Chapter 1 :Functions

Definition: A function f is a rule that assigns to each element 𝑥 in a set 𝐷 exactly one
element, called f (x), in a set E .

We usually consider functions for which the sets 𝐷and are sets𝐸 of real numbers.
Theset𝐷 is called the domain of the function. The number f(x) is the value of f at 𝒙
and is read “ f of x ” The range of is the set of all possible values of f(x) as 𝑥 varies
through out the domain. A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the domain
of a function f is called an independent variable. A symbol that represents a number
in the range of f is called a dependent variable.

Arrow diagram: Each arrow connects an element of𝐷 to an element of 𝐸. The arrow
indicates that f(x) is associated with 𝑥, f(a) is associated with
a, and so on.
The most common method for visualizing a function is its
graph.
If f is a function with domain 𝐷, then its graph is the set of
ordered pairs{(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥))| 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷}

Note: The Domain of any real function is the Real number set ℝ except if exist
problem ( in even Root must be non-negative and Rational function the
denominator not equal zero).

GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
The graph of f consists of all points(𝑥, 𝑦) in the coordinate plane such that
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and is in the domain of f.
The graph of a function f gives us a useful picture of the behavior or “life history” of
a function. Since the 𝑦_𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 of any point (𝑥, 𝑦)on the graph is𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), we
can readthe value of 𝑓(𝑥)from the graph as being the height of the graph above the
point𝑥 (seeFigure). The graph of also allows us to picture the domain of on the
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and its range on the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

Calculus _Math 201 Page 1

That figure also shows the graphs of some other basic functions that may already be
familiar to you.
A we discuss techniques for graphing functions using graphing technology.

The values of 𝑥 for which 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 are the x-coordinates of

the points where the graph of 𝑓intersects the x-axis (Figure).
These values are called the zeros of 𝑓, the roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, or
the x-intercepts of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

Example 1: Sketch the graph and find the domain and range of each function.
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1 b) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
Solution

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1
𝑥 −2 −1 0 1 2
2
𝑓(𝑥) −5 −3 −1 0 3
𝑓(−2) = 2(−2) − 1 = −4 − 1 = −5
𝑓(−1) = 2(−1) − 1 = −2 − 1 = −3
𝑓(0) = 2(0) − 1 = 0 − 1 = −1
1
𝑓(1) = 2 ( ) − 1 = 1 − 1 = 0
2
𝑓(2) = 2(2) − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3

Calculus _Math 201 Page 2

 b) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

𝑥 −2 −1 0 1 2
𝑓(𝑥) 4 1 0 1 4
𝑔(−2) = (−2)2 = 4, (−2, 4)
𝑔(−1) = (−1)2 = 1 , (−1,1)
𝑔(0) = (0)2 = 0 , (0,0)
𝑔(1) = (1)2 = 1, (1,1)
𝑔(2 ) = (2)2 = 4, (2, 4)

Example: Find the domain of each function

1
𝑎) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 2 (b) 𝑔(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 −𝑥
Solution
(a) Because the square root of a negative number is not defined (as a real number),
the domain of consists of all values of 𝑥 such that 𝑥 + 2 ≥ 0. This is equivalent to
𝑥 ≥ −2, so the domain is the interval [−2, ∞) .
1 1
(b) Since𝑔(𝑥) = =
𝑥 2 −𝑥 𝑥(𝑥−1)
and division by0 is not allowed, we see that is not defined when 𝑥 = 0 or 𝑥 = 1 .
Thus the domain of is {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ 0 , 𝑥 ≠ 1} which could also be written in interval
notation as(−∞, 0) ∪ (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)

The vertical line test A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function of x
if and only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.

The reason for the truth of the Vertical Line Test can be seen in Figure. If each
vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎 intersects a curve only once, at (𝑎, 𝑏), then exactly one functional
value is defined by 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏 . But if a line 𝑥 = 𝑎 intersects the curve twice, at(𝑎, 𝑏),
and (𝑎, 𝑐),then the curve can’t represent a function because a function can’t assign
two different valuesto 𝑎 .

Calculus _Math 201 Page 3

Example: The parabola 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 − 2 shown in figure (a) is not the graph of a function
of 𝑥 because, as you can see, there are vertical lines that intersect the parabola twice.
The parabola, however, does contain the graphs of two functions of 𝑥.
Notice that the equation 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 − 2 implies 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 2, so 𝑦 = ±√𝑥 + 2Thus the
upper and lower halves of the parabola are the graphs of the functions
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = −√𝑥 + 2. [See Figures (b) and (c).]

PIECEWISE-DEFINED FUNCTIONS
a function defined piecewise defined by different formulas in different parts of their
domains. For example
𝒕(𝒙) ; 𝒙 < 𝑐
𝒇(𝒙) = { where 𝑡(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) any two functions and 𝑐 ∈ ℝ
𝒈(𝒙); 𝒙 ≥ 𝒄

1−𝑥 ; 𝑥≤1
Example: A function f is defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑥2 ; 𝑥>1
Evaluate 𝑓(0), 𝑓(1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(2) and sketch the graph.

Solution: Remember that a function is a rule. For this particular function the rule is
the following: First look at the value of the input 𝑥. If it happens that 𝑥 ≤ 1, then the
value of 𝑓(𝑥) is 1 − 𝑥. On the other hand, if 𝑥 > 1, then the value of 𝑓(𝑥) is 𝑥 2 .
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 0 ≤ 1, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓(0) = 1 − 0 = 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 1 ≤ 1, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓(1) = 1 − 1 = 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 2 > 1, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓(2) = 22 = 4
How do we draw the graph of f ? We observe that if 𝑥 ≤ 1,
then 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥, so thepart of the graph of f that lies to
the left of the vertical line 𝑥 = 1must coincide with the line
𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥, which has slope −1and y-intercept 1. If 𝑥 > 1,
then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , sothe part of the graph of that lies to the
right of the line 𝑥 = 1 must coincide with the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , which is a parabola.
This enables us to sketch the graph in Figure.
The solid dot indicates that the point (1,0) is included on the graph; the open dot
indicatesthat the point(1,1) is excluded from the graph.

Calculus _Math 201 Page 4

EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS
Definition: if a function f satisfies 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for every number in its domain,
then is called an even function
and is said to be an odd function if 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)

Example: Determine which of following function is even or odd

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3
Solution:
a) 𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)2 = 𝑥 2 = 𝑓(𝑥) ; Therefore f is an even function

b) (−𝑥) = (−𝑥)3 + (−𝑥) = −𝑥 3 − 𝑥 ≠ 𝑓(𝑥) ; Therefore f is not an even

−𝑓(𝑥) = −(𝑥 3 + 𝑥) = −𝑥 3 − 𝑥 = 𝑓(−𝑥); Therefore f is an odd function

Example: Determine which of following function is even, odd or neither even nor
odd.
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 b) 𝑔(𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥 4 c)ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2
Solution:
a) 𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)5 + (−𝑥) = −𝑥 5 − 𝑥 ≠ 𝑓(𝑥);therefore f is not an even

−𝑓(𝑥) = −(𝑥 3 + 𝑥) = −𝑥 3 − 𝑥 = 𝑓(−𝑥); therefore f is an odd function

b)𝑔(−𝑥) = 1 − (−𝑥)4 = 1 − 𝑥 4 = 𝑔(𝑥) ; therefore 𝑔 is an even function

c) ℎ(−𝑥) = 2(−𝑥) − (−𝑥)2 = −2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ≠ ℎ(𝑥); therefore h is not an even

−ℎ(𝑥) = −(2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) = −2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ≠ ℎ(−𝑥); therefore h is an odd function

Then ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 is neither

INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

A function is called increasing on an interval𝐼 if 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑥1 < 𝑥2
It is called decreasing on 𝐼 if 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 𝑓(𝑥2 ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑥1 < 𝑥2
In the definition of an increasing function it is important to realize
that the inequality 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 ) must be satisfied for every pair
of numbers 𝑥1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 in 𝐼 with 𝑥1 < 𝑥2
You can see from Figure that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is decreasing
on the interval (−∞, 0] and increasing on the interval [0, ∞)

Calculus _Math 201 Page 5

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Notice that for both the sine and cosine functions the domain is (−∞, ∞)and the
rangeis the closed interval [−1,1].
Thus, for all values of 𝑥, we have−1 ≤ sin 𝑥 ≤ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 1 ≤ cos 𝑥 ≤ 1.

Also, the zeros of the sine function occur at the integer multiples of 𝜋; that is,sin 𝑥 =
0 when 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 ; 𝑛 an integer
An important property of the sine and cosine functions is that they are periodic
functions and have period 2𝜋. This means that, for all values of 𝑥,
sin(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = sin 𝑥 cos(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = cos 𝑥

Calculus _Math 201 Page 6

The tangent function is related to the sine and cosine functions by the equation
sin 𝑥
tan 𝑥 = . It is undefined whenever cos 𝑥 = 0, that is, when
cos 𝑥
𝑥 = ± 𝜋⁄2 , ± 3𝜋⁄2 , … , Its range is (−∞, ∞).

Notice that the tangent function has period ; tan(𝑥 + 𝜋) = tan 𝑥 for all 𝑥.

sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 1
tan 𝑥 = , cot 𝑥 = =
cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥
1 1
sec 𝑥 = , csc 𝑥 =
cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥
sin2 𝑥 = (sin 𝑥)2 , sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥 = 1
tan2 𝑥 + 1 = sec 2 𝑥 , cot 2 𝑥 + 1 = csc 2 𝑥
sin 2𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
cos 2𝑥 = cos 2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥 = 2 cos 2 𝑥 − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝑥
2 tan 𝑥
tan 2𝑥 =
1 − tan2 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼 − 𝛽) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼 − 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽
𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝛼 + 𝛽) = ,
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽
𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝛼 − 𝛽) =
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽
𝜋 𝜋
sin ( − 𝑥) = cos 𝑥 , cos ( − 𝑥) = sin 𝑥 ,
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 − 𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ,
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜋 − 𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ,
𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜋 − 𝑥) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 ,
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 ± 2𝜋),
𝜋
tan ( − 𝑥) = cot 𝑥
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 + 𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛(−𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜋 + 𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜋 + 𝑥) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛(−𝑥) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 ± 2𝜋), tan 𝑥 = tan(𝑥 ± 𝜋)

Calculus _Math 201 Page 7

 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 3𝜋
𝑥=0 𝑥= 𝑥= 𝑥= 𝑥= 𝑥= 𝑥= 𝑥=𝜋 𝑥=
𝑥= 𝑥 = 2𝜋
6 4 3 2 3 4 6 2 (360𝑜 )
(0𝑜 ) (30𝑜 ) (45𝑜 ) (60𝑜 ) (90𝑜 ) 𝑜 𝑜 𝑜
(120 ) (135 ) (150 ) (180 𝑜
) 𝑜
(270 )

1 1 √3 √3 1 1
sin 𝑥 0 1 0 −1 0
2 √2 2 2 √2 2
√3 1 1 −1 −1 − √3
cos 𝑥 1 0 −1 0 1
2 √2 2 2 √2 2
1 −1
tan 𝑥 0 1 √3 − − √3 −1 0 − 0
√3 √3
2 2
csc 𝑥 − 2 √2 1 √2 2 − −1 −
√3 √3
2 −2
sec 𝑥 1 √2 2 − −2 − √2 −1 − 1
√3 √3
1 −1
cot 𝑥 − √3 1 0 −1 − √3 − 0 −
√3 √3

ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS

Definition Given functions f and g, we define
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
(𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)
(𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)
(𝑓 /𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥)
For the functions 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑔we define the domain to be the intersection
of the domains of 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔, and for the function 𝑓 /𝑔 we define the domain to be the
intersection of the domains of f and 𝑔 but with the points where 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 excluded
(to avoid division by zero).

Example 1 Let 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = √2 − 𝑥

𝑓
Find the domains and formulas for the functions 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 .
𝑔
Solution. First, we will find the formulas and then the domains. The formulas are
 (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 + √2 − 𝑥
 (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 − √2 − 𝑥
 (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 ∗ √2 − 𝑥 = √2𝑥 − 𝑥 2
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) √𝑥
 ( ) (𝑥) = =
𝑔 𝑔(𝑥) √2−𝑥
The domain of f is [0, ∞) and domain 𝑔 is (−∞, 2],
Thus, it follows from Definition that the domains of 𝑓 + 𝑔 , 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑔are the
intersection of these two domains, namely, [0, ∞) ∩ (−∞, 2] = [0,2]

Moreover, since 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 if 𝑥 = 2, the domain of 𝑓 /𝑔is [0,2] with x = 2

removed, namely, [0, 2)

Calculus _Math 201 Page 8

COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS
Definition: Given functions𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔, the composition 𝑓𝑜𝑔, is the function defined by
(𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
The domain of 𝑓𝑜𝑔 is defined to consist of all x in the domain of 𝑔 for which 𝑔(𝑥)
is in the domain of f.

Example 1: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3 .Find

a) (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) b) (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥)
Solution a): The formula for 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))is
(𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = [𝑔(𝑥)]2 = (𝑥 − 3)2 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9
Since the domain of 𝑔is (−∞, ∞)and the domain of f is (−∞, ∞), the domain of 𝑓𝑜𝑔
is(−∞, ∞).

Solution b): The formula for 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))is

(𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = (𝑓(𝑥)) − 3 = 𝑥 2 − 3
the domainof 𝑔𝑜𝑓is (−∞, ∞)
Example 2: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = √2 − 𝑥 Find
a) 𝑓𝑜𝑔 b) 𝑔𝑜𝑓 c) 𝑓𝑜𝑔 d) 𝑔𝑜𝑔
Solution a):The formula for 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))is
4
(𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = √𝑔(𝑥) = √√2 − 𝑥 = √2 − 𝑥
the domain of 𝑓𝑜𝑔 is {𝑥| 2 − 𝑥 ≥ 0} = {𝑥| 𝑥 ≤ 2} = (−∞2],

Solution b):The formula for 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) is

(𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = √2 − 𝑓(𝑥) = √2 − √𝑥
For √𝑥 to be defined we must have 𝑥 ≥ 0. For √2 − √𝑥 to be defined we must
have 2 − √𝑥 ≥ 0, that is √𝑥 ≤ 2 or 𝑥 ≤ 4
Thus we have 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4, so the domain of𝑔𝑜𝑓is the closed interval [0,4].

Solution c): The formula for 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) is

(𝑓𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = √𝑓(𝑥) = √√𝑥 = 4√𝑥
The domain of 𝑓𝑜𝑔 is[0, ∞)

Solution d):The formula for 𝑔(𝑔(𝑥))is

(𝑔𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑔(𝑥)) = √2 − 𝑔(𝑥) = √2 − √2 − 𝑥

This expression is defined when both 2 − x ≥ 0 and 2 − √2 − x ≥ 0
The first inequality means 𝑥 ≤ 2, and the second is equivalent to √2 − 𝑥 ≤ 2,
or2 − 𝑥 ≤ 4 , or 𝑥 ≥ −2 .
Thus −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2, so the domain of 𝑔𝑜𝑔 is the closed interval [-2,2].

Calculus _Math 201 Page 9

EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
Definition: A function of the form (𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , where 𝑎 > 0
is called an exponential function with base a.

If 𝑥 = 𝑛, a positive integer, then𝑎𝑛 = ⏟

𝑎 .𝑎…..𝑎
𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

1
If 𝑥 = 0, then𝑎0 = 1 ,If 𝑥 = −𝑛, where 𝑛 is a positive integer, then𝑎−𝑛 =
𝑎𝑛

𝑝
If 𝑥 is rational number ,𝑥 = ⁄𝑞 where 𝑝 and 𝑞 areintegers and 𝑞 > 0, then
𝑝 𝑞 𝑞 𝑝
⁄𝑞
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 = √𝑎𝑝 = ( √𝑎)

Examples: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 ,
1 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = ( ) ,
2
𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥
1 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = ( ) ,
3
𝑓(𝑥) = 10𝑥 ,
1 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = ( )
10

LAWS OF EXPONENTS If a and b are positive numbers and x and y are any real
numbers, then
𝑎𝑥
1- 𝑎 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 . 𝑎 𝑦 2- 𝑎 𝑥−𝑦 = 𝑦 3- (𝑎 𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥𝑦 4- (𝑎𝑏)𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 . 𝑏 𝑥
𝑎

Example: Sketch the graph of the function 𝑦 = 3 − 2𝑥 and determine its domain and
range.
Solution: First we reflect the graph of𝑦 = 2𝑥 [shown in Figures (a)] about thex-axis
to get the graph of 𝑦 = −2𝑥 in Figure (b). Then we shift the graph of𝑦 = −2𝑥 upward
3 units to obtain the graph of in Figure (c). The domain is ℝ andthe range is(−∞, 3).

Calculus _Math 201 Page 10

THE NATURAL EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION
Among all possible bases for exponential functions there is
one particular base that plays a special role in calculus. That
base, denoted by the letter e, is a certain irrational number
whose value to six decimal places is 𝑒 ≈ 2.718282

Then the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 is called the natural exponential function

1
Example: Graph the function 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 − 1and state the domain and range.
2
Solution: We start with the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 from Figures (a) and reflect about the
y-axis to get the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 in Figure (b). Then we compress the graph
1
vertically by a factor of 2 toobtain the graph of𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 in Figure (c). Finally, we
2
shift the graph downward 1 unit to get the desired graph in Figure (d).
The domain is ℝ and the range is(−1, ∞).

INVERSE FUNCTIONS
DEFINITIONA function is called a one-to-one function if it never takes on the same
value twice; that is,𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥2 ) whenever 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2

If a horizontal line intersects the graph of in more than

one point, then we see from Figure that there are
numbers𝑥1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 such that𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) . This means
that is notone-to-one. Therefore we have the following
geometric method for determining whether afunction is
one-to-one

HORIZONTAL LINE TESTA function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal

line intersects its graph more than once.

Example: Is the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 one-to-one?

Solution 1: If 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 , then𝑥1 3 ≠ 𝑥2 3
Therefore, by Definition 1,𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 is one-to-one.
Solution 2: From Figure we see that no horizontal line intersects
the graph of.

Calculus _Math 201 Page 11

Definition: Let be a one-to-one function with domain𝐴 and range 𝐵.
Then its inverse function 𝑓 −1 has domain𝐵 and range
𝐴and is defined by
𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑥 ↔ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦

for any 𝑦 in 𝐵 .

Note: domain of 𝑓 −1 = range of f And

range of 𝑓 −1 = domain of f

𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 for every x in the domain of 𝑓

𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥 for every x in the domain of 𝑓 −1
Example: Given that the function f has an inverse and that 𝑓(1) = 5, find 𝑓 −1 (5).
Solution: Apply 𝑓 −1 to both sides of the equation 𝑓(1) = 5 to obtain
𝑓 −1 (𝑓(1)) = 𝑓 −1 (5)
and now apply the first equation to conclude that𝑓 −1 (5) = 1.

How to find the Inverse function of a one-to-one function f

Step 1.Write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
Step 2.If possible, solve this equation for x in terms of y.
Step 3.Toexpress 𝑓 −1 , as a function of 𝑥 ,interchange x and y
The resulting equation 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).

Example: find the inverse function of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2.

Solution: suppose 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦)
3
𝑦 = 𝑥3 + 2 ⟹ 𝑦 − 2 = 𝑥3 ⟹ √𝑥 3 = 3√𝑦 − 2
⟹ 𝑥 = 3√𝑦 − 2 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦)
3
Change variable 𝑦 by 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = √𝑥 − 2.

Example: let𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 5, find 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).

Solution: suppose 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦)
2𝑥 𝑦 + 5
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 5 ⟹ 𝑦 + 5 = 2𝑥 ⟹ =
2 2
𝑦+5
⟹ 𝑥= = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦)
2
−1 (𝑥) 𝑥+5
Change variable 𝑦 by 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑓 = .
2

Calculus _Math 201 Page 12

Definition The inverse sine function, denoted by sin−1 , is defined to be the inverse
𝜋 𝜋
of the restricted sine function sin 𝑥 , − ≤ 𝑥 ≤
2 2

Definition The inverse cosine function, denoted by cos −1 , is defined to be the

inverse of the restricted cosine function cos 𝑥 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋

Definition The inverse tangent function, denoted by tan−1 , is defined to be the

𝜋 𝜋
inverse of the restricted tangent function tan 𝑥 , − < 𝑥<
2 2

Definition: The inverse secant function, denoted by sec −1 , is defined to be the

𝜋
inverse of the restricted secant function sec 𝑥 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥 ≠
2

𝜋 𝜋
sin−1 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇔ sin 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − ≤ 𝑦 ≤
2 2
−1 (sin
𝜋 𝜋
sin 𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − ≤ 𝑥 ≤
2 2
sin(sin−1 𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1

cos −1 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇔ cos 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋

−1 (cos
cos 𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
−1
cos(cos 𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝜋 𝜋
tan−1 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇔ tan 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − ≤𝑦≤
2 2

Calculus _Math 201 Page 13

Example: Simplify the expression,cos(tan−1 𝑥)
𝜋 𝜋
Solution 1: Let 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥. Then 𝑥 = tan 𝑦 and – ≤ 𝑦 ≤ . We want to find cos 𝑦
2 2
but, since tan 𝑦is known, it is easier tosec 𝑦find first:
sec 2 𝑦 = 1 + tan2 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥 2
𝜋 𝜋
sec 𝑦 = √1 + 𝑥 2 (since sec 𝑦 > 0 for – ≤ 𝑦 ≤ )
2 2
Thus
1 1
cos(tan−1 𝑥) = cos 𝑦 = =
sec 𝑦 √1+𝑥 2
Solution 2: Instead of using trigonometric identities as in Solution
1, it is perhaps easier to use a diagram. If 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥, then
𝑥 = tan 𝑦, and we can read from Figure (which illustrates the
case𝑦 > 0) that
1 1
cos(tan−1 𝑥) = cos 𝑦 = =
sec 𝑦 √1 + 𝑥 2

Example: let𝑓(𝑥) = 2 sin 𝑥 − 5, find 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).

Solution: suppose 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦)
2 sin 𝑥 𝑦 + 5
𝑦 = 2 sin 𝑥 − 5 ⟹ 𝑦 + 5 = 2 sin 𝑥 ⟹ =
2 2
𝑦+5 𝑦+5
⟹ sin 𝑥 = ⟹ 𝑥 = sin−1 ( ) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦)
2 2
−1 (𝑥) −1 𝑥+5
Change variable 𝑦 by 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑓 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) .
2

Example: Sketch the graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = √−1 − 𝑥 and its inverse function using the
same coordinate axes.
Solution: First we sketch the curve 𝑦 = √−1 − 𝑥 and then we
reflect about the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 to get the graph of 𝑓 −1 .
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = −𝑥 2 − 1 ; 𝑥 ≥ 0
So the graph of 𝑓 −1 is the right half of the parabola 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 − 1
and this seems reasonable from Figure

LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
if 𝑥 > 0,𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1 then for a positive value of x the
expression𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥
(read “the logarithm to the base a of x”)

We call the function 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥

the logarithmic function with base a.
Note:𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦
log 𝑎 (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑎log𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 > 0

Calculus _Math 201 Page 14

LAWS OF LOGARITHMS
If x and y are positive numbers, then
1-log 𝑎 (𝑥𝑦) = log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦
𝑥
2-log 𝑎 ( ) = log 𝑎 𝑥 − log 𝑎 𝑦
𝑦
3-log 𝑎 (𝑥 𝑟 ) = 𝑟 log 𝑎 𝑥 (where r is any real number)

Examples: Find the value of log 2 16

Solution: suppose 𝑦 = log 2 16 ⟺ 16 = 2𝑦 ⟺ 24 = 2𝑦 ⟹ 𝑦=4
Then log 2 16 = 4

Examples: Find the value of log 27 3

1
3
Solution: suppose 𝑦 = log 27 3 ⟺ 3 = 27𝑦 ⟺ 3 = √27 = (27)3 = 27𝑦
1 1
⟹ 𝑦 = Then log 27 3 =
3 3

Natural logarithms
In the function𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 if 𝑎 = 𝑒 then 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 where 𝑥 > 0 ,
These are called natural logarithms (read “ell en of x”),

Properties of logarithm
 ln 𝑥 = 𝑦 ↔ 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑦  𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥 , 𝑥 > 0
 log 𝑒 1 = ln 1 = 0  ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦 = ln(𝑥𝑦)
 ln 𝑒 = 1 𝑥
 ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛 ( )
1 𝑦
 ln = −1 ln 𝑦
𝑒  log 𝑥 𝑦 =
 ln 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ln 𝑥

Example: Find x such that

a) log10 𝑥 = √2 b) ln(𝑥 + 1) = 5 c)5𝑥 = 7
Solution a): Converting the equation to exponential form yields
𝑥 = 10√2 ≈ 25.95
Solution b): Converting the equation to exponential form yields
𝑥 + 1 = 𝑒 5 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑒 5 − 1 ≈ 147.41
Solution c): Converting the equation to logarithmic form yields
𝑥 = log 5 7 ≈ 1.21
Alternatively, taking the natural logarithm of both sides and using the power property
of logarithms yields ln 5𝑥 = ln 7
ln 7
𝑥 ln 5 = ln 7 ⟹ 𝑥 = ≈ 1.21
ln 5

Calculus _Math 201 Page 15