Learning theories and their implications for educational technology

Learning is defined as "the development of new knowledge, skills and attitudes as an

individual interaction and the environment". (Smaldino et al., 2005)

A Learning theory is an organized set of principle explaining how people learn. Each

learning theory has a different perspective of what happens during the learning process.

Perspective different people can look at the same thing and see it in difierent ways

Learning is a complex process that can be explained differently depending on your perspective ot

how and why people do what they do. Different schools of psychology have their own view or

perspective of learning.

Three perspectives of learning are presented in this Unit in historical order and not in

order of importance. When you read these three different views of learning, you may find that

you agree with one theory part of the time and prefer a different theory at other times or for

different learners. This is called "electric approach" which takes key ideas from different

theories for different purposes.

Behaviorism defines learning as a change in the behavior of the learner which is largely

determined by the external environment. The learner changes their behavior in response to

rewards (positive reinforcement) or punishments (negative reinforcement).

Cognitive learning theories define learning as a mental operation that happens when

information is taken in through the senses and is organized and stored for later use in the short-
term and then long-term memory.

Contructivism shifts the responsibility of learning to students. This is a learner-centered

approach and involves the students actively constructing their knowledge and skills. The

teacher's role is not to lecture the facts but to provide students with the learning opportunities

and environment to construct their knowledge through authentic tasks in meaningful contexts

The teacher will guide and mentor the students through their learning process.

These three perspectives of learning will be outlined in the following three topics and

their implications for instructional design and instructional media.

Behaviorist Perspective of learning

Behaviorist those people who see learning from a behaviorist perspective view learning

as changing observable behaviors as a response to the external environment. That is, behavior

that is desirable is ignoed or punished. Key theorists of this perspective are: I. Pavlov, E.

Thorndlike and B. Skinner. Their learning theories are discussed in in more detail in CAP

module and the Facilitating Learning Module (Unit 1).

Ivan Pavlov demonstrated a process called classical conditioning using dogs.

B. Skinner's work focused on the relation between behavior and its consequences. The use of

pleasant and unpleasant consequences to exchange behavior is often referred to as operant m2

conditioning.

The role of consequences: behavior changes according to its immediate consequences

pleasurable consequences strengthen behavior and unpleasant consequences weaken it:

Reinforcers: a pleasurable consequence that maintains or increases a behavior (positive

feedback, rewards....);

Punishers: a consequence that weakens behavior (negative feedback, no feedback...).

The Behaviorist learning process

To explain how behaviorist' view the learning process an A =B->Cmodel can be use

as follows.

The environment presents an antecedent (A) which is proceding occurrence, event or

cause. This prompts a behavior (B) that is followed by some consequence (C) that will

determine if the behavior will occur again.

The teacher's role

Teachers gradually shape and change students' behavior by:

.Adjusting the learning environment (A) to encourage and prompt students to behave in

ways that are closer to their learning goals (B) and

Using consequences (or 'reinforcers') to reinforce the desired behavior (C).

Selecting reinforcers is not always easy because different things reinforce different students at

different times. Some reinforcers could include:

praise and applause from the group or class,

tangible rewards (such as stamps, stickers, awards or certificates, good grades),

free choice time to spend on their favorite classroom activity,

other privileges discussed and decide with the students (Newby, 2006)EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Technologists often define it in terms of hardware and equipment that may be used in the

classroom. This would include audio-visual equipment, computers and other multi-media hardware.

However, many educators use the term more broadly, such as: 'educational technology includes any

media (or means of communication) that can be used in instruction to enhance student learning. For

example, educational technology could include printed media, models or real objects, projected and
non-

projected visual, audio media including voice, visual media, multi-media and digital media.
Educational technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization,

management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning.

Technology is defined as - the discipline (or area of knowledge) involving the art or science of

applying scientific knowledge to practical problems. It has been used to solve practical problems in all

areas of life such as, communication, medicine, sports, the building industry, engineering etc. It has also

used to solve practical problems involved in student learning.

Educational technology is the 'application of technological processes and tools which can be used

to solve problems of instruction and learning'.

(Seels & Richey, 1994)

Educational technology has been described as performing the function of a 'bridge' which links

the psychologists and those who research the learning theories with the teachers and students who

experience the practical learning challenges. The application tools which develop include the principles,

processes and products used by teachers and students to facilitate and enhance learning. Educational

technology uses these application tools to construct and deliver the most effective learning experiences

and learning outcomes for the students.

Simply stated, educational technology is the application of the results or researches and studies,

material and non-material to improve teaching and learning. (Garo, 2004)

To effectively use these tools of Educational Technology, the following questions need to be considered:
How should the learning experience be constructed?

How should it be delivered or experienced?

The holistic approach to educational technology has not always been the accepted model. For many

cational tcchnology had a very narrow, technical definition. The evolution began in the 1960s

rOm an equipment-based viewof educational technology to a teaching-and-learning-based view. (Lever-

Duffy, 2005)Learming theories and

Educational

Practical tcaching and

rescarch

Technology

lcarning problems

The educational technology bridge between learning theories and practical leaching and learning

problems (Adapted from Newby 2006)

Educational technology: process and product

Educational technology must be viewed in relation to the whole teaching and learning process.

Thus, teachers must understand this relationship to be able to make effective use of technological aids
(or

nstructional media). The teacher needs to understand the learning theorics and principles important to
the

process of its development, application, and evaluation.

Educational Technology is a:

Process: is the

Product: the physical

facilities, item, device

systematic application

of scientific or other

organized knowledge

to a practical task.

or program resulting

from the application of

technology.
Mixture of a process

and product: enables

the expansion of

information and

communication delivery.

Summary of educational technology

Process: is the systematic application of scientific or other organized knowledge to a practical

task

Product: the physical facilities, item, device or program resulting from the application of

technology.

9 Mixture of a process and product: enables the expansion of information and communication

delivery.

Educational technology can be explained as follows

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Instructional Design

Instructional Media
Visual media:

Learning theories and Principles:

- Pictures, maps, graphs

Behaviorism

- Objects, models

- Information processing

(Cognitivism)

- Overhead transparencies

- Constructivism

Text:

- written words on paper or

electronically on a screen (including

e-mail, word documents, internet...)

Instructional plans
including:

- the students' needs,

Audio media:

- the situation,

- Audio tapes, radio, CDs...

- the learning outcomes and

objectives,

Multi-media:

(Combination of media)

- teaching and learning methods,

strategies and media

videos, film, DVD,

-computer programs, internet, slide

shows
-assessment of students' learning,

- evaluation of the instructional

design

Instructional design -is the process of translating leaming theories and principles into plans for

instructional materials and activities. (Smith & Ragan 1999) It involves creating a plan for

developing materials and activities to increase students' learning. The major benefit of an

instructional plan is the guidance it can provide. Different instructional plans can be designed to

solve different instructional problems. Teachers and students use instructional plans to determine

the methods, strategies and media they will use.

AInstructional media - refers to any means of communication which has an instructional purposS,

for example:

1. Visual media: pictures, real objects, models, slides, overhead transparencies, maps, graphs,

drawings. Etc.,

IN 2. Text: written words in text books or electronically.

3. Audio: sound-audio tapes, radio, CDs, voice (spoken words)

4. Multimedia: combination of various media forms, such as text, graphics, animation, video and

sound. For example: video, films, DVD, computer programs, internet, slideshows etc.

All instructional media ainms to connect the learners, the teacher and the instruction. Important
questions
to ask in relation to planning students learning experiences are:

What types of media are available?

oWhat impact will the different instructional media have on learning?2

o How are the different media used most effectively?

To answer these questions, research in the areas of cognition, communication, perception and learning

theories has been consulted. Research shows that the selection and implementation processes of
various

forms of media directly impact what learners perceive and how they remember information.

Selecting and using instructional media

Why do we need all four different types of media?

Various (Grade) levels of content, types of learners and learning. Situations will determine which

media formats are better suited at times than other media formats. Each type of media has its own
unique

characteristics. How students interact with it, is influenced by these particular characteristics. For
example,

a students' effective learning from a textbook, is influenced by the characteristics and of the structure of

the book. Therefore, it is important to select and use these various types of media to carefully match the
learning needs of the students.

The following are guidelines for the selection of instructional media or educational media.

1. Size: refers to the material (text or picture) big enough to be seen by the learners farthest away.

Color: the choice of colors should be life-like and harmonious, suitable to attract pupils, to

facilitate learning.

2.

3. Durability: this will ensure the practicality of many uses for future undertakings when needed.

I 4. Easy to handle: light materials are usually preferred for easy manipulation and operation.

H 5. Relevance: any materials should match the situatioR wherever needed. Pupils' interest, capability

and usability of the materials need to be considercd.

6. Economy: this must be addressed without compromising the quality of the teaching and output.

For many options, cconomy is considered a priority as this implies a monetary burden.

7. Novelty: materials should possess the elements of newness or at least has a taste of the state-of-

the-art to present pupils with a wider perspective.

No matter how good the type of media, learning will be hindered if the content is poorly designed.

Leaming will also be hindered if the content is well designed but delivered in a way that the learner can't
understand it correctly. Media plays a critical role in the whole learning process.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Instructional design timeline

Date

Developments in educational media

1900 Edward Thondike develops a scientific theory of learning after investigations with animals

and then with humans.

This was the beginning of the behavioral learning theories.

John Dewey viewed experience, interaction and reflection as important in the learning

process.2

Educators Bobbit and Burk applicd scientific methods to learning problems. Bobbit

suggested that goals of schooling should be based on the skills necessary for successful

living. Burk developed individualized instruction programs.

Ralph Tyler refined the concept of instructional objectives.

World war II stimulated work on systematic instructional design due to the need to train

tens of thousands of new military personnel rapidly. Many educational rescarchers

participated in the war training effort and helped to advance systematic efforts to design

instruction.
1920

1930

1940

B.F. Skinner's behavioural theories of operant conditioning were popular in the 50's. Bloom

developed the "taxonomy of educational objectives which most educators are familiar with.

The cognitive views of learning gain more attention. Researchers focus on instructional

systems and instructional design.

Cognitive theories became more refined.

Constructivist views of learmihg became popular in the 1980's and the focus of much

rescarch. Student-centered learning gained increasing attention including: discovery

learning (Bruner), situated cognition (Brown), social learning (Bandura, Vygotsky).

Instructional design is a recognized field with a wide range of applications and an active

research community with different perspectives continuing to evolve.

1950

1960

1970

1980
1990

2000

Instructional media timneline

Date

Developments in educational media

Visual education movement develops.

Museums aid schools with their need for teaching materials.

Film is introduced as an educational medium.

1900

1930 Radio is used for educational purposes.

1940

World war II training relied heavily on film and other media.

Atanasoff and Berry invent the electronic computer

After the war, the educational media ficld began to focus on the role of media in schools.

Instructional television was introduced.

1950
First generation computers, like ENTAC, rely on vacuum tubes.

Media sciences focused on the impact of media on learning.

Second, then third generation computers are developed.

Early educational computer projects, like PLATo, are developed.

The personal computer is invented.

1960

1970

1980

New types of media cmerged and were uscd in education

The graphical user interface is introduced to personal computers.

1990 Media are digitalized and can be manipulate by.computer.

The World Wide Wcb brings the Intermet to the gencral public.

2000 All media are converging in the computer and can be reproduced clearly on media such as

CD-ROMs and DVDs

Computers can be used to process, transform or manipulate media in many ways.

The Intenet is emerging as the 'Information superhighway

Online and distance learning increases in higher education firstly and then in all levels of
education

Up-to-date multimedia resources can be brought into classrooms. Today, educational

technology is increasing in schools more than ever before.

Instructional media and instructional design began and developed as separate disciplines but today

they are converging into the single discipline of educational technology. This convergence began during

the World War II mass-mediated instruction which included the use of training films. Today educational

technology is composed of the component disciplines of instructional design and instructional media

inclading cducational conmputing

Technology for teaching and learning 1

Implications of Behaviorism for Educational Technology

Behaviorists rely on observable behaviors to explain learning. This results in more implications for simple

learning tasks and limited application in designing instruction for higher-level skills.

Behaviorist principles are applied today in:

using cues (prompts) to guide students towards the desired behavior (A)

setting instructional objectives as specific learner behaviors (B)

recognition and rewards for student's progress and achievements (C)

computer-based instruction: often programs include behaviorist principles (A B-C), for example:

flash-card type programs may (A) show one side of a card (a word) to the students and then after they

have responded (B), they can turn it over to see the answer or picture (C).
drill and practice activities within computer programs are used for students to practice their learning

independently at their own pace and may include enrichment for faster learners or revision activities for

slower-paced learners.

web-based courses when teaching basic skills and knowledge.

Programmed instruction

This refers to the careful sequencing and developing of instruction based on principles.

The programmed instruction opened the door to instructional technology hardware, the teaching
machine.

These teaching machines were mechanical devices that presented information and questions, accepted
student

answers, and informed the students of the correct answer.

COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE OF LEARNING

Cognitivists made new contributions to learning theory and instructional design. They were unhappy
with

behaviorism's inability to explain complex behaviors. They created models of how learners (1) receive,
(2)

process, (3) manipulate and (4) store information.

* Cognitivists explain learning as a mental model of short-term and long-term memory. Much of their
work

is based on Atkinson and Shiffrin's Information Processing Model' which contains three kinds of memory
to

process information - like a computer. For example:

1. The Sensory memory receives information through a person's senses for a very short time of a second
or

two., where it is either lost or transferred to

the Short-term memory (STM) where it is held for about five to twenty seconds, then it is either lost or

processed and transferred to

5the Long-term memory (LTM). Information can stay in the LTM indefinitely after it has been linked to

some prior knowledge already in the Long-term memory.

Cognitive learning science, points out that people must actively process the information and practice the

skills in order to learn. This means that teachers must find ways to help students to link new information
and

skills to what they already know, put them in context, develop their perspectives about it, and decide
how

meaningful the material is to them.

Cognitive learning theories emphasize internal or learner-control over mental processes which is in

contrast to behaviorists, who emphasize external control over a learner's behavior.

COGNITIVE LEARNING PROCESS

Ihe human memory actively synthesizes and organizes information, integrating it with knowledge
already

stored in the memory. This involves the three processes of:

1Altention: taking in some information from the environment through the senses and ignoring other

information.

2. Encoding: relating incoming information to concepts and ideas already in memory making the new

material more memorable and more likely to be retained in the long-term memory.

3. Retrieval: recalling (remembering) information for a particular purpose.

Implications of Cognitive learning perspective for Educational Technology

The cognitive perspective of learning emphasizes information processing and the important role that

memory plays in helping learners to translate information into a form they can remember and use.

The teacher's role

The teacher can support these cognitive processes by

organizing new information in a way to make it easier to encode,

linking new information to existing prior knowledge,

using various memory aids (such as highlighting, mnemonics, imagery... ) and

using various techniques and strategies to help students to

attend to important information,

encode and learn that information in a memorable form, and

retrieve (or remember) that information when needed.

Instructional media

Technology can be useful by providing the media to facilitate the organization, chunking (grouping
smaller

units of information together), linking, integrating and accommodating new information within memory.

Instructional designs

Instructional designs based on cognitive psychology are less structured than those based on behavioral

psychology. They allow the learners to use their own cognitive strategies and encourage interaction
among

students.

Instruction has been described as the arrangement of information and the environment to facilitate
learning

Gagne described instruction as a set of events external to the learner that are designed to support the
internal

learning process. (Gagne 1985) The 'external events' include the physical learning environment as well
as the.The

technology, methods, strategies and instructional media needed to communicate information and guide
thee

students leaming

Gagne's 'Nine Events of Learning

Instructional Events (External)

Mental Process (Internal)

1. Gain attention (Activate learners interest Stimuli activates receptors

in the topic.)

Creates level of expectation for learning

2. Inform learners of objectives (Prepare

learners for what they will be learning.)

3. Stimulate recall of prior learning (Build Retrieval and activation of short-term memory

on learner's previous knowledge and skills)

4. Present the content (Chunk the information Selective perception of content

to prevent memory overload.)

Semantic encoding for storage long-term memory

5. Provide "learning guidance" (Help

learners to understand the topic.)

Responds to questions to enhance encoding and verification

6. Elicit performance or practice (Ask

learners to do something related to what they

have learnt.)

7. Provide feed back (The feedback needs to

be specifically relaled to the learner's response

and provide guidance)

Reinforcement and assessment of correct pertormance

Retrieval and reinforcement of content as final evaluation

8. Assess performance (Assess learner's

knowledge and skills about the topic.)

9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job Retrieval and generalization of learned skills to new
situation

(Assist learners to remember and apply the

new knowledge and skills.)Why is Educational Technology Important?

The role of educational technology

Educational technology has many roles in teaching and learning, depending on weather it is a teacher-
directed

leaning ora student-centered learning situation.

teacher-directed situation (Lecture) - the teacher wil employ such common educational technologies as
a

blackboard, whiteboard, or overhead projector to enhance their lecture and improve communication.

Properly designed instructional media can promote leaning and support teaching-directed instruction.
The

effectiveness of the leaning depends on how the teacher integrates the educational technology. Studies

showed that when teachers introduced films and related them directly to the leaning objectives, then
the

amount of information gained by the students increased.

student-centered situation (student-directed learning) - educational technology can be structured to

allow

the students to learn more independently from the teacher, for example with the use of self-
instructional

materials such as: task cards, audio tapes, video cassettes or computer programs. Cooperative leaning in

small groups also encourages the students to learn from each other and take more responsibility for
their

leaning.

The use of student-directed materials allows teachers more time to: conference individual students,
provide

them with valuable feedback and teach individuals or small groups as needed. Educational technology
can

allow teachers to become creative managers and facilitators of learning experiences instead of simply
providers

of information.
Why use educational technology?

Studies show that it can:

improve student motivation, attitude and interest in learning,

influence students' academic performance,

develop higher order thinking and problem-solving skills,

help to prepare students for the workforce,

assist low-performing students and those with learning disabilities.

When does educational technology work best?

Studies show that it works best when it:

direct supports the curriculum objectives being assessed,

provides opportunities for student collaboration,

adjusts for different student's ability and prior knowledge,

is integrated into the typical teaching and learning day,

provides opportunities for students to design and implement projects

that extend the curriculum content being assessed,

is used in environments where educational technology is supported

by teachers, the school community, the school and district administrators.

The goals of educational technology are:

1. to enhance the teaching and learning processes,2. to motivate the students to learn,

3. to improve communication and understanding,

4. to help teachers to be more efficient and effective facilitators of learning in the classroom.

Educators and learners believe the roles of educational technology to include the following:

Roles of Educational

Technology

1. Increase the degree of mastery

Learning among the students.

2. Decrease the time in attaining

the desired learning objectives.

3. Increase the teachers' and the

students' productivity by enhance

teaching and learning methods.

4. To motivate students to learn.

Benefits of instructional media

If effectively designed, selected and used, instructional media can have the following benefits for both

teachers and students:

1. Motivate and sustain the interest and attention of students towards achieving a learning goal.

2. Present learning materials in a manner that learners can easily assimilate, for example an instructional

video.

3. Make learning more permanent (long-term memory) because of the rich experiences that
instructional

media can present.

4. Provides self-instructional activities for independent learning enabling students to progress at their
own

level and pace.

5. Enhance and support the teaching and learning at any point in the process.
6. Improve the quality and clarity of communication.

7. Provide for specific learning styles or intelligences.

8. Make learning more interactive, hence learning improves when more senses are involved.

9. Provides students with repeated and varied experiences with the subject content to help them

construct their own understanding and meaning.