools for preventing thermal shocks.

Aluminium and its alloys: Preferably machined dry, Light but oily soluble oil, Straight neat
oil or kerosene oil for stringent cuts.

Copper and its alloys : Water based fluids are generally used, Oil with or without inactive
EPA for tougher grades of Cu-alloy.

Stainless steels and Heat resistant alloys: High performance soluble oil or neat oil with high
concentration with chlorinated EP additive.

The brittle ceramics and cermets should be used either under dry condition or light neat oil in
case of fine finishing. Grinding at high speed needs cooling ( 1: 50 ~ 100) soluble oil.
For finish grinding of metals and alloys low viscosity neat oil is also used.

Methods of application of cutting fluid

The effectiveness and expense of cutting fluid application significantly depend also on how it is
applied in respect of flow rate and direction of application. In machining, depending upon the
requirement and facilities available, cutting fluids are generally employed in the following
ways (flow) :

 Drop-by-drop under gravity

 Flood under gravity
 In the form of liquid jet(s)
 Mist (atomised oil) with compressed air
 Z-Z method – centrifugal through the grinding wheels (pores) as indicated in Fig.
below

The direction of application also significantly governs the effectiveness of the cutting
fluid in respect of reaching at or near the chip-tool and work-tool interfaces. Depending
upon the requirement and accessibility the cutting fluid is applied from top or side(s). in
operations like deep hole drilling the pressurised fluid is often sent through the axial or

57
Fig. Z-Z method of cutting fluid application in grinding

inner spiral hole(s) of the drill. For effective cooling and lubrication in high speed
machining of ductile metals having wide and plastic chip-tool contact, cutting fluid may be
pushed at high pressure to the chip-tool interface through hole(s) in the cutting tool, as
schematically shown in Fig. below.

Fig. Application of cutting fluid at high pressure through the hole in the tool.

58
 CHAPTER THREE

Tool Materials, Tool Life And Tool

Geometry

59
Essential properties for cutting tool materials

The cutting tools need to be capable to meet the growing demands for higher
productivity and economy as well as to machine the exotic materials which are coming
up with the rapid progress in science and technology. The cutting tool material of the day
and future essentially require the following properties to resist or retard the phenomena
leading to random or early tool failure :

i. high mechanical strength; compressive and tensile

ii. fracture toughness, high or at least adequate
iii. high hardness for abrasion resistance
iv. high hot hardness to resist plastic deformation and reduce wear rate at elevated
temperature
v. chemical stability or inertness against work material, atmospheric gases and
cutting fluids
vi. resistance to adhesion and diffusion
vii. thermal conductivity – low at the surface to resist incoming of heat and high at
the core to quickly dissipate the heat entered
viii. high heat resistance and stiffness
ix. manufacturability, availability and low cost.

Characteristics And Applications Of The Primary Cutting Tool Materials

1. High Speed Steel (HSS)

The basic composition of HSS is 18% W, 4% Cr, 1% V, 0.7% C and rest Fe. Such HSS tool
could machine (turn) mild steel jobs at speed only upto 20 ~ 30 m/min (which was quite
substantial those days) However, HSS is still used as cutting tool material where;

 the tool geometry and mechanics of chip formation are complex, such as helical
twist drills, reamers, gear shaping cutters, hobs, form tools, broaches etc.
 brittle tools like carbides, ceramics etc. are not suitable under shock loading

60
  the small scale industries cannot afford costlier tools
 the old or low powered small machine tools cannot accept high speed and feed.
 The tool is to be used number of times by resharpening.
 With time the effectiveness and efficiency of HSS (tools) and their application range
were gradually enhanced by improving its properties and surface condition
through refinement of microstructure
 Addition of large amount of cobalt and Vanadium to increase hot hardness and
wear resistance respectively
 Manufacture by powder metallurgical process
 Surface coating with heat and wear resistive materials like TiC, TiN, etc by
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) or Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD)

The commonly used grades of HSS are given in Table below.

Table: Composition and Types of popular high speed steel

Addition of large amount of Co and V, refinement of microstructure and coating

increased strength and wear resistance and thus enhanced productivity and life of the
HSS tools remarkably.

2. Stellite

This is a cast alloy of Co (40 to 50%), Cr (27 to 32%), W (14 to 19%) and C (2%). Stellite is
quite tough and more heat and wear resistive than the basic HSS (18 – 4 – 1) But such stellite as
cutting tool material became obsolete for its poor grindability and specially after the arrival of
cemented carbides.

61
3. Sintered Tungsten carbides

The advent of sintered carbides made another breakthrough in the history of cutting tool
materials.

3.1 Straight or single carbide

First the straight or single carbide tools or inserts were powder metallurgically
produced by mixing, compacting and sintering 90 to 95% WC powder with cobalt. The hot, hard
and wear resistant WC grains are held by the binder Co which provides the necessary
strength and toughness. Such tools are suitable for machining grey cast iron, brass,
bronze etc. which produce short discontinuous chips and at cutting velocities two to three
times of that possible for HSS tools.

3.2. Composite carbides

The single carbide is not suitable for machining steels because of rapid growth of wear,
particularly crater wear, by diffusion of Co and carbon from the tool to the chip under
the high stress and temperature bulk (plastic) contact between the continuous chip and the
tool surfaces. For machining steels successfully, another type called composite carbide have been
developed by adding (8 to 20%) a gamma phase to WC and Co mix. The gamma phase is a mix
of TiC, TiN, TaC, NiC etc. which are more diffusion resistant than WC due to their more
stability and less wettability by steel.

3.3. Mixed carbides

Titanium carbide (TiC) is not only more stable but also much harder than WC. So for
machining ferritic steels causing intensive diffusion and adhesion wear a large quantity (5 to
25%) of TiC is added with WC and Co to produce another grade called Mixed carbide. But
increase in TiC content reduces the toughness of the tools. Therefore, for finishing with light
cut but high speed, the harder grades containing upto 25% TiC are used and for heavy
roughing work at lower speeds lesser amount (5 to 10%) of TiC is suitable.

62
Gradation of cemented carbides and their applications

The standards developed by ISO for grouping of carbide tools and their application ranges are
given in Table below

Table Broad classification of carbide tools.

K-group is suitable for machining short chip producing ferrous and non ferrous metals and also
some non metals.

P-group is suitably used for machining long chipping ferrous metals i.e. plain carbon and low
alloy steels

M-group is generally recommended for machining more difficult-to- machine materials like
strain hardening austenitic steel and manganese steel etc.

Each group again is divided into some subgroups like P10, P20 etc., as shown in Table
table depending upon their properties and applications.

63
Table: Detail grouping of cemented carbide tools

64
The smaller number refers to the operations which need more wear resistance and the
larger numbers to those requiring higher toughness for the tool.

4. Plain ceramic

Table below shows the advantages and limitations of alumina ceramics in contrast to
sintered carbide. Alumina (Al2O3) is preferred to silicon nitride (Si3N4) for higher hardness
and chemical stability. Si3N4 is tougher but again more difficult to process. The plain
ceramic tools are brittle in nature and hence had limited applications.

Table: Cutting tool properties of alumina ceramics.

Cutting tool should resist penetration of heat but should disperse the heat throughout the core.

Basically three types of ceramic tool bits are available in the market;

 Plain alumina with traces of additives – these white or pink sintered inserts are cold
pressed and are used mainly for machining cast iron and similar materials at speeds 200
to 250 m/min
 Alumina; with or without additives – hot pressed, black colour, hard and strong –
used for machining steels and cast iron at VC = 150 to 250 m/min
 Carbide ceramic (Al2O3 + 30% TiC) cold or hot pressed, black colour, quite
strong and enough tough – used for machining hard cast irons and plain and alloy
steels at 150 to 200 m/min.

65
The plain ceramic outperformed the then existing tool materials in some application areas
like high speed machining hot hardness as indicated below.

Fig. Hot hardness of the different commonly used tool materials.

However, the use of those brittle plain ceramic tools, until their strength and toughness
could be substantially improved since 1970, gradually decreased for being restricted to

 uninterrupted machining of soft cast irons and steels only

 relatively high cutting velocity but only in a narrow range (200 ~ 300 m/min)
 requiring very rigid machine tool.

Development And Application Of Advanced Tool Materials

1. Coated carbides

The properties and performance of carbide tools could be substantially improved by

 Refining microstructure
 Manufacturing by casting – expensive and uncommon
 Surface coating – made remarkable contribution.

66
Thin but hard coating of single or multilayers of more stable and heat and wear resistive
materials like TiC, TiCN, TiOCN, TiN, Al2O3 etc on the tough carbide inserts (substrate)
(Fig. below) by processes like chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD), Physical Vapour
Deposition (PVD) etc at controlled pressure and temperature enhanced MRR and
overall machining economy remarkably enabling,

 reduction of cutting forces and power consumption

 increase in tool life (by 200 to 500%) for same VC or increase in VC (by 50 to 150%)
for same tool life
 improvement in product quality
 effective and efficient machining of wide range of work materials
 pollution control by less or no use of cutting fluid through:
- reduction of abrasion, adhesion and diffusion wear
- reduction of friction and BUE formation
- heat resistance and reduction of thermal cracking and plastic
deformation.

Fig. Machining by coated carbide insert.

The contributions of the coating continues even after rupture of the coating as indicated in Fig.
shown below.

67
Fig. Role of coating even after its wear and rupture

The cutting velocity range in machining mild steel could be enhanced from 120 ~ 150
m/min to 300 ~ 350 m/min by properly coating the suitable carbide inserts.

About 50% of the carbide tools being used at present are coated carbides which are
obviously to some extent costlier than the uncoated tools. Different varieties of coated tools
are available. The appropriate one is selected depending upon the type of the cutting
tool, work material and the desired productivity and product quality.

The properties and performances of coated inserts and tools are getting further improved
by;

- Refining the microstructure of the coating

- Multilayering (already upto 13 layers within 12 ~ 16 μm)
- Direct coating by TiN instead of TiC, if feasible
- Using better coating materials.
2. Cermets

Cermets are being made by TiCN which is consistently more wear resistant, less porous
and easier to make. The characteristic features of such cermets, in contrast to sintered
tungsten carbides, are : The grains are made of TiCN (in place of WC) and Ni or Ni-Co and Fe
as binder (in place of Co).

 Harder, more chemically stable and hence more wear resistant

 More brittle and less thermal shock resistant
 Wt% of binder metal varies from 10 to 20%

68
  Cutting edge sharpness is retained unlike in coated carbide inserts
 Can machine steels at higher cutting velocity than that used for tungsten carbide, even
coated carbides in case of light cuts.
3. Coronite

It is already mentioned earlier that the properties and performance of HSS tools could
have been sizeably improved by refinement of microstructure, powder metallurgical
process of making and surface coating.

Recently a unique tool material, namely Coronite has been developed for making the
tools like small and medium size drills and milling cutters etc. which were earlier
essentially made of HSS. Coronite is made basically by combining HSS for strength and
toughness and tungsten carbides for heat and wear resistance. Microfine TiCN particles are
uniformly dispersed into the matrix. Unlike a solid carbide, the coronite based tool is made of
three layers;

 the central HSS or spring steel core

 a layer of coronite of thickness around 15% of the tool diameter
 a thin (2 to 5 μm) PVD coating of TiCN. Such tools are not only more productive but
also provides better product quality. The coronite tools made by hot extrusion followed
by PVD-coatring of TiN or TiCN outperformed HSS tools in respect of cutting forces,
tool life and surface finish.
4. High Performance ceramics (HPC)

Ceramic tools as such are much superior to sintered carbides in respect of hot hardness,
chemical stability and resistance to heat and wear but lack in fracture toughness and
strength as indicated in Fig. shown below.

Through last few years remarkable improvements in strength and toughness and hence
overall performance of ceramic tools could have been possible by several means which include;

 Sinterability, microstructure, strength and toughness of Al2O3 ceramics were

improved to some extent by adding TiO2 and MgO

69
  Transformation toughening by adding appropriate amount of partially or fully
stabilised zirconia in Al2O3 powder
 Isostatic and hot isostatic pressing (HIP) – these are very effective

but expensive route

Fig. Comparison of important properties of ceramic and tungsten carbide tools

 Introducing nitride ceramic (Si3N4) with proper sintering technique – this material
is very tough but prone to built-up-edge formation in machining steels
 Developing SIALON – deriving beneficial effects of Al2O3 and Si3N4
 Adding carbide like TiC (5 ~ 15%) in Al2O3 powder – to impart

toughness and thermal conductivity

 Reinforcing oxide or nitride ceramics by SiC whiskers, which enhanced

strength, toughness and life of the tool and thus productivity spectacularly.
But manufacture and use of this unique tool need specially careful handling
 Toughning Al2O3 ceramic by adding suitable metal like silver which also impart thermal
conductivity and self lubricating property; this novel and inexpensive tool is still in
experimental stage

70
 5. Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)

Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride is the hardest material presently available. Only
in 1970 and onward cBN in the form of compacts has been introduced as cutting
tools. It is made by bonding a 0.5 – 1 mm layer of polycrystalline cubic boron
nitride to cobalt based carbide substrate at very high temperature and pressure. It
remains inert and retains high hardness and fracture toguhness at elevated machining
speeds. It shows excellent performance in grinding any material of high hardness and
strength.

 The extreme hardness, toughness, chemical and thermal stability and wear
resistance led to the development of CBN cutting tool inserts for high material
removal rate (MRR) as well as precision machining imparting excellent surface
integrity of the products. Such unique tools effectively and beneficially used in
machining wide range of work materials covering high carbon and alloy steels,
non-ferrous metals and alloys, exotic metals like Ni-hard, Inconel, Nimonic etc and
many non-metallic materials which are as such difficult to machine by
conventional tools. It is firmly stable at temperatures upto 14000c The
operative speed range for CBN when machining grey cast iron is 300 ~ 400 m/min.

 In addition to speed, the most important factor that affects performance of

cBN inserts is the preparation of cutting edge. It is best to use cBN tools with a
honed or chamfered edge preparation, especially for interrupted cuts. Like
ceramics, cBN tools are also available only in the form of indexable inserts.
The only limitation of it is its high cost.

6. Diamond Tools

Single stone, natural or synthetic, diamond crystals are used as tips/edge of cutting tools.
Owing to the extreme hardness and sharp edges, natural single crytal is used for many
applications, particularly where high accuracy and precision are required. Their important
uses are :

71
  Single point cutting tool tips and small drills for high speed machining of non-ferrous
metals, ceramics, plastics, composites, etc. and effective machining of difficult-to-
machine materials
 Drill bits for mining, oil exploration, etc.
 Tool for cutting and drilling in glasses, stones, ceramics, FRPs etc.
 Wire drawing and extrusion dies
 Superabrasive wheels for critical grinding.

Limited supply, increasing demand, high cost and easy cleavage of natural diamond
demanded a more reliable source of diamond. It led to the invention and manufacture of
artificial diamond grits by ultra-high temperature and pressure synthesis process, which
enables large scale manufacture of diamond with some control over size, shape and friability
of the diamond grits as desired for various applications.

6.1.Polycrystalline Diamond ( PCD )

 The polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tools consist of a layer (0.5 to 1.5 mm) of fine grain
size, randomly oriented diamond particles sintered with a suitable binder (ususally
cobalt) and then metallurgically bonded to a suitable substrate like cemented
carbide or Si3N4 inserts.
 PCD exhibits excellent wear esistance, hold sharp edge, generates little friction in
the cut, provide high fracture strength, and had good thermal conductivity. These
properties contribute to PCD tooling’s long life in conventional and high speed
machining of soft, non-ferrous materials (aluminium, magnesium, copper etc), advanced
composites and metal-matrix composites, superalloys, and non-metallic materials.
 PCD is particularly well suited for abrasive materials (i.e. drilling and reaming
metal matrix composites) where it provides 100 times the life of carbides. PCD is not
ususally recommended for ferrous metals because of high solubility of diamond
(carbon) in these materials at elevated temperature.
 However, they can be used to machine some of these materials under special conditions;
for example, light cuts are being successfully made in grey cast iron. The main

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 advanatage of such PCD tool is the greater toughness due to finer microstructure with
random orientation of the grains and reduced cleavage.

But PCD suffers some limitations :

 High tool cost

 Presence of binder, cobalt, which reduces wear resistance and thermal
stability
 Complex tool shapes like in-built chip breaker cannot be made Size restriction,
particularly in making very small diameter tools

The above mentioned limitations of polycrystalline diamond tools have been almost
overcome by developing Diamond coated tools.

6.2. Diamond coated carbide tools

Films of diamond synthesised by CVD method for cutting tools, dies, wear surfaces and even
abrasives for Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) and grinding. Thin film is directly deposited on the
tool surface. Thick film ( > 500 μm) is grown on an easy substrate and later brazed to the
actual tool substrate and the primary substrate is removed by dissolving it or by other
means.

Thick film diamond finds application in making inserts, drills, reamers, end mills, routers.
CVD coating has been more popular than single diamond crystal and PCD mainly for :

 Free from binder, higher hardness, resistance to heat and wear more than PCD and
properties close to natural diamond
 Highly pure, dense and free from single crystal cleavage
 Permits wider range of size and shape of tools and can be deposited on any shape of the
 Relatively less expensive

CBN and Diamond tools are also essentially used for ultraprecision as well as micro and nano
machining.

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Tool Life

Tool life generally indicates, the amount of satisfactory performance or service rendered
by a fresh tool or a cutting point till it is declared failed. Tool life is defined in two ways :

 In R & D : Actual machining time (period) by which a fresh cutting tool (or
point) satisfactorily works after which it needs replacement or reconditioning. The
modern tools hardly fail prematurely or abruptly by mechanical breakage or rapid
plastic deformation. Those fail mostly by wearing process which systematically
grows slowly with machining time. In that case, tool life means the span of actual
machining time by which a fresh tool can work before attaining the specified limit
of tool wear. Mostly tool life is decided by the machining time till flank wear, VB
reaches 0.3 mm or crater wear, KT reaches 0.15 mm.
 In industries or shop floor : The length of time of satisfactory service or
amount of acceptable output provided by a fresh tool prior to it is required to
replace or recondition.

Measurement of tool wear

The various methods are :

i. by loss of tool material in volume or weight, in one life time – this method is crude
and is generally applicable for critical tools like grinding wheels.
ii. by grooving and indentation method – in this approximate method wear depth
is measured indirectly by the difference in length of the groove or the
indentation outside and inside the worn area
iii. using optical microscope fitted with micrometer – very common and effective
method
iv. using scanning electron microscope (SEM) – used generally, for detailed study;
both qualitative and quantitative

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Taylor’s tool life equation.

Wear and hence tool life of any tool for any work material is governed mainly by the
level of the machining parameters i.e., cutting velocity, (VC), feed, (so) and depth of cut (t).
Cutting velocity affects maximum and depth of cut minimum. The usual pattern of growth of
cutting tool wear (mainly VB), principle of assessing tool life and its dependence on cutting
velocity are schematically shown in Fig. below.

Fig. Growth of flank wear and assessment of tool life

The tool life obviously decreases with the increase in cutting velocity keeping other

conditions unaltered as indicated in Fig. shown above. If the tool lives, T1, T2, T3, T4 etc
are plotted against the corresponding cutting velocities, V1, V2, V3, V4 etc as shown in Fig.
below, a smooth curve like a rectangular hyperbola is found to appear.

When F. W. Taylor plotted the same figure taking both V and T in log-scale, a more distinct
linear relationship appeared as schematically shown in Fig. below With the slope, n and
intercept, c, Taylor derived the simple equation as i.e., 0.3 mm, 0.4 mm, 0.6 mm etc.)

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 VTn = C

Fig. Cutting velocity – tool life relationship Fig Cutting velocity vs tool life on a log-log scale

Problem :

If in turning of a steel rod by a given cutting tool (material and geometry) at a given machining
condition (so and t) under a given environment (cutting fluid application), the tool life decreases
from 80 min to 20 min. due to increase in cutting velocity, VC from 60 m/min to 120 m/min.,
then at what cutting velocity the life of that tool under the same condition and environment will
be 40 min.?

Single-Point Tool Geometry

Tool geometry is basically referred to some specific angles or slope of the salient facesand edges
of the tools at their cutting point.

Both material and geometry of the cutting tools play very important roles on their performances
in achieving effectiveness, efficiency and overall economy of machining. Cutting tools may be
classified according to the numberof major cutting edges (points)involved as follows:

 Single point cutting tools : Examples: turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting tools
and boring tools
 Double or Two point cutting tools : Example : drills
 Multipoint (more than two) cutting tool: Example: Milling cutters, Broaching tools,

Hobs, Gear shaping cutters etc.

The geometry of a single point cutting tool is determined by the following features:

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Face or rake surface,which is the surface of cutting tool along which the chips move.

Flank surface that face the workpiece. There are two flank surfaces, namely principal and
auxiliaryflank surfaces.

Cutting edge that remove material from the workpiece. There are two cutting edges. The
principal cutting edge performs the function of major material removal and is formed by the
intersection line of rake face with the principal flanksurface. The auxiliary cutting edge, often
called as end cutting edge, isformed by intersection of rake face with the auxiliary flank surface.

Corner or cutting point, which is meeting point of the principal and auxiliary cutting edges.
Often a nose radius is provided to avoid a sharp corner

The above mentioned features are shown in the figure below.

Fig. Features of a single point tool.

Seven elements of single-point tool geometry; and the tool signature convention that defines the
seven elements.

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Concept of rake and clearance angles of cutting tools

Tool geometry is basically referred to some specific angles or slope of the salient faces and
edgesof the tools at their cutting point. Rake angle and clearance angle are the most significant
for all the cutting tools.The rake angle and clearance angles are illustrated with figures below

Rake angle (γ):Angle of inclination of rake surface from reference plane

Clearance angle (α):Angle of inclination ofclearance or flank surface from the finished surface

The rake angle has the following function:

 It allows the chip to flow in convenient direction

 It reduces the cutting force required to shear the metal and consequently helps to
increase the tool life and reduce the power consumption. It provides keenness to the
cutting edge.
 It improves surface finish

Rake angle may be positive, or negative or even zero as shown in Figure below.

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Rake angle : Types and Their Significance

Positive rake :

 Positive rake or increased rake angle reduces compression, the forces , and the friction,
yielding a thinner ,less deformed and cooler chip
 But increased rake angle reduces the strength of the toolsection and heat conduction
capacity
 Some areas of cutting where positive rake may prove more effective are , when cutting
tough, alloyed materials that tend to work harden, such as certain stainless steel, when
cutting soft or gummy material or whenlow rigidity of workpiece, tooling , machine
tool,or fixture allows chatter to occur.

Negative rake:

 To provide greater strength at the cutting edge and better heat conductivity , zero or
negative rake angles employed on carbide, ceramic, polycrystalline diamond, and poly
crystalline cubic boron nitride cutting tools.
 These materials tend to be brittle but their ability to hold their superior hardness at high
temperature results in their selection for high speed and continuous machining operation.
 Negative rakes increases tool forces butit is necessary to provide added support to the
cutting edge. This is particularly important in making intermittent cuts and in absorbing
the impact during the initial engagement of the tool and work.
 Negative rakes are recommended on tool which does not possess good toughness ( low
transverse rupture strength)

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  Negative rake causes high compression, tool forces and friction , resulting in highly
deformed , hot chip.

The rake angle for a tool depends on the following factors

1. Type of the material being cut: A harder material like cast iron may be machined by smaller
rake angle than that required by soft material like mild steel oraluminum.

2. Type of tool material. Tool material like cemented carbide permits turning at high speed. At
high speeds rake angle has little influence on cutting pressure. Under such condition the rake
angle can minimum or even negative rake angle is provided to increase the tool strength.

3. Depth of cut: In rough turning, high depth of cut is given to remove the maximum amount of
the material. This means that the tool has to withstand severe cutting pressure. So the rake angle
should be decreased to increase the lip angle that provides the strength of the cutting edge.

4. Rigidity of tool holder and machine: an importantly supported tool on old or worn out
machine cannot take up high cutting pressure. Sowhile machining under above condition, the
tool used should have larger rake angle.

Cutting tool angles and their Significance

Side cutting edge angle

The following are the advantages of increasing this angle,

 It increases tool life as, for the same depth of cut; the cutting force is distributed on a
wider surface
 It diminishes the chip thickness for the same amount of feed and permits greater cutting
speed.
 It dissipates heat quickly for having wider cutting edge.

The side cutting edge angle of the tool has practically no effect on the value of cutting force or
power consumed for a given depth of cut and feed. Large side cutting edge angles are lightly to
cause the tool to chatter.

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End cutting edge angle

The function of end cutting edge angle is to prevent the trailing front cutting edge of the tool
from rubbing against the work. A large end cutting edge angle unnecessarily weakens the tool. It
varies from 8 to 15 degrees.

Importance of tool Radius

The nose of a tool is slightly rounded in all turning tools

The function of nose radius is as follows:

 ™ Greater nose radius clears up the feed marks caused by the previous shearing action
and provides better surface finish.
 ™ All finish turning tool have greater nose radius than rough turning tools
 ™ It increases the strength of the cutting edge, tends to minimize the wear taking place
in a sharp pointed tool with consequent increase in tool life
 Accumulation heat is less than that in a pointed tool which permits higher cutting speeds.

Tool point reference System

To determine the orientation and inclination of the rakeface and flank surfaces, a coordinate
system is essential, resulting in a set of planes with reference to which the orientation or
inclination can be determined. Two planesare of significance

 Tool reference plane or principal plane , which is perpendicular to the cutting

velocity vector

 Cutting plane, which is tangential to the cutting edge and contains the velocity vector.
The cutting plane is also perpendicular to the principal plane or the tool reference plane.

There are three different types of coordinate system that are popular, when it comes to tool
nomenclature, they are:

a) Machine Reference System ( MRS) (Read for the detail)

b) Orthogonal tool Reference System (ORS) (Read for the detail)

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c) Oblique or Normal tool Reference System (NRS) (Read for the detail)

Fig. Three ways of holding and presenting the cutting edge for a single-pointtool: (a) solid tool
(typically HSS); (b) brazed cemented carbide insert, and (c) mechanically clamped insert, used
for cemented carbides, ceramics, and other very hard tool materials.

Fig. Common insert shapes: (a) round, (b) square, (c) rhombus with two 800point angles, (d)
hexagon with three 800point angles, (e) triangle (equilateral), (f) rhombus with two 550point
angles, (g) rhombus with two 350point angles.

Machinability

• Machinabilitycan be tentatively defined as “ability of being machined” and more reasonably as

“ ease of machining”. Such ease of machining or machinabilitycharacteristics of any tool-work
pair is to be judged by :

 magnitude of the cutting forces

 tool wear or tool life

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  surface finish
 magnitude of cutting temperature
 chip forms
 Machinability will be considered desirably high when cutting forces, temperature, surface
roughness and tool wear are less, tool life is long and chips are ideally uniform and short
enabling short chip-tool contact length and less friction.

The machinability characteristics and their criteria, i.e., the magnitude of cutting forces and
temperature, tool life and surface finish are governed or influenced more or less by all the
variables and factors involved in machining such as,

(a) properties of the work material

(b) cutting tool; material and geometry

(c) levels of the process parameters

(d) machining environments (cutting fluid application etc)

Machinability characteristics of any work –tool pair may also be further affected by,

 strength, rigidity and stability of the machine

 kind of machining operations done in a given machine tool
 functional aspects of the special techniques, if employed.

Possible Ways Of Improving Machinability Of Work Materials

The machinability of the work materials can be more or less improved, without sacrificing
productivity, by the following ways :

 Favourable change in composition, microstructure and mechanical properties by mixing

suitable type and amount of additive(s) in the work material and appropriate heat
treatment

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 Proper selection and use of cutting tool material and geometry depending upon the work
material and the significant machinability criteria under consideration
 Optimum selection of VC and so based on the tool –work materials and • Optimum
selection of VC and so based on the tool –work materials and the primary objectives.
 Proper selection and appropriate method of application of cutting fluid depending upon
the tool –work materials, desired levels of productivity i.e., VC and so and also on the
primary objectives of the machining work undertaken
 Proper selection and application of special techniques like dynamic machining, hot
machining, cryogenic machining etc, if feasible, economically viable and eco-friendly.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
Wear Mechanisms and Chatter in
Machining

85
Tool Wear

The life of a cutting tool can be terminated by a number of means, although they fall broadly into
two main categories:

 Gradual wearing of certain regions of the face and flank of the cutting tool, and
 Abrupt tool failure.

Considering the more desirable case the life of a cutting tool is therefore determined by the
amount of wear that has occurred on the tool profile and which reduces the efficiency of cutting
to an unacceptable level, or eventually causes tool failure.

When the tool wear reaches an initially accepted amount, there are two options,

 To resharpen the tool on a tool grinder, or

 To replace the tool with a new one. This second possibility applies in two cases,
(i) when the resource for tool resharpening is exhausted. Or
(ii) the tool does not allow for resharpening, e.g. in case of the indexable carbide inserts

Wear zones

Gradual wear occurs at three principal location on a cutting tool. Accordingly, three main types
of tool wear can be distinguished,

 crater wear
 flank wear
 corner wear

These three wear types are illustrated in the figure:

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Figure: Types of wear observed in cutting tool

1. Crater wear: consists of a concave section on the tool face formed by the action of the
chip sliding on the surface. Crater wear affects the mechanics of the process increasing
the actual rake angle of the cutting tool and consequently, making cutting easier. At the
same time, the crater wear weakens the tool wedge and increases the possibility for tool
breakage. In general, crater wear is of a relatively small concern.
2. Flank wear: occurs on the tool flank as a result of friction between the machined surface
of the workpiece and the tool flank. Flank wear appears in the form of so-called wear
land and is measured by the width of this wear land, VB, Flank wear affects to the great
extend the mechanics of cutting. Cutting forces increase significantly with flank wear. If
the amount of flank wear exceeds some critical value (VB > 0.5~0.6 mm), the excessive
cutting force may cause tool failure.

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Figure: Cross-section perpendicular to the major cutting edge of a worn cutting tool showing the
effect of crater wear on the tool rake angle and the flank wear land

3. Corner wear: occurs on the tool corner. Can be considered as a part of the wear land
and respectively flank wear since there is no distinguished boundary between the corner
wear and flank wear land. We consider corner wear as a separate wear type because of its
importance for the precision of machining. Corner wear actually shortens the cutting tool
thus increasing gradually the dimension of machined surface and introducing a
significant dimensional error in machining, which can reach values of about 0.03~0.05
mm.

Figure: Top view showing the effect of tool corner wear on the dimensional precision in
turning

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Three Modes of Tool Failure

1. Cutting force is excessive and/or dynamic, leading to brittle fracture: fracturefailure

2. Cutting temperature is too high for the tool material: temperaturefailure

3. Preferred wearing of the cutting tool: gradual wear

Wear control

As it was discussed earlier, the rate of tool wear strongly depends on the cutting temperature,
therefore, any measures which could be applied to reduce the cutting temperature would reduce
the tool wear as well. The figure shows the process parameters that influence the rate of tool
wear:

Figure: Cutting tool wear as a function of basic process parameters

Additional measures to reduce the tool wear include the application of advanced cutting tool
materials, such as coated carbides, ceramics, etc,

Chatter in machining

Machining vibrations, also called chatter, correspond to the relative movement between the
workpiece and the cutting tool. The vibrations result in waves on the machined surface. This
affects typical machining processes, such as turning, milling and drilling, and atypical machining
processes, such as grinding. A chatter markis an irregular surface flaw left by a wheel that is out

89
of true in grinding or regular mark left when turning a long piece on a lathe, due to machining
vibrations.

As early as 1907, Frederick W. Taylor described machining vibrations as the most obscure and
delicate of all the problems facing the machinist, an observation still true today, as shown in
many publications on machining. Mathematical models make it possible to simulate machining
vibration quite accurately, but in practice it is always difficult to avoid vibrations.

Basic rules for the machinist for avoiding vibrations:

 Make the workpiece, the tool and the machine as rigid as possible
 Choose the tool that will least excite vibrations (modifying angles, dimensions, surface
treatment, etc.)
 Choose exciting frequencies that best limit the vibrations of the machining system
(spindle speed, number of teeth and relative positions, etc.)
 Choose tools that incorporate vibration-damping technology.

Figure: Chattered Surface on a turned piece

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Chatter Types

 Regenerative (f < 1000 Hz) when a surface undulation previously produced causes a
cutting force variation
 Coupling (f < 1000 Hz) two modes of tool or machine vibration are coupled (x and y
directions)
 Self-excited vibration (1000 < f < 10,000 Hz)
– negative slope of the shear-stress vs. temperature (t vs. q) relationship
– force components provide positive instead of negative damping

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