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FORENSIC 4 – QDE NOTES

by: Ed T. Maribojoc, RCrim, JD, MSCJ

I – PRELIMINARIES

I – Introduction and brief history of QDE

Since the time when man started to transform their conceived ideas into legible thing, aping or forging
another’s handwriting, hand-printing or even works of art, had also come to being. Since the beginning of
civilization, forgers have been working hard deceiving people by imitating the writings of others.

It can’t be denied that in line with man’s hedonistic behavior, pleasure is what he prioritizes for his own good
rather than for the common good of the majority. In line with this practice of some unscrupulous people, the
documentation of some transactions cannot be done with all honesty, free from fraud, or without whiff of
deception. In other word, in this age of documents, forgeries, a white-collar crime, is an unavoidable reality.
With education and advances in ink, community became more of a paper society. At the turn of century,
lifestyles changed from rural to urban, from simple exchange of money and handshaking, it became the
exchange of money and a signature.

With this, courts need people with expertise in forensic science in the field of document examination. They are
known as “amicus curiae” in Latin, which mean “friend of the court.” Questioned document
examination (QDE), aka, forensic document examination, is a discipline in criminalistics that pertains to the
scientific examination of documents that are exhaustively disputed in a court of law. It has been in existence
for many decades already, aiding people and the courts in resolving cases involving questioned signature,
handwriting, and all other questioned document problems.

But it was not until the later part of the 18th century where the scientific study of questioned documents began
to take its serious beginning, making this one of the oldest fields of forensic sciences, aka, criminalistics,
became more accurate and scientific. Forensic document examination is part of the 3-I’s of criminal
investigation under instrumentation. It is a branch of forensics science which focuses on the analysis of
documents which are disputed or questioned. 

Brief History of QDE

Document examination has been in use for decades now for disputed documents in the court of law. The
history of questioned documents dates back to 3rd century A.D. However, scientific document examination
started around the 18th century.

From the start of civilization, Forgeries had been in use for violation of laws to change the seals, handwriting,
preparing official documents, signatures, etc.
The first reported case regarding questioned document examination was in the 3rd century. During that time,
Imperial Rome was famous for forgers. Titus and Anthony were the famous and most skilled forgers of that
time known for forging all kinds of documents, especially those involving property rights. Titus was said to be
the most skillful forger of his time.

As there was a need to stop forgeries at that time, in around 539 A.D., the Justinian code was established by
a Roman emperor Justinian, which mandated the procedures to be followed to detect forgeries in documents
and the authenticity of documents. The Justinian code made sure that a judge could ask a person with special
skills to examine the disputed documents and give testimony regarding the authenticity of a document.

As the years passed, European countries accepted and practiced the Justinian rule on handwriting
comparisons. In Spain, public servants were appointed by Alfonso X as "Omnes Sabidores," the Sages or
Wise men” to detect forged documents by using formal scientific deduction. In France, experts were
designated by royal decree as "Master Writers.” Every country started to follow to detect forgeries and other
document related crimes. 
Photographers also considered themselves as handwriting experts during the 1890s after the invention of
photography because they had the advantage of analyzing handwriting characteristics using cameras by
enlarging the alphabets for comparison.

In a famous case, Alphonse Bertillon (inventor of Anthropometry) was also a photographer and using the
technology accused an army person of forgery which was later challenged by the experts from the US and
England. After the challenge, the charges against the army officer were exonerated by the High court.
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During the 1900s - In 1901, Albert Sherman Osborn wrote many articles related to typewriting identification
before publishing a book titled “Questioned Documents”. Albert S. Osborn earned the title “the father of
questioned documents” due to his contribution to the field of questioned documents. His other publications
included, The problem of proof (1922), The mind of the Juror (1937) and Questioned document problems
(1944).

With some modifications in the first edition of the book, he published a new edition of the book in 1929 which
set a base for the examination of questioned documents as the books are still in use.

In 1942, ASQDE (American society of Questioned document examination) was established with the main
focus of education and research in the field of questioned document examination. ASQDE is still working and
continuously contributing to the field of document examination.

II - Landmark cases in the development of QDE (CASES FOR STUDY – RESEARCH)

1888 – The letters of Jack the Ripper (aka, Whitechapel Murderer and Leather Apron). Although the crimes
were committed before the discipline of document examination was firmly established, the letters of the Jack
the Ripper case have since been examined in great detail.

1868 - The Howland will forgery trial, where businesswoman Henrietta "Hetty" Howland Robinson, who would
later become the richest woman in America, contested the validity of the will of her aunt, Sylvia Ann Howland.

1895 - The James Reavis (Baron of Arizona) land swindle trial, about forged documents involved in a Spanish
barony and land grant.

1894 - The Dreyfus Affair, French army officer (1894) who was charged and convicted of treason for
allegedly selling military secrets to the Germans, involving non-FDE Alphonse Bertillon, although professional
comparisons exonerating Dreyfus were ignored.

1934 - The Lindbergh kidnapping, where comparison of the ransom note and the kidnapper’s handwriting
(Bruno Hauptmann, a German immigrant and carpenter) by expert Albert S. Osborn, was crucial.

III – SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENTS USED IN QDE

1. MAGNIFYING GLASS OR HAND LENS, LOUPE LENS

Hand lens is the simplest tools in QDE in magnifying small
objects but one of an essential equipment for initial
verification document examination. It has magnification limit
of 5-10 times of the true size of the viewed object.

2. STEREOSCOPIC MICROSCOPE – is one of the most important tools in FDE. It can

provide a three-dimensional view of the specimen with magnifying power between 10 and 50. It
can provide both low and high magnification of images which is essential in the
forensic examination of the fine detail of signatures, handwriting and documents
generally. It is also useful in pressure patterns, crossed inklines, erasures, indentations, writing
over fold, in paper fiber structure determination.

3. VIDEO SPECTRAL COMPARATOR (VSC) - Effective in detecting alterations of

document, restoring erased entries, revealing obliterated writing and ink differentiation. It
has camera, video monitor, and variety of light sources. It is considered an all-in-one
equipment in QD examination.
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4. ELECTROSTATIC DETECTION APPARATUS (ESDA) - Used to detect indented writing impression created
writing action of an overlaying page. ESDA works by creating an electrostatic image of indented writing, which
is then visualized by the application of charge sensitive toners.

5. ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT (UVL) - Used to detect mechanical and chemical erasures, and
fluorescence of paper. UVL is very effective in revealing the security features of genuine bills
like the embedded security fibers, serial numbers, etc.

6. INFRARED LIGHT - Effective in deciphering obliterated writing, ink

differentiation, and in charred document examination.

7. CAMERA - Used in the preparation of photo exhibits for court presentation and
illustration of photographic evidence.

8. FORENSIC DIGITAL COMPARATOR - Effective in side-by-side (juxtaposition)

examination and determination of questioned and standard specimens of fingerprint,
documents and even genuine and fake money bills.

9. OBLIQUE LIGHT ILLUMINATION - Used in deciphering faded handwriting, erasures

showing disturbed paper fibers, outline in traced forgery, and embossed writing impressions.

10. SHADOWGRAPH - It is an optical method that reveals non-uniformities in

transparent medium like wire-marks, paper fibers and overlapping of writing strokes.
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11. TRANSMITTED LIGHT GADGET - Used in determining the presence of erasures, matching of serration or
feathering, and in some other type of altering documents.

12. MEASURING TEST PLATES/CALIPER – used in

determining handwriting strokes especially the inclining letter
stroke formations, and caliper for paper thickness, etc.

IV – MATERIALS USED IN DOCUMENT PREPARATION

Preliminaries

The learning criminology students on the subject of QDE or FDE, has to understand that in the examination of
documents, QDE is not limited only to the determination of handwritings but also of the entire make-up of the
document, including the analysis of the physical structure or component of the paper itself used in the
preparation of document.

A - Paper

What is a paper?

Paper is a thin sheet material produced by mechanically and/or chemically

processing cellulose fibers derived from wood, rags, grasses or other
vegetable sources in water, draining the water through fine mesh leaving the
fiber evenly distributed on the surface, followed by pressing and drying. Paper
is a thin versatile material mainly used for writing, painting and for packaging.

UNDERSTANDING PAPER AS ONE AREA OF QDE

The Etymology of paper

Before the invention of the early papermaking by eunuch, Cai

Lun (Pronounced as Ts'ai Lun), court official during the Han
dynasty, (2nd century BC), paper-like writing
materials, “papyrus” and “amate” were already used by the
ancient civilizations using plant materials albeit largely
unprocessed.

The word paper was derived from the word “papyrus,” the

Latinization of the Greek word “papuros” - the word for
the Cyperus papyrus plant, a reed plant endemic in the Ancient Egypt. Papyrus is a thick, paper-like material
produced from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus used for writing in ancient Egypt and
other Mediterranean cultures. It is also believed that “Amate,” a type of bark paper, were used in ancient
Mexico to create codices (plural of codex – derived from Latin word, Caudex – literally mean “trunk of a
tree”, “block of wood”, "book of laws".  
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Although the origin of the word paper is papyrus, the manner how the two are produced are very different.
Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fiber, while the paper is manufactured from a macerated plant fiber.

UNDERSTANDING PAPER STRUCTURE DURING PRODUCTION (PAPERMAKING)

Paper is primarily made up of a ground or chipped wood pulp mixed with a cooking
liquor (chemicals) used to separate the lignin (a resin with polymeric structure that
binds the cellulose fibers together). The pulp is fed to a paper machine, where it is
formed as a paper web and the water is removed from it by pressing and drying. The
aim of pulping is to break down the bulk structure of the fiber source, be it chips,
stems or other plant parts, into the constituent fibers. (See photo of the structure of
paper fibers by auto-fluorescing under ultraviolet illumination).

Stages of pulping

1. Chemical pulping
Chemical pulping is the process to separate the lignin from cellulose fiber. A cooking liquor is used to dissolve
the lignin, which is then washed from the cellulose. This preserves the length of the cellulose fibers.
2. Mechanical pulping
There are two major mechanical pulps: thermomechanical pulp (TMP) and groundwood pulp (GW). In the
TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into the steam-heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed
and converted to fibers between two steel discs.
In the groundwood process (GW), debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating
stones to be made into fibers. Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin, so the yield is very high.
However, lignin causes the paper to turn yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have rather
short fibers, thus producing weak paper.
3. De-inked pulping (Paper recycling)
Paper recycling processes uses either chemically or mechanically produced pulp, by mixing the recycled
paper with water and applying mechanical action in order to break and separate the fibers that are in the
recycled paper, and the ink. Most recycled paper contains a proportion of virgin fiber for the sake of quality.
Generally speaking, de-inked pulp is of the same quality or lower than the collected paper it was made from.

Parchment (Another material used for writings)

Parchment – a stiff, flat, thin material made from untanned

animal skin, and used as a durable writing surface in ancient
and medieval times, primarily from goats, calves or sheep.

Vellum is a finer quality parchment made from the skin of

young animals such as lambs and young calves.

NOTE: Modern parchment or vellum is made of cellulose fiber

out of plant due to scarcity of animal skin.

KINDS OF PAPER
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1. Linen rag paper- a heavy duty paper made from pulped linen rag invented by Johannes Gutenberg. Rag
paper, also known as cotton paper or rag stock paper, is made up using a cotton linter (cotton fiber), or
cotton from used cloth (rags) as the primary material.
2. Waterproof paper- an ordinary bromide paper coated on both sides with nitrocellulose lacquer. It is
normally durable and tear-resistant. The paper is created with special coatings (plastic-coated paper) and
fibers to allow it to stay together and not change shape or texture when exposed to rain, dampness, or
immersed in water. Waterproof paper is difficult to recycle.
3. Matte paper - with white coating that allows the ink to dry quickly.
4. Glossy paper- with high optical density in printed images or photos.
5. Wove paper- is a writing paper with a uniform surface not ribbed or watermarked. Those papers with wire
mesh produced by Fourdrinier Machines.
6. Laid paper- those created with the use of rollers where texture of watermarks and wire patterns are made.
7. Dandy roll paper- those with raised or recessed design affixed to the wire cover marking the passing sheet
that creates a watermark.
8. Safety paper- those designed to prevent alterations; used principally for checks.
9. Newsprint- high in opacity and less expensive paper composed of wood.
10. Specialty paper- those coated on both sides that transfers data from one page to another like carbonless
paper.

B - WRITING INSTRUMENTS OR IMPLEMENTS

Writing instruments are devices used in making ideas legible (readable) in letters, words and phrases on the
paper, or on any surfaces for purposes of communication. An object used to produce writing.

1. Writing instruments sans pigment (color)

The stylus - Before the advent of the modern writing implements, stylus was used
by the ancient Sumerians to write their cuneiform writing, by pressing a
triangular stylus into a soft clay tablets which produces a wedge-shaped
marks/writing. The clay tablets were then baked to harden them and permanently
preserve the marks.

2. Writing instruments with inherent pigment

PENCILS

Pencil – An instrument for writing or drawing, consisting of a thin stick of graphite or

a similar substance enclosed in a long thin piece of wood or fixed in a metal or
plastic case. Pencils create marks by physical abrasion, leaving a trail of solid core
material that adheres to a sheet of paper or other surface.
NOTE: They are made of a mixture of clay and graphite then baked. Their darkness
varies from light grey to black depending on the amount of graphite used. – that is,
more graphite with less clay - the darker is the impression; and, more clay with less
graphite – the lighter is the writing impression.

Types of Pencil
Graphite pencils - These are the most common types of pencil made of a mixture of clay and graphite and
are encased in wood.

Solid graphite pencils (aka, woodless pencil)- These are solid sticks with no casing, composite of graphite
and clay used primarily for art, which have no casing other than a wrapper or label.

Liquid graphite pencils - These are pencils that write like pens. The technology was first invented in 1955
by Scripto and Parker Pens.

Charcoal pencils - These are made of charcoal and provide fuller blacks than graphite pencils, but tend to
smudge easily and are more abrasive than graphite.
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Carbon pencils - These are generally made of a mixture of clay and lamp black but are sometimes blended
with charcoal or graphite depending on the darkness and manufacturer. They produce a fuller black than
graphite pencils and are smoother than charcoal, and have minimal dust and smudging. They also blend very
well, much like charcoal.

Colored pencils, or pencil crayons – Pencils with wax-like cores with pigment and other fillers often
blended with multiple colors.
Grease pencils - These pencils write on virtually any surface, including glass, plastic, metal and photographs.
Grease pencils are encased in peel-off paper.
Watercolor pencils - These are designed for use with watercolor techniques. The pencils can be used by
themselves for sharp, bold lines. Strokes made by the pencil can also be saturated with water and spread
with brushes.[41]

Copying pencils (or indelible pencils) - These are graphite pencils with an added dye that creates an
indelible mark. In Italy their use is still mandated by law for voting paper ballots in elections and referendums.

Eyeliner pencils - Eyeliner pencils are used for make-up. Unlike traditional copying pencils, eyeliner pencils
usually contain non-toxic dyes.

PENS

Pen is a common writing instrument used to apply ink to a surface, usually paper,

for writing or drawing. Historically, reed pens, quill pens, and dip pens were used,
with a nib dipped in ink. Modern types
include ballpoint, rollerball, fountain and felt or ceramic tip pens.

Ballpoint pen – Ballpoint pens normally uses oil-based

ink, a pasty and high viscous type of ink, containing around 25 to 40 percent
dye via a tiny roller ball, usually 0.5–1.2 mm made of brass, steel, or tungsten
carbide. The dyes are suspended in a mixture of solvents (benzyl
alcohol or phenoxyethanol ) and fatty acids to create a smooth paste ink that dries
almost immediately on contact with paper. The fatty acids help to lubricate the
ball tip while writing. Also, a larger ball dispenses more ink thus increases drying
time.
The first ballpoint pen was invented and a patent was issued on October 30, 1888, to John J. Loud, but it did
not attain commercial success. However, Laszlo Josef Biro, invented his version of ballpoint pen, often called
the Biro pen, and became the first patented commercially successful ballpoint pen.

Rollerball pens or roll pens - are pens with ball point writing mechanisms,

usually 0.5 or 0.7 mm in diameter, transfers the ink from the reservoir onto the
paper as the pen moves. Rollerball pens tend to write more clearly than
ballpoint pens and ease writing action due to lower viscosity of the ink it used,
which is water-based or gelled ink.

Liquid inks saturate more deeply and more widely into the paper than other
types of ink, that gives rollerball pens their distinctive writing qualities. Roller
ballpens with liquid-ink are more likely to "bleed" through the paper. This bleed-
through effect is greatly increased, as when the pen tip is left longer on the paper, as the ink is continually
absorbed into the paper, creating a blotch (a spot or blot; a splotch).

Fountain pens - are writing instruments which uses a round-tip metal nib to apply

a water-based ink, with an internal reservoir to hold ink, eliminating the need to
repeatedly dip the pen in an inkwell during use, as in the case of dip pen.
The pen draws ink from the reservoir through a feed to the nib and deposits it on
paper via a combination of gravity and capillary action. Broader nibs are used for
less precise emphasis, with the benefit of a greater level of ink shading or inkline
impression. Fountain pen uses dye-based ink and not pigment because fountain
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pens operate on the principle of capillary action, and also, pigment particles usually clog the narrow passages
of the pen.
The traditional iron gall inks intended for dip pens are not suitable for fountain pens, as it corrodes the pen
and destroys the functionality of the fountain pen.
Soft-tip pen, aka, marker pen, fine liner, marking pen, felt-tip
pen, flow marker, vivid (in New Zealand), texta (in Australia), sketch pen (in South
Asia) or koki (in South Africa), is a pen which has a reservoir that holds the ink is
formed from polyester. The "felt" used for the tip is usually made of highly
compressed synthetic fibers or porous ceramics. The advantage of Soft-tip pens is
that, it has smooth delivery of ink because of the fiber (felt) tip.
Ink dries quickly which is very helpful for left-handed writers, however, the
disadvantage of these pens, hesitations and pen lifts are difficult to determine due
to its thick or heavy impression of ink on the writing surface. NOTE: Fiber Tip pen
was introduced at around 1960.

A quill pen -  quill is a pen made from a moulted (shedded) flight feather of a large

bird, most often a goose. Quills were used as instruments for writing with ink before
the metal dip pen, the fountain pen, and eventually the ballpoint pen came into use.

Quill pens were used in medieval times to write on parchment or paper. The quill
eventually replaced the reed pen.

Typewriter - is an electric, electronic, or manual machine with a set of keys for

producing printlike characters one at a time on paper inserted around a roller
known as platen.

A typewriter operates by means of keys that strike a ribbon to transmit ink or

carbon impressions onto a paper. The typeface is the printing surface of the
type block or type element that is
attached to an arm known as typebar.

Typewriters have two types– that is, the Pica typewriter, where the font characters are bolder in appearance
that fits 10 characters in an inch. Due to its bold font, it can only accommodate 85 characters in one whole
sheet of paper. While the Elite typewriter, the font characters are slender in appearance. It fits 12 characters
in
an inch and can accommodate 102 characters in one whole sheet of paper.
Christopher L. Sholes, a Milwaukee newspaperman, poet, and part-time inventor, was the main creator of this
machine. The Sholes & Glidden typewriter typed only in capital letters, and it introduced the QWERTY
keyboard, which is very much with us today.

Modern printer - digital printing (using toner) primarily uses an electrical charge
to transfer toner or liquid ink to the substrate (paper) onto which it is printed.
NOTE: Typewriters’ font size and style are fixed, while that of digital printing
machines are changeable, as the user can select it from the machine.

Understanding the role of inks in QDE

Inks are fluid or viscous material containing pigments or dyes, used for writing or printing. In general, the more
viscous the ink, the faster it will dry, but more writing pressure needs to be applied to dispense the ink. But
although they are less viscous, hybrid inks have a faster drying time compared to normal ballpoint inks. Also,
a larger ball dispenses more ink and thus increases drying time.
The dyes used in blue and black ballpoint pens are basic dyes based on triarylmethane and acid dyes derived
from diazo compounds or phthalocyanine. Common dyes in blue and black ink are Prussian blue, Victoria
blue, methyl violet, crystal violet, and phthalocyanine blue. The eosin dye is commonly used for red ink.
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The inks are resistant to water after drying but can be defaced by certain solvents which include acetone and
various alcohols.

TYPES OF INKS:

1. India ink- the oldest form of ink and the most permanent of all ink colors. Basic India ink is composed of a
variety of fine soot, known as lampblack, combined with water to form a liquid.

2. Logwood ink- A natural red dye extracted from a small redwood tree. Logwood was used in
black inks (Iron
gall ink and bichromate ink) and watercolors. The main color ingredients of this ink are hematoxylin (produces
deep blue-purple color) and potassium chromate (produces bright yellow color).

3. Iron gallotannate ink- composed of tannic acid and an aniline-based dye; Penetrates and reacts with
paper fibers and commonly used in commercial writing inks.

4. Nigrosine ink- nearly black dye ink made from reacting aniline and nitrobenzene; not frequently used due
to its water solubility and feathering effects.

5. Dye inks- composed of acidic or neutral organic dye derived mainly from coal tar or petroleum; can be
easily
be removed from an ink mark. Dye-based inks are not waterproof and can be susceptible to smudging, with
many prints tending to fade after 25 years.

6. Pigment ink- tends to resist water and UV light better than dye-based ink. Most computer printers use
pigment ink because it is able to resist fading for up to 200 years.

7. Aniline ink - general name for a fast-drying printing ink. Aniline ink is inks prepared from an aniline dye
(mainly from coal tar and synthetic dye) dissolved in alcohol and bound with a resin. The ink is used for
printing
Paper, Cotton, Cellophane, and Polyethylene.

METHOD OF INK IDENTFICATION

Thin-layer Chromatography (TLC)

Although there are other scientific methods of analyzing the chemical components of ink, this
material focuses only on TLC.

Thin-layer chromatography is a chromatographic technique used to separate non-volatile

mixtures. It is performed on a sheet of an inert substrate such as glass, plastic, or aluminium
foil, which is coated with a thin layer of adsorbent material, usually silica gel, aluminium
oxide, or cellulose.

TLC is an analytical tool widely used because of its simplicity, relative low cost, high
sensitivity, and speed of separation. It is a process of separating a solution (chemical component of ink) of closely
related compound by allowing the solution to seep through an absorbent (like a melitta paper or any filter paper) that
carries the ink (questioned ink) upward by capillary action.

HANDWRITING AND WRITING

Preliminaries

Handwriting can be considered as the most advanced achievements of human hand. It is the visible effect resulting from
an unconscious expression of certain ideas into a legible written hand movement associated with cursive or script forms.
Writing is the product of handwriting. It is the result of a complicated series of acts which is the combination of mental
and muscular habits acquired through a long continued and painstaking effort of man. Writing is a tool-using skill, and
writing instruments have to be grasped and held stable in the hand before writing can be produced by appropriate
movements of the tool.

The earliest example of systematic writing is the Sumerian pictographic system found on clay tablets, which eventually
developed around 3200 BC, into a modified version called cuneiform impressed on wet clay with a sharpened reed
(precursor of stylus pen). This form of writing eventually evolved into an ideographic system, where a sign - represents
an idea, and then to a syllabic system - where a sign represents a syllable. Also, in around the same time, the Egyptian
system of hieroglyphics also began as a pictographic script and evolved into a system of syllabic writing.
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The first known alphabetical system came from the Phoenicians (Inhabitants of Phoenicia, ancient region of now,
modern Lebanon), who developed a vowel-less system of 22 letters around the eleventh century BC. The Greeks
eventually adapted the Phoenician alphabet around the eighth century BC, adding vowels to the alphabet and dropping
some consonants and altering the order.

The Romans in Southern Italy eventually adopted the Greek alphabet as modified by the Etruscans (inhabitants of
ancient Italy) to develop Latin writing. Handwriting styles which were used to produce manuscripts included square
capitals are writing style used for more formal text based on stone inscriptional letters, that is, rustic capitals – are the
freer, compressed and efficient writing style, uncials - are the rounded capital writing (majuscule) developed by Greek in
the 3rd century, and the half-uncials - which are the minuscule or lower-case writing which eventually became the national
handwriting of Ireland.

STAGES OF HANDWRITING

The hand is an extremely complex and delicate mechanism, containing 27 bones and being controlled by over 40
muscles. These muscles are mainly situated in the lower arm and they are connected to the fingers by an intricate set of
tendons (a connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone). Writing involves strict requirements with respect to the timing
and the force control of coordinated movements of arm, hand, and fingers. These movements become the
drawings/scribbles which young children form once they start mark-making, initially as big uncontrolled movements then
becoming more controlled and smaller as their gross and fine motor skills develop.

MUSCLES RESPONSIBLE OF HANDWRITING STROKES:

From about the age of 2, children start to move from a simple grasping (primitive) grip to one that secures the writing tool
between the fingers and the thumb. In the early stages of writing young children will try different holds, which is part of
their normal grip development for handwriting and drawing.

Normally, there are three fingers in holding writing instruments – that is: Thumb – index – and middle fingers. Fingers do
not have muscles. Every sets of fingers are moved by the muscles that controls its movements are those situated in the
hand and in the forearm. The following are the muscles responsible for moving the fingers:

1. Extensor muscles – these muscles are responsible to push the pen upward to form upward strokes.
2. Flexor muscles – these are muscles are responsible in pushing the pen downward to form downward strokes.
3. Lumbrical muscles – these are muscles that are responsible in forming lateral strokes by the combination of the
extensor and flexor muscles.

BASIS OF HANDWRITING IMPULSE

Every writer has their own way of holding, manipulating and exerting pressure on the pen. Because of this, the structural
formation of writing strokes may differ in different writers despite written using the same pen. Writing executions
emanates from the brain, particularly the brain cortex. This part of the brain is responsible which controls the vision,
walking, hearing, talking and walking. In handwriting execution, the cortex is the one responsible in controlling the
muscles of the hands that controls the fingers that holds the pen. Thus, when the brain cortex is affected with some
mind-altering diseases that effects the ability of a person to write, such person loses its ability to write, even if he could
still hold or grasp the pen. This loss of the ability to write is called agraphia.

Once the pre-handwriting patterns have been mastered, a child will acquire the skill-based necessary in becoming more
confident to form letters, numbers, symbols, and later on the join strokes required for a joined fluid and speedy
handwriting style.

STAGES IN HANDWRITING DEVELOPMENT

First stage: DRAWING (HOW-TO-COPY STAGE)

In this stage, a person learns the skill of handwriting through blackboard illustration. The focus of his attention in
handwriting is more on how to execute the forms and the stroke structure of the letters. It is in this stage that the child is
learning how to push and draw a writing instrument. This stage is basically more of the process of drawing rather than
smooth writing execution coupled with painstaking effort, laborious and slow copying of the letter’s stroke structure.

Second stage: EXECUTION (WHAT-TO-COPY STAGE)

After a person has passed the first stage, his focus of learning handwriting is on what letters he is going to execute or
copied. In other words, he gives more attention on what is to be copied rather than how to copy. However, the writing
execution is drawn instead of smooth writing. This is because the intent is still to imitate the forms of letters in a word or
phrase.

At this stage also, the child is inclined to choose which hand will be his dominant hand for writing sensing as to which
one will he/she be more comfortable. If the child has a left-hand preference, it is called sinistrality. If its preference is the
right hand, it is called dextrality.
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There are people however who are skillful or dexterous that can write with equal ease and facility with their both hands.
This handwriting ability is called ambidexterity or ambidextrous.

Third stage: AUTO-EXECUTION OF WRITING

In this stage, as the learner progresses in his handwriting skill, the process and manner of executing the letter stroke
becomes automatic but conscious on letter formation. The attention in writing is now given to framing of words and
phrases but not the automatic transcription of ideas. This is because the learner-writer has attained the foundational
impression in the mind of the stroke structures of letters.

Fourth stage: MATURITY OF HANDWRITING

After so many repetitions in writing, a person may now attain maturity or fluency in handwriting, mindless of how and
what letters to execute. His writing skill becomes an unconscious coordinated movement of handwriting strokes that
produced writing. In other words, because of the unconscious ability of the writer to write written words, the attention is
no longer given on how and what to write (process of writing), but on the subject matter to be written. What indicates
maturity in handwriting – that is, attention is on the subject matter and not on the writing process, is manifested through
the appearance of the writing strokes.

PRINCIPLES OF HANDWRITING AND NATURAL VARIATION

According to Ordway Hilton in his book, Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents, 1993, in all document
problems, there is another important element that must be considered aside from the elements for comparison - the
issue on natural variation. Natural variation is defined as the normal or usual deviations found between repeated
specimens of any individual’s handwriting or in the product of any typewriter or other record-making machine. When
considering this important element, we are reminded by Hilton that “No repeated act is always accomplished with
identically the same results regardless of whether it is produced by a machine or human effort.”

Human hands are not machines that can produce with same precision as machines does. Handwriting is made up of a
complexity of habitual patterns that are repeated within a typical range of variation around the model patterns, regardless
of whether the document was produced by a machine or human hand. Machines are subject to wear and tear for long
use, while human hand are subject to many factors affecting its normal use.

Thus, there is a theory that no person can create two or more writings with absolute likeness made at another time, or no
two persons can have similar handwriting with complete likeness or absolute exactitude. Handwriting skill is not inherent
to man. This ability of a human hand is subject to various factors making every handwriting unique and peculiar to each
and every writer. The fact that handwriting is not an innate ability, the likelihood of copying other’s handwriting with
complete similarity is nil or hard to believe but may be not impossible.

In handwriting examination proper consideration of natural variation is important. It is essential in order to properly
distinguish between forged and genuine writing. Thus, meticulous observation of difference (variation) should be properly
considered.

CAUSES OF NATURAL VARIATIONS

 Lack of machine-like precision of human hand.
 Caused by external factors like writing instrument and writing position.
 Physical, mental and emotional condition, such as fatigue, intoxication, illness and nervousness and mood of the
writer.
 Quality of writing preparation like time pressure.

SYSTEM OF HANDWRITING

What influences people in their handwriting ability is the system of writing that his/her country adopts, as a matter of
policy in law or customs. This system is what referred to as the particular style of writing, penmanship introduced and
practiced during childhood. This adopted writing system taught in school, as a matter of policy, is what generally retained
in the minds of the citizens during the learning process in handwriting of each writer.

So, even if an individual citizen migrates and live in another country, the writing system that he/she acquired during
childhood would have a bearing influence despite of having learned another system of handwriting. This is known as the
national writing influence and could even a source of natural variation.

KINDS OF HANDWRITING
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1. Cursive writing, aka ductus link or junction connected – in this kind of writing, all the letters in a word are connected,
but not including the letters of the next word. It is a style of penmanship in which some characters are written joined
together in a flowing manner generally for the purpose of making writing faster.

2. Script writing, aka ductus broken or junction broken – the letters in a word are individualized, not connected or written
separately from the first letter up to the last letter of the word or paragraph.

3. Block or Block lettering or printing – all letters in a word or paragraph are all in capital letters beginning from the first
up to the last.

WRITING MOVEMENTS

Once an individual attained the maturity or fluency in handwriting, he likewise develops individuality or unique style of
handwriting. This is called the form of handwriting. Form in handwriting refers to the shape and design of an individual
letter. The individuality of handwriting strokes can become a writer’s own habit developed thru many repetitions. This
individuality becomes his distinguishing marks or features from the other writers. This regardless of the fact of the
similarity of the writing system.

Writing system refers to the particular style of writing, penmanship practiced and learned during childhood. It embodies
the copybook, the letter structure and style as to how capital and small letters are formed. Copy-book form refers to the
design of letters which are fundamental to writing system.

KINDS OF WRITING MOVEMENTS

1. Finger movement – in this writing movement, the thumb – index – middle fingers are exclusively involved in the
execution of letters. The writing execution is basically dependent by the action of the involved fingers.

Descriptive features of finger movement:

 One employed by the children, illiterates, or by those who are not familiar with the process;
 The writing process employed in this movement is push-and-pull;
 By analogy, this is crawling in writing comparable of a child on a crawling stage;
 Employed in vertical writing especially in printed styles of writing;
 Has little freedom of movement in lateral strokes resulting in poor handwriting; and
 One employed in forged handwriting due to its slow, uncertain and unfamiliar movement.

2. Hand movement – in this writing movement, the whole hand is involved with fingers playing a minor role, as the fingers
are mainly limited to the formation of small parts of the letters.

Descriptive features of hand movement:

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 Pivot of lateral motion is in the wrist resulting in a restricted movement;

 Long strokes and continuity of motion is not possible as writing action limited in forming small part of the letter;
 By analogy, comparable to children on a walking stage (walking in writing);
 Writing movement is somewhat faster and easier, and route is more direct but not with great speed and freedom;
 Lateral hand movement parallel to slant of letters;
 Upper and lower connecting strokes are narrow and angular;
 Writing is often very illegible although showing rapidity; and
 Letters are illegible, scratchy (uneven) and angular, common to the handwriting of women.

3. Forearm/muscular movement – a writing movement that involves the hand, arm also the fingers in which the pivot of
lateral movement is the elbow showing great speed and freedom. The writing produce by this movement is no longer
slow and drawing appearance, thus difficult to forge or copy due to rapidity writing action and smooth strokes.

Descriptive features of forearm movement:

 By analogy, this writing movement is comparable to children already on running stage (running is writing);
 Slight shading is produced due to acquired skill and proficiency;
 Force and continuity of motion is shown by smooth, clear-cut, rapid and symmetrical stroke which indicates
rhythm;
 Radius of lateral motion is longer than the finger and hand movements, with fewer shifting of writing hand to the
right;
 Writing is more even to the baseline due to its precise continuity of writing action;
 Size of letters are uniform due to usual calculation of the letter stroke structure; and
 Long strokes and curves are smooth ad regular due to continuity of movement.

4. Whole-arm movement – this writing movement involves the entire arm and the hand without resting.

Descriptive features of whole-arm movement:

 Used in very large writing, like in calligraphy and painting;

 Applied in ornamental penmanship; and
 Used in writing capital letters and blackboard writing.

HANDWRITING EXAMINATION AND IDENTIFICATION

Handwriting examination is the act of making a close and critical study of any materials with both standard and
questioned documents in order to discover the facts of its authorship and authenticity. Handwriting examination involve
handwriting identification, in that, the latter includes signature identification. All of these processes require an exemplar.
Exemplars are original specimens used in comparing with the questioned handwritings or writings. They are otherwise
known as the standards. It may refer to a handwriting, a signature or typewriting standard.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF WRITING MOVEMENT

Generally, those who do not write fluently are those who are conscious in their writing execution, thus producing an
erratic writing movement that shows identifying details of forgery. But for those who have acquired maturity and fluency
of handwriting through repeated writing executions, they developed what is known as the idiosyncrasy or individuality of
writing that are peculiar only to one and every writer - as to strokes and as to styles. Individuality of handwriting is a
combination of peculiarities of writings that constitutes personal habit.

The following are the general classifications of writing movement:

 Clumsy, illiterate, halting, slow and laborious;

 Hesitating and painful due to illness or weak muscles;
 Nervous and irregular movement of stroke structures;
 Strong, heavy and forceful execution of handwriting; and
 Smooth, flowing and rapid succession of movement for those who acquired fluency in their handwriting.

DESCRIPTION OF WRITING MOVEMENT - PEN EXECUTION - SKILL

 Continuous writing stroke – here, the writing movement is uninterrupted by any pen stops or actual pen lifts from
the paper surface;
 Rhythmic pattern – this refers to the regular or periodic recurrence as basis in determining the speed of the
writing pattern in each stroke structures;
 Shading and pen emphasis – this element of writing movement is on its usual places of the handwriting strokes;
 Consistent – refers to the consistency on the overall appearance of writing pressure and speed;
 Pen position – refers to the normal and natural manner in holding the writing instrument;
 Speed of execution – consistency of writing movement even in slow, moderate or rapid writing movement;
 Connecting strokes – the appearance of connecting strokes between letters in a word as smooth or regular;
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Characteristics of connecting stroke:

a. Circular connecting stroke – the formation is round lateral stroke in between the lower portion of the
body of each letter.
b. Oblong of elliptical connecting stroke – the formation is semi-round lateral connecting stroke in
between the lower portion of the body of each letter.
c. Angular connecting stroke – the lateral connecting stroke is formed similar to the letter to “V” in
between the lower portion of the body of the letter.

 Good line quality – beginning with the initial writing movement, before and after the pen contacts the paper, and
the corresponding condition of the terminal stroke of the letter in words; and

Line quality are dependent on the following:

 Writing instrument is moved, either by the action of the:
a. fingers;
b. arm;
c. hand; or
d. combination of – fingers, arm and hand
 Acquired writing skill and coordination

 Habitual retouching – refers to the mannerism of correcting those lines which was done but deems correcting.

ELEMENTS OF HANDWRITING MOVEMENT:

 Movement – a handwriting element embracing skill, speed, freedom from hesitation, rhythm, pen emphasis and
tremor.
 Skill – an element of handwriting that shows the ability of the writer as evidenced by his proficiency.
 Speed – this element refers to the consistent rate of lateral handwriting stroke which may serve as significant
identifying element classified as slow, moderate, and rapid.
 Rhythm – an element of writing movement marked by regular or periodic recurrence.
 Pen emphasis – is the act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper surface with pen pressure.
 Tremor/ tremulous – refers to the irregular wavering of shaky stroke produced by an involuntary vibration of the
writing hand.

GUIDE IN IDENTIFYING THE HANDWRITING OF FOREIGN NATIONALS

Similarities in handwriting system of foreign national does not in itself indicative of identity when considered alone. Other
corroborative evidence, like different system of handwriting from foreign national, is needed to determine the significant
similarities and dissimilarities between two writings. The more exemplars there is, in examining the handwriting of foreign
national, the better.

WHAT IS A SIGNATURE?

Signature – A signature is a handwritten depiction of someone's name, nickname, or even a simple "X" or other mark
that a person writes on documents as a proof of identity and intent. The writer of a signature is a signatory or signer. It is
a person's name written in a distinctive way as a form of identification in authorizing a check or document or concluding a
letter. Legally, it is defined as a mark or sign made by an individual on an instrument to signify, acknowledge, approval,
acceptance of an obligation.

Black’s law dictionary define signature, as an act of putting one’s name at the end of an instrument to attest its validity, or
the name thus written. It may be written by hand, printed, stamped, typewritten, photographed or cut from one instrument
and attached to another, because it is immaterial with what kind of instrument a signature is made.

KINDS OF SIGNATURE

1. Conventional signature - a correct and complete signature written in an ordinary longhand or readable writing style.

2. Highly individualized or Personalized signature- signature which is highly personal to the writer and made up of certain
design or pattern not usually legible; or, class of signatures with unreadable letters or forms, or has an intertwining stroke
or lines.

Highly individualized or Personalized signature is further categorized into:

a. Formal or Complete – are class of signatures used for signing or acknowledging important documents like, wills,
checks, contract and other business papers.
b. Informal or Cursory – are class of signatures usually used in signing routine or routinary (day-to-day) documents or
personal correspondence, like delivery receipts by a mailman or delivery boy.

WHAT IS FORGERY

Forgery (Criminological) – an act of simulating or copying or tracing someone’s signature without the permission of the
author or owner of such signature, usually for profit.
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Forgery (Legal) – refers to the act of falsifying and counterfeiting of treasury or bank notes, or any instruments payable to
bearer or to order.

Strictly speaking, the term forgery is a legal term that does not only involve non-genuine signature or document but also
an intent to defraud on the part of its maker.

Kinds of forgery
1. Spurious signature or simple forgery – is a fraudulent signature in which there was no apparent attempt to simulate or
imitate a genuine signature. It is the common form of forgery.
2. Traced forgery – is any fraudulent signature executed by actually following the outline of a genuine signature with a
writing instrument. In this type of forgery, the motion of pen is slow thus creating an even distribution of inkline and
tremulous stroke or tremors. Tremor is a writing weakness portrayed by irregular, shaky strokes. The production of this
kind of forgery is of the following modes:
a. Carbon medium or carbon paper-aided traced forgery – This is done by first tracing the model genuine signature
with the carbon paper placed in between the traced original and another substrate or paper, then covering the traced
carbon with a suitable ink stroke.
b. Projection or transmitted light traced forgery – This is done by tracing the outline of an original or model signature
made visible by light coming underneath both specimens with the fraudulent document atop the model signature.
c. Indentation traced forgery – This done by tracing the genuine model signature with a stylus producing an inkless
impression which will be covered with a suitable ink stroke.
3. Freehand imitation or Simulated forgery – is a fraudulent signature that was executed purely by studying and copying
or simulating the outline of the genuine signature rather than by tracing. This is a forgery quite difficult to probe.

CHARACTERISTICS IN SIGNATURE CONSIDERED IN FORGERY

1. Blunt starts and stops - The forger places the pen point in contact with the paper, and then starts writing. Due to
unfamiliarity of writing execution, forgers do oftentimes stop, without lifting the pen, in areas where rapid execution of
writing movement requires no stopping of stroke but merely stops for occasional glancing with the genuine writing.

2. Pen lifts and hesitation - This is occasioned when the pen stops at an unusual point in the writing; perhaps where a
radical change in direction is about to take place or a new letter formation is about to be started. 

3. Tremor - Because the creation of most forms of non-genuine signatures are little more than drawings, the pen is
moving so slowly that small, sometimes microscopic changes in direction take place in what should be a fluid-looking
line.

4. Speed and pressure - Because the pen is moving slowly rather than with the dynamic movement associated with
most genuine writings. Slow moving of the pen will produce the appearance of an even distribution of ink or uniformity of
ink impression from the beginning up to the last writing stroke in a letter structure.

5. Patching and retracing - Infrequently, but at one time or another, most writers could make an error while writing their
own signature or handwriting, like in unintentional hiatus or gaps on the same course of line stroke due to ink failure.
  
6. Pen emphasis and shading – Intermittently, every writer has a habit of forcing the pen against the surface of the
paper with either increased or minimal (lightened) pressure depending on the type of pen used. Pen with flexible or
pliable writing point produces shading, usually of light impression. Pens with rigid point, such as ballpoint pens, which
creates a heavy pen pressure in writing without evidence of shading.

7. Line quality – The over-all appearance of handwriting is oftentimes dependent on this handwriting element. Good or
bad line quality is considered the most important characteristic used to describe handwriting. Handwriting that exhibits
poor line quality is always believed to be produced by inexperienced writers, or by those who suffered physical or mental
disability, or by people who tries to imitate another’s handwriting showing hesitations or tremulous line impression.
Fraudulent or spurious writing painstakingly constructed to simulate the handwriting of another usually contains flaws or
irregular writing movements. These features are what distinguishes genuine writing from that which is fraudulently
written.

HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTICS

Arc - Part of a circle; a bow-like curved line.

Arcade - The rounded style used to form the arches of cursive letters “n,” “m,” and “h.”
Arch – A convex curve strokes found in certain letters; The rounded hump of top curve of such letters as “n,” “m,” and
“h.”
Arm - A horizontal or upward-sloping short stroke starting from the stem of a character, ending free, e.g., “K,” “E,” or “F.”
Ascender - Part of the lowercase letters extending above the body or x-height, e.g., “b,” “d,” “h,” or “k,” usually a loop,
but including the stem of the “t.”
Base line - The horizontal real or imaginary line upon which the letters reside.
Beard - A slight hook preceding the body of a letter and is not to be confused with that frequently forming a part of the
initial stroke.
Boat - A dish-shaped figure consisting of a concave stroke and a straight line, sometimes forming the base of letters.
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Buckle knot - The loop followed by a horizontal stroke that is sometimes used to complete letters such as the “A”, “f”,
and ”t.”
Body - That portion of a letter, the central part, that remains when the upper and lower projections, the terminal and
initial strokes, and the diacritics are omitted.
Bow - A vertical curve stroke, as in capitals “D” and ”C.”
Connecting stroke - An expression commonly used to refer to the fusion of the terminal stroke of one lowercase cursive
letter and the initial stroke of another, having no identifiable or describable entity of its won (see “conjoined letters").
Copybook - A manual of writing instruction that places models before the learner to be copied. Writing system learned
and taught in school.
Crossbar - The connecting horizontal stroke between the stems of a letter, as in “A” or “H,” or the projecting horizontal
stroke necessary for the formation of a letter, as in the cursive “t,” or the printed “f.”
Downstroke - That part of a letter that is made when the writing instrument is moving from the top to the bottom of the
letter, or a stroke directed toward the bottom of the paper.
Endstroke - The terminal stroke of a written form, word, or letter.
Eyelet - A small, round or oval formation beginning or closing a curve or spiral, or completing the inside shape of a round
letter, e.g., “e,” “D,” or “w.”
Foot - That portion of the downstroke of a letter, written or printed, that touches the base line.
Hiatus - A gap in a writing stroke of a letter formed when the instrument leaves the paper; an opening; an interruption in
the continuity of a line.
Hitch - The introductory backward stroke added to the beginning of many capital letters and some lowercase letters.
Hook – it is a minute curve or an ankle which often occurs at the end of the terminal strokes/it is also sometimes occur at
the beginning of an initial strokes.
Initial stroke - The first stroke of a letter or a word.
Initial spur - The long initial rising stroke of a letter.
Knob - A round lump or bulge, as in the copybook design of the lowercase cursive “k.”
Loop - The circular figure formed when a line crosses itself, as in the cursive letters, like in letter “e” and “l.”
Shoulder - A joint, bridge, or humps on top of the small cursive letter “r” between the up and downstrokes; the curved
arches of the “h,” “m,” and “n.”
Tick - a short, straight stroke at the beginning or ending of a letter; Any superfluous small stroke preceding or
succeeding the body of a letter.
Tilde - A small stroke or mark used in writing or printing placed above certain letters in some languages to denote a
change in sound; a diacritical mark.
Trough - The bend, crook or inner side of a curve opening upwards, or, the valleys of letters such as “u,” “v,” “w,” and
“y.”

TERMINOLOGIES COMMONLY USED TO DESCRIBE DIFFERENT HANDWRITING STROKES AS BASIS OF

COMPARISON:

1. INITIAL STROKE –it is that which refers to the initiatory stroke of handwriting with an appearance of several stroke
formations like:
a. an upward initial stroke
b. a beard initial stroke
c. downward initial stroke
d. spur stroke
e. initial stroke with flourishes or embellishments

2. TERMINAL STROKE – it refers to the last stroke in a signature or letter. This stroke structure may have an
appearance in the form of:
a. an upward tapering, flying or waning terminal stroke
b. downward blunt or abrupt end terminal stroke
c. blunt or abrupt end horizontal terminal stroke
d. tapering or waning curved downward terminal stroke usually seen in personalized signature

3. ARC OR ARCH – an arcade form in the body of the letter, or a convex curve strokes found in certain letters.

4. BEARD – a rudimentary or elementary curved initial strokes.

5. BLUNT – a dull or pointed strokes that usually appears in the beginning and ending strokes that usually are results of
the drawing process in forgery.

6. BUCKLE KNOT – is the horizontal and looped strokes that are often used to complete such letter that is comparable
to a tie of a scarf.

7. CENTRAL PART OR BODY OF THE LETTER – is that part of a letter ordinarily formed by a small circle that usually
lies on the line of writing.

8. LOOP STROKES – is one found in long letters that resembles an appearance of an oblong curve. Loop formations in
letter structures, especially in cursive writings, may be symmetrical (balanced) or asymmetrical (not balanced) in shapes,
size or positions. It may be thin or bulbous, rounded top or pointed top.

9. EYELET – a round or oval-like appearance of stroke that extends in divergent directions.

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10. FOOT OF THE LETTER – is the lower portion of any down stroke which terminates on the baseline.

11. DIACRITIC – any element of writing strokes that are added to complete certain letters.

12. HITCH – is that introductory backward stroke added to the beginning or ending of many capital or small letters.

13. HOOK OR TROUGH – is that part of a letter that has an appearance of a bend, crook or curve on the inner side of
the bottom loop or curve or small letter. A minute and involuntary talon-like formation often found at the start of an initial
stroke, upstroke or at the end of the terminal strokes.

14. HUMP – is that rounded formation found outside in certain letters that has an appearance of a bend, crook or curve
stroke structure normally in small letters.

15. SPUR – is a spike-like appearance of writing stroke described as a short horizontal initial stroke.

16. KNOB – is that stroke structures having a rounded appearance usually found at the beginning or ending strokes. This
writing characteristic is the product of writing habit or style of a writer rather than caused by a voluntary or involuntary
stopping of the writing instrument.

17. MAIN STROKE, SHANK OR STEM – it is the downward stroke of any letter.

18. WHIRL – it is that upward stroke usually appears in letters that have long loops formation.

19. SPACE FILLER OR TERMINAL SPUR – is an upward horizontal or downward final stroke that are usually seen in
small letters. This can often be described as an embellishment or ornamental or decorative writing styles of certain
writers.

20. CONNECTING STROKE – a writing strokes that connects letters in a word especially in cursive writings. It does
have a structure in the form of:

a. ROUNDED CONNECTING STROKE – the connecting stroke is rounded in appearance in an almost copybook form
way of writing.

b. ELLIPTICAL OR OVAL CONNECTING STROKE – is a connecting stroke wherein the stroke is semi-rounded in which
the lateral spacing is closer in between letters in a word.

c. ANGULAR CONNECTING STROKE – the connecting stroke shows an angular formation showing an appearance of a
letter “V” and having a very limited or short lateral spacing from one letter to the other in word.

GRAPHOLOGY AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

When a document is subjected to a forensic examination, it raises the probability that such document could be a forged
document, or one used in the perpetrating a crime, like kidnapping for ransom, or one with falsified contents or signature,
or any document where its genuineness or its authorship is questioned.

In the conduct of scientific examination of documents, examiners usually require exemplars. Exemplars are known
handwriting of a person’s writing used as specimens for comparison with the questioned document. These exemplars
could be requested or procured standards. Requested standards are writing samples written at the request by the FDE
from the person whose document is under investigation. Procured standard, on the other hand, are those standards
obtained from all sources at the instance and effort of the FDE himself.

Questioned document examination is conducted by an expert called as Questioned Document Examiner, or Forensic
Document Examiner (FDE’s). There are those who also conducts handwriting identification based on the handwriting of a
person. This process is called grapho-analysis.

Questioned Document Examination, also called forensic document examination, is a branch of forensic science that
deals with documents having issues on its authorship and authenticity. Its primary purpose is to provide evidence about
a suspicious or questionable document using scientific processes and methods. This helps to produce evidence about a
questioned document that is admissible in the court of law to prove its genuineness or authenticity.
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Graphology, also known as grapho-analysis, on the other hand, is the process used to determine the personality traits
and details of a person based on their handwriting. It analyzes the physical characteristics and patterns of handwriting
with attempt to identify the writer, indicate the psychological state at the time of writing, or evaluate its personality
characteristics. Below are some of the illustrative descriptions of a person’s handwriting that graphologists have given
meaning.

PROCESS IN CONDUCTING HANDWRITING EXAMINATION

The first step that an examiner must do is to assess whether the writing is normal or disguised. An example of abnormal
writing would be a body of text that continually changes in slant, size relationships and written hand.

What to look during handwriting examination?

1. Normal writing: If the examiner determines the writing to be normal, then he can proceed with the examination. If not,
he must stop and reassess. There should be a clear idea of the characteristics and variations.

2. Characteristics: Look at the general writing characteristics first when conducting an examination. What is the basic
movement to create each stroke? Is the basic movement of the writer angular or more rounded, etc.?

3. Letter formation: To make a lower case “a,” does the writer begin with a long beginning stroke and is the letter
angular or round, etc.? Where do letters start and how is each one formed? Were the letters written in a clockwise
fashion or counter-clockwise? Are certain letters connected and others not?

4. Line quality: Does the writer appear to be in control of his writing? Are there numerous pen lifts or is the writing
continuous and strong? Is the writing fluent and are the letters smooth or awkward?

5. Pen Pressure: Assess the pressure of the writer. Is it excessive? Is there more pressure on down strokes or up
strokes?

6. Shading: Is there shading on certain letters and is it consistent?

7. Degree of Slant: Which direction is the slant? Are strokes made right to left or left to right? Is there no slant at all? Are
the slant characteristics consistent?

8. Ratio and Proportions: Look at the letters and how they are proportionate to each other. Every time a lowercase “t”
is beside and “h,” is the “t” higher or lower?

9. Initial and Terminal strokes: Does the writer begin with an exaggerated initial stroke, or a short beginning, or a spur,
or a knob? Does the initial and terminal stroke blunted or tapered or vanishing upward or downward or lateral?

10. Baseline Habit: Where is the writing in relation to the baseline? Is the writing physically above, on or below? Is it
slanted in relation to the baseline? Note: “baseline” can be imaginary.

11. Frequency of words: Does the writer use abbreviations or shortcuts when writing?

12. Special signs or marks: How long are the exclamation mark or comma? Are the periods small dots, quick strokes
that make a horizontal line or missing? Are the crossbars in letter “T”, “H” in proper or usual places? Where are the
crosses on t’s and dots on i’s? Are the t’s crossed? Is the cross on the t at the top, middle or bottom of the letter? Are the
I’s dotted? If so, are they dotted to the left, the center, or the right of the “I”?

13. Speed: Is the writing fluently created? Are there numerous pauses. If so, are they always in the same place?

14. Spacing: Spacing between words, letter combinations and margins should be noted.

When the examiner has completed the analysis of the known writing, there should be a clear understanding of the class
and individual characteristics found within the person’s writing. The range of variation and the repeatability of the
individual characteristics should also be clear.
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Many examiners keep working notes to keep track of the many handwriting features they note. This can be done by
making a photocopy of the writing and using a highlight marker, note characteristics. To rely on memory is problematic
and invites mistakes and courtroom questioning.
What to look in Questioned writing?

The first step in examining the questioned writing is to determine whether the entire body of writing was written by one
individual. This isn’t a simple step. If there is evidence that different pens, styles, slants, etc. were used in the body of the
writing, then the examiner should exclude from consideration the areas not necessary for the examination. The next step
is to determine if the writing is normal.

There are at least three steps to determine this. They are:

1. Distortion: These are changes in the writing that might not be the fault or doing of the writer.

2. Disguise: These are conscience efforts to hide or change the appearance of writing.

3. Imitation: This is an attempt to create another person’s writing by using a model or from memory.

If it is determined that the writing is not normal, the examiner can always request additional samples of writing for
comparison. If the writing is deemed normal, then the examiner begins following the same procedure as used in
analyzing the known writing to document the features of the writing.

Examine the letters and letter combinations first by noting the general or class characteristics of the writing and then
proceeding to the more individual characteristics. Determine the range of variation of the writer. At this stage, the
examiner should be able to answer whether the writer of the known documents also wrote the questioned document.

There should be a list of the class and individual characteristics found within both bodies of writing. These should be
compared and evaluated for consistencies, importance and differences. By importance, how unusual and identifying is a
particular characteristic. Is it one, based on your experience that you have seen dozens of times or never before?

Sometimes it may be advisable to switch the order and examine the questioned writing first, typically in cases where
there are many possible known writers. This way after looking for individuality within the questioned writing, the known
writers can be quickly eliminated.

HANDWRITING FEATURES

 Patching or Retouching – is the retouching or the going over a defective portion of a writing stroke. Thus, careful
patching or retouching is one of the common error or defects in forgery.
 Pen emphasis - The act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper surface with increased pressure.
 Pen lift - An interruption in a stroke due to the removal of the writing instrument from the paper.
 Pen position - The angle relationship between the axis of the pen and the paper.
 Pen hold - The manner in which the writing instrument is held in the hand; includes the pen position relative to
the paper
 surface, the direction of the instrument relative to the writing line and to the writer.
 Retrace or Retracing – is any stroke that goes back over another writing stroke; or, a stroke within a letter that
follows the same course as a preceding stroke; or, it is that portion of a letter in which a downstroke is
superimposed upon an upstroke, or vice versa. In natural handwriting, there may be an instance, as part of the
letter structure, that the pen doubles back over the same course. But some retracing in fraudulent signatures
represent a reworking of a letter form or stroke.

EXAMINATION OF ALTERED TYPEWRITTEN DOCUMENT

Kinds of Alteration of Documents

1. Erasure – an act of removing of handwritten or typewritten from a document.

a. Mechanical erasure- the writing is effaced with a rubber eraser or scratching out with a knife or any sharp
instrument.
b. Chemical erasure – the act of effacing writings by the use of chemical or liquid ink eradicator.
2. Obliteration – is the blotting out or smearing-over of writing to make the original writing invisible or undecipherable.
3. Subtraction – any matter rubbed out, strike out or scratched out after its original preparation.
4. Interlineations/intercalation – the act of inserting words between lines, or the adding of pages in a document.
6. Superimposition - any writing placed or laid over another so that both the overlaid writing and superimposed writing
are still evident.

COUNTERFEITING

Counterfeiting- is an imitation of a legal and genuine note intended to deceive or to be taken as original, legal and
genuine.

What is a Legal Tender?

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Legal tender – term to denote to the notes and coins as a medium of payment of debts which the creditor must accept
pursuant to law.

DIFFERENCE OF COUNTERFEITING AND FORGERY

In counterfeiting the object is currency notes and coins. Whereas, in forgery the subject is treasury or bank notes like
bank checks. But if the subject of forgery was a document, the crime is falsification.

THE PHILIPPINE CURRENCY NOTES AND COINS

SECURITY FEATURES OF PHILIPPINE NOTE

For greater protection, the NGC notes were provided with four layers of security features:

Level I: Security features - For public without use of special instrument. These are the “look, feel, tilt” elements in the
notes such as watermark, security thread, security fibers, and others
.
Level II: Security features - recognizable by professional cash handlers/bank tellers with the use of magnifying lens or
ultraviolet light. Examples are fluorophosporescent features, security fibers, and microprinting.

Level III: Security features - The hidden or covert security features reserved for the use of the Bangko Sentral.

Level IV: Security features – are forensic security features for the use of law enforcers in testifying whether a banknote is
genuine or counterfeit. These are detectable at specialized laboratories.

1. Embossed prints:
The embossed or raised print nature of the ink deposition
combined with the quality of cotton-based paper gives the
traditional banknote a unique tactile effect that makes it the
first and the most important line of defense against
counterfeiting.

This can be felt over the words “REPUBLIKA NG PILIPINAS,” denominational value in text, signatures, and value panels
particularly, the one located at the lower right corner of the obverse.

2.  Asymmetric Serial Number

Alphanumeric characters at the lower left and upper right corners of the note bearing
one or two prefix letters and six to seven digits, with font increasing in size and
thickness.

3. SECURITY FIBERS

Security Fibers: Visible red and blue fibers embedded on the paper and randomly
scattered on the face and back of the note. The security feature of embedded fibers
become more denser in 500 and 1000 peso bills.

4. Watermark:
Shadow image of the portrait with the highlighted denominational value that is
particularly seen against the light from either side of the blank space on the note or with
the aid of a light transmitted underneath.
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5. See-Through Mark
The pre-Hispanic script alibata or (Baybayin) at the lower right corner of the face of the
note slightly above the value panel. This is seen in complete form only when the note is
viewed against the light. The script means “PILIPINO.”

6. Concealed Value: 
The denominational value superimposed at the smaller version portrait at the upper left
portion of the note. This becomes clearly visible when the note is rotated 45 degrees and
slightly tilted.

7. Security Thread (Embedded or Windowed): 

Embedded thread that runs vertically across the width of 20- and 50- piso notes when
viewed against the light. Also, the stitch-like metallic thread on the 100-, 200-, 500- and
1000-piso notes which changes color from red to green and bears the cleartext of “BSP”
and the denominational value on the obverse and “BSP” on the reverse, both in
repeated series.

8. Optically Variable Device (OVD) Patch:

Optically Variable Device (OVD) Patch: Found only in 500- and 1000-piso notes, this
patch is a reflective foil, bearing the image of the Blue-naped parrot for 500-piso/clam
with South Sea pearl for 1000-piso, changes color from red to green when the note is
rotated 90 degrees.

*Incorporated on the OVD patch is a logo of BSP that also changes color when viewed
from different angles, the denomination at the upper right and bottom center, the text
BANGKO SENTRAL NG PILIPINAS on the upper left of the oval, and a micro print right below the clam or parrot.

9. Optically Variable Ink (OVI):

OVI -Found only in the 1000-piso note. This embossed denominational value at the lower
right corner of the face of the note changes color from green to blue when viewed at
different angles. Optically variable inks (OVI) are very expensive inks applied on
banknotes as a security feature. So far, only the 1000 peso bills have this.

==================RES IPSA LOQUITOR - FROM EDIMAR WITH LOVE=================