CALCULUS REVIEWER

Real numbers and Inequalities

Rational Numbers

1.5 is a rational number because 1.5 = 3/2 (3 and 2 are both integers)

Integers
Whole Numbers are simply the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... (and so on)
Counting Numbers are Whole Numbers, but without the zero. Because you
can't "count" zero.
Natural Numbers can mean either "Counting Numbers" {1, 2, 3, ...}, or
"Whole Numbers" {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}, depending on the subject.
Integers are like whole numbers, but they also include negative numbers ...
but still no fractions allowed!
Integers = { ..., -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... }

Irrational Number is a real number that cannot be written as a simple

fraction.
Example: π = 3.1415926535897932384626433832795... (and more)

A non-terminating, non-repeating decimal is a decimal number that continues

endlessly.
Interval - what is between two values or points.
Examples: All the numbers between 0 and 20
• The time between 9:00 and 9:15
• A line with definite end points, called a "Line Segment"

Note: an interval may or may not include the end values, so you need to be
careful.

Open Interval
Example: the interval (0,20) is all the numbers between 0 and 20, but not 0
or 20.
Could also be written 0 < x < 20 (a < x < b)

Closed Interval
Example: the interval [0,20] is all the numbers between 0 and
20, including 0 and 20.
Could also be written 0 ≤ x ≤ 20 (a ≤ x ≤ b)

Inequality
An inequality says that two values are not equal. 
a ≠ b says that a is not equal to b

There are other special symbols that show in what way things are not equal.

a < b says that a is less than b

a > b says that a is greater than b
(those two are known as strict inequality) 

a ≤ b means that a is less than or equal to b

a ≥ b means that a is greater than or equal to b.

Absolute Value means only how far a number is from zero. (No negatives!)
 The absolute value of −9 is 9
 The absolute value of 3 is 3
 |−5| = 5  |7| = 7
"|" marks either side to tell that it is absolute value
Piecewise Function
Here is another piecewise function:

which looks like:  

What is h(−1)?
x is ≤ 1, so we use h(x) = 2, so h(−1) = 2
What is h(1)?
x is ≤ 1, so we use h(x) = 2, so h(1) = 2
What is h(4)?
x is > 1, so we use h(x) = x, so h(4) = 4

Imaginary Numbers
An Imaginary Number, when squared, gives a negative result.

Complex Numbers
A Complex Number is a combination of a Real Number and an Imaginary
Number.
Real + Imaginary.
Coordinates - A set of values that show an exact position.

On graphs it is usually a pair of numbers: the first number shows the distance
along, and the second number shows the distance up or down.

Example: the point (12,5) is 12 units along, and 5 units up.

There are other types of coordinates:

• map coordinates (North/South, East/West)
• polar coordinates (distance, angle)
• 3-dimensional coordinates

X = abscissa
Y = ordinate

Pythagorean Theorem
 c is the longest side of the triangle
 a and b are the other two sides
longest side of the triangle is called the
"hypotenuse"
c2 = a2 + b2 

EXAMPLE:

Solve this triangle

Start with: a2 + b2 = c2

Put in what we know:52 + 122 = c2
Calculate squares:25 + 144 = c2
25+144=169:169 = c2
Swap sides:c2 = 169
Square root of both sides: c = √169
Calculate: c = 13
Increment
A (usually small) change in value.
Often shown using the "delta symbol": Δ

Example: Δx means "the change in the value of x"

When we do simple counting the increment is 1, like this: 1,2,3,4,...

Distance Formula

Graph of an Equation
The set of points where the equation is true.
Equation of a Straight Line

Formula for the

Given any two points on the line, its slope is given by the formula
where:
Ax  the x coordinate of point A
Ay  the y coordinate of point A
Bx  the x coordinate of point B
By  the y coordinate of point B
It does not matter which point you choose for A or B. So long as they are
both on the line somewhere, the formula will produce the correct slope. 

Example
In the diagram at the top of the page click on "reset".  Substituting the
coordinates for A and B into the formula, we get
What is an Exponent?

The exponent of a number says how many times

to use the number in a multiplication.
 
In this example: 23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8
(2 is used 3 times in a multiplication to get 8)

What is a Logarithm?
A Logarithm goes the other way.
It asks the question "what exponent produced this?":

And answers it like this:

In that example:
 The Exponent takes 2 and 3 and gives 8 (2, used 3 times in a
multiplication, makes 8)
 The Logarithm takes 2 and 8 and gives 3 (2 makes 8 when used 3
times in a multiplication)
A Logarithm says how many of one number to multiply to get another
number.

RADICALS
Also called "Radicals" or "Rational Exponents"
Whole Number Exponents
First, let us look at whole number exponents:

The exponent of a number says how many times to use the number in

a multiplication.
In this example: 82 = 8 × 8 = 64
In words: 82 could be called "8 to the second power", "8 to the power 2" or
simply "8 squared"
Another example: 53 = 5 × 5 × 5 = 125

Fractional Exponents
But what if the exponent is a fraction?
An exponent of 1/2 is actually square root
An exponent of 1/3 is cube root
 
An exponent of 1/4 is 4th root
And so on!

Laws of Exponents
Here are the Laws (explanations follow):

Law Example

x1 = x 61 = 6

x0 = 1 70 = 1

x-1 = 1/x 4-1 = 1/4

xmxn = xm+n x2x3 = x2+3 = x5

xm/xn = xm-n x6/x2 = x6-2 = x4

(xm)n = xmn (x2)3 = x2×3 = x6

(xy)n = xnyn (xy)3 = x3y3

(x/y)n = xn/yn (x/y)2 = x2 / y2

x-n = 1/xn x-3 = 1/x3

And the law about Fractional Exponents:

Laws Explained
The first three laws above (x1 = x, x0 = 1 and x-1 = 1/x) are just part of the
natural sequence of exponents. Have a look at this:

Example: Powers of 5

  .. etc..  

52 1×5×5 25

51 1×5 5

50 1 1

5-1 1÷5 0.2

5-2 1÷5÷5 0.04

  .. etc..  

Look at that table for a while ... notice that positive, zero or negative
exponents are really part of the same pattern, i.e. 5 times larger (or 5 times
smaller) depending on whether the exponent gets larger (or smaller).

The law that xmxn = xm+n

With xmxn, how many times do we end up multiplying "x"? Answer: first "m"

times, then by another "n" times, for a total of "m+n" times.

Example: x2x3 = (xx)(xxx) = xxxxx = x5

So, x2x3 = x(2+3) = x5

The law that xm/xn = xm-n

Like the previous example, how many times do we end up multiplying "x"?
Answer: "m" times, then reduce that by "n" times (because we are
dividing), for a total of "m-n" times.

Example: x4/x2 = (xxxx) / (xx) = xx = x2

So, x4/x2 = x(4-2) = x2

(Remember that x/x = 1, so every time you see an x "above the line" and
one "below the line" you can cancel them out.)

This law can also show you why x0=1 :

Example: x2/x2 = x2-2 = x0 =1

The law that (xm)n = xmn

First you multiply "m" times. Then you have to do that "n" times, for a
total of m×n times.

Example: (x3)4 = (xxx)4 = (xxx)(xxx)(xxx)(xxx) = xxxxxxxxxxxx = x 12

So (x3)4 = x3×4 = x12

The law that (xy)n = xnyn

To show how this one works, just think of re-arranging all the "x"s and "y"s
as in this example:

Example: (xy)3 = (xy)(xy)(xy) = xyxyxy = xxxyyy = (xxx)(yyy) = x 3y3

The law that (x/y)n = xn/yn

Similar to the previous example, just re-arrange the "x"s and "y"s

Example: (x/y)3 = (x/y)(x/y)(x/y) = (xxx)/(yyy) = x3/y3

The law that 

OK, this one is a little more complicated!

I suggest you read Fractional Exponents first, or this may not make sense.

Anyway, the important idea is that:

x1/n = The n-th Root of x

And so a fractional exponent like 43/2 is really saying to do a cube (3) and

a square root (1/2), in any order.
Just remember from fractions that m/n = m × (1/n):

Example: 

The order does not matter, so it also works for m/n = (1/n) × m:

Example: 

Exponents of Exponents ...

What about this example?

432

We do the exponent at the top first, so we calculate it this way:

Start with:   432

32 = 3×3:   49

49 = 4×4×4×4×4×4×4×4×4:   262144

First, the Laws of Exponents tell us how to handle exponents when we

multiply:
Example: x2x2 = (xx)(xx) = xxxx = x4
Which shows that x2x2 = x(2+2) = x4
So let us try that with fractional exponents:
Example: What is 9½ × 9½ ?
9½ × 9½ = 9(½+½) = 9(1) = 9
So 9½ times itself gives 9.
What do we call a number that, when multiplied by itself, gives another
number? The square root!
See:
√9 × √9 = 9
And:
9½ × 9½ = 9
So 9½ is the same as √9

Like a Puzzle
In fact, solving an equation is just like solving a puzzle. And like puzzles,
there are things we can (and cannot) do.
Here are some things we can do:
 Add or Subtract the same value from both sides
 Clear out any fractions by Multiplying every term by the bottom parts
 Divide every term by the same nonzero value
 Combine Like Terms
 Factoring
 Expanding (the opposite of factoring) may also help
 Recognizing a pattern, such as the difference of squares
 Sometimes we can apply a function to both sides (e.g. square both
sides)
Example: Solve √(x/2) = 3
Start with:√(x/2) = 3
Square both sides:x/2 = 32
Calculate 32 = 9:x/2 = 9
Multiply both sides by 2:x = 18

One solution. A system of linear equations has one solution when the
graphs intersect at a point.
No solution. A system of linear equations has no solution when the graphs
are parallel.
Infinite solutions. A system of linear equations has infinite solutions when
the graphs are the exact same line.

Example: solve for x:

2xx − 3 + 3 = 6x − 3     (x≠3)

We have said x≠3 to avoid a division by zero.

Let's multiply through by (x − 3):

2x + 3(x−3) = 6

Bring the 6 to the left:

2x + 3(x−3) − 6 = 0

Expand and solve:

2x + 3x − 9 − 6 = 0

5x − 15 = 0

5(x − 3) = 0

x−3=0

That can be solved by having x=3

Binomial
A binomial is a polynomial with two terms

Product
Product means the result we get after multiplying.

In Algebra xy means x multiplied by y
And (a+b)(a−b) means (a+b) multiplied by (a−b). We use that a lot here!

Special Binomial Products

So when we multiply binomials we get ... Binomial Products!
And we will look at three special cases of multiplying binomials ... so they
are Special Binomial Products.

1. Multiplying a Binomial by Itself

What happens when we square a binomial (in other words, multiply it by
itself) .. ?
(a+b)2 = (a+b)(a+b) = ... ? The result: (a+b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
2. Subtract Times Subtract
And what happens when we square a binomial with a minus inside?
(a−b)2 = (a−b)(a−b) = ... ? The result: (a−b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2

3.Add Times Subtract

And then there is one more special case ... what about (a+b) times (a−b) ?
(a+b)(a−b) = ... ? The result: (a+b)(a−b) = a2 − b2

And it is called the "difference of two squares" (the two squares

are a2 and b2).

a2 − b2      is equal to       (a+b)(a−b)

Note: (a−b) could be first and (a+b) second:

(a−b)(a+b) = a2 − b2

The Three Cases

Here are the three results we just got:

(a+b)2  = a2 + 2ab + b2

} the "perfect square trinomials"
(a−b)2  = a2 − 2ab + b2

(a+b)(a−b)  = a2 − b2   the "difference of squares"

Remember those patterns, they will save you time and help you solve many
algebra puzzles.

Example: (y+1)2

We can use the (a+b)2 case where "a" is y, and "b" is 1:

(y+1)2 = (y)2 + 2(y)(1) + (1)2 = y2 + 2y + 1

Example: (3x−4)2

We can use the (a-b)2 case where "a" is 3x, and "b" is 4:

(3x−4)2 = (3x)2 − 2(3x)(4) + (4)2 = 9x2 − 24x + 16

Example: (4y+2)(4y−2)

We know the result is the difference of two squares, because:

(a+b)(a−b) = a2 − b2

so:

(4y+2)(4y−2) = (4y)2 − (2)2 = 16y2 − 4

Example: which binomials multiply to get 4x2 − 9

Hmmm... is that the difference of two squares?

Yes!

4x2 is (2x)2, and 9 is (3)2, so we have:

4x2 − 9 = (2x)2 − (3)2

And that can be produced by the difference of squares formula:

(a+b)(a−b) = a2 − b2

Like this ("a" is 2x, and "b" is 3):

(2x+3)(2x−3) = (2x)2 − (3)2 = 4x2 − 9

So the answer is that we can multiply (2x+3) and (2x−3) to get 4x2 − 9

One of the most interesting Number Patterns is Pascal's Triangle (named after Blaise
Pascal, a famous French Mathematician and Philosopher).

To build the triangle, start with "1" at the top, then continue placing numbers
below it in a triangular pattern. 
Each number is the numbers directly above it added together.
(Here I have highlighted that 1+3 = 4)

Trigonometry (from Greek trigonon "triangle" + metron "measure")

Trigonometry helps us find angles and distances, and is used a lot in

science, engineering, video games, and more!

Right-Angled Triangle
The triangle of most interest is the right-angled triangle. The right angle is
shown by the little box in the corner:

Another angle is often labeled θ, and the three sides are then called:
 Adjacent: adjacent (next to) the angle θ
 Opposite: opposite the angle θ
 and the longest side is the Hypotenuse

Sine, Cosine and Tangent

The main functions in trigonometry are Sine, Cosine and Tangent
They are simply one side of a right-angled triangle divided by another.
For any angle "θ":

Example: What is the sine of 35°?

Using this triangle (lengths are only to one decimal place):

sin(35°) = Opposite/Hypotenuse = 2.8/4.9 = 0.57...

The triangle could be larger, smaller or turned around, but that angle will always
have that ratio.

What does
the 0 .707
1... mean? It is the ratio of the side lengths, so the Opposite is about
0.7071 times as long as the Hypotenuse.
 
We can now put 0.7071... in place of sin(45°):
0.7071... = Opposite/Hypotenuse
And we also know the hypotenuse is 20:
0.7071... = Opposite/20
To solve, first multiply both sides by 20:
20 × 0.7071... = Opposite
Finally:
Opposite = 14.14m (to 2 decimals)

Unit Circle
It is a circle with a radius of 1 with its center at 0.

Because the radius is 1, we can directly measure sine, cosine and tangent.

Degrees and Radians

Angles can be in  Degrees  or  Radians . Here are some
examples:

Angle Degrees Radians

Right Angle  90° π/2

__ Straight Angle 180° π

 Full Rotation 360° 2π

Repeating Pattern
Because the angle is rotating around and around the circle the Sine, Cosine and
Tangent functions repeat once every full rotation (see  Amplitude, Period, Phase
Shift and Frequency ).

When we want to calculate the function for an angle larger than a full rotation of 360°
(2π radians) we subtract as many full rotations as needed to bring it back below 360°
(2π radians):

Example: what is the cosine of 370°?

370° is greater than 360° so let us subtract 360°

370° − 360° = 10°

cos(370°) = cos(10°) = 0.985 (to 3 decimal places)

And when the angle is less than zero, just add full rotations.

Example: what is the sine of −3 radians?

−3 is less than 0 so let us add 2π radians

−3 + 2π = −3 + 6.283... = 3.283... radians

sin(−3) = sin(3.283...) = −0.141 (to 3 decimal places)

Solving Triangles
Trigonometry is also useful for general triangles, not just right-angled ones .

It helps us in  Solving Triangles . "Solving" means finding missing sides and angles.

Example: Find the Missing Angle "C"

Angle C can be found using  angles of a triangle add to 180° :

So C = 180° − 76° − 34° = 70°

We can also find missing side lengths. The general rule is:

When we know any 3 of the sides or angles we can find the other 3 
(except for the three angles case)

Other Functions (Cotangent, Secant, Cosecant)

Similar to Sine, Cosine and Tangent, there are three other trigonometric

functions which are made by dividing one side by another:

Cosecant Function: csc(θ) = Hypotenuse / Opposite

Secant Function: sec(θ) = Hypotenuse / Adjacent
Cotangent Function: cot(θ) = Adjacent / Opposite

Trigonometric and Triangle Identities

And as you get better at Trigonometry you can learn these:

The Trigonometric Identities are equations that are true for

all right-angled triangles.

The Triangle Identities are equations that are true for all

triangles (they don't have to have a right angle).
COSINE
The Cosine of angle θ is:
cos(θ) = Adjacent / Hypotenuse

And Inverse Cosine is :

cos-1 (Adjacent / Hypotenuse) = θ

Example: Find the size of angle a°

cos a° = Adjacent / Hypotenuse

cos a° = 6,750/8,100 = 0.8333...

a° = cos-1 (0.8333...) = 33.6° (to 1 decimal place)

TANGENT

The Tangent of angle θ is:

tan(θ) = Opposite / Adjacent

So Inverse Tangent is :

tan-1 (Opposite / Adjacent) = θ

Example: Find the size of angle x°

tan x° = Opposite / Adjacent

tan x° = 300/400 = 0.75

x° = tan-1 (0.75) = 36.9° (correct to 1 decimal place)