MODULE 1

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: At the end of the module, the students should

be able to:
1.appraise the scope of ballistics as a scientific study;
2. redefine the key technical terms used in this course;
3. evaluate the works of the early scientists contributory to the
development of ballistics;
4. recall origin of Firearms and its components.

1. DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF BALLISTICS

BALLISTA- is the science of the motion of projectile.

ORIGIN OF BALLISTICS- The word “BALLISTICS” originated from the Greek

word “Ballein” which means “to throw” and from the Roman word “Ballista” which
is machine to hurl a stone.

-From those words the modern term Forensic Ballistics was derived to indicate
the science of moving projectile.

Based ion etymology, the term ballistics evolved from two ancient words:
“ballista” and “ballein”. Ballista is a mid – 18 th century English word that
came from the Romans about early 16th century. This was the description of
a huge catapult (an ancient military weapon) used by the Romans to hurl
large stones at a particular distance to kill animals or to fight their enemies.
The word ballista probably came from Greeks via Latin. It was derived from
the Greek word ballein which maybe translated as “to throw”.

2. BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS

a.) INTERIOR BALLISTICS/ Internal ballistics - traits of the motion of

the projectiles while still in the firearm, namely the studies of the
combustion of the powder, pressure developed and the velocity.
b.) EXTERIOR BALLISTICS/ External ballistics - traits of the motion of
the projectiles after leaving the muzzle namely trajectory, velocity,
range, penetration, etc.
c.) TERMINAL BALLISTICS- traits of the effects of the projectile on
impact on the target.
d.) FORENSIC BALLISTICS- the science of firearms identification by
means of the ammunition fired through them.

A. DIVISION OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS

a.) FIELD INVESTIGATION- refers to the work of an investigation in the field.

It concerns mostly with the collection, marking, preservation, packing and
transmission of firearms evidences. It includes the study of class
characteristics of firearms and bullets.
b.) TECHNICAL EXAMINATION- refers to the examiners who examine
bullets/ or shells, whether or not cartridges were loaded and ejected made
by the suspected firearm submitted. Reports are made by the examiners
and testify court regarding their reports.

B. LEGAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM-“Firearms” or “arms” as herein includes

rifles. Muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, pistols and all other deadly
weapons from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or other missile may discharge off
by means of gunpowder or explosives. The term also includes air rifles except
such as being of small caliber and limited range used as toys. The barrel of any
firearm shall be considered a complete firearm for all purposes hereof(Sec.887,
revised Administrative Code see also Sec. 290 National Revenue Code)

C. TECHNICAL DEFINTION OF FIREARM- instrument used for the propulsion

of a projectile by means of the expansive force of gases from burning powder.

D. SMALL ARMS- firearms which propel projectiles of less than one inch in
diameter.

E. TYPES OF SMALL ARMS GENERAL:

a.) Smooth-bore- firearm which do not have rifling

Ex: shotguns, muskets
b.) Rifled-bore- firearms which contain rifling marks.
Ex: pistols, revolvers, rifles

F.SMALL ARMS AMMUNITION- Small arms ammunition consist of cartridges

used in rifles, carbines, revolvers, pistols, sub- machine guns and shells used in
shotgun.

EQUIVALENT OF CALIBERS IN INCHES AND MILIMETERS:

a.) caliber .22 –about 5.59 mm

b.) caliber .25 –about 6.35 mm
c.) caliber .32 –about 7.65 mm
d.) caliber .30 –about 7.63 mm (mouser)
e.) caliber .38 –about 9 mm
f.) caliber .45 –about 11 mm
g.) caliber .30 –about 7.56 mm (Luger)

G. RIFLING- consist of a number of helical grooves cut in the interior of the bore.
The rifling in the firearms may be divided in the following types:

a.) Styre type- four grooves, right hand twist, grooves and lands of equal
width. (4R G-L)

b.) Smith & Wesson type- five grooves, right hand twist, grooves and lands of
equal width. (5R G-L)

c.) Browning type- six grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broader
grooves (6R G2X).

d.) Colt type- six grooves, left hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves,
(6L G2X)

e.) Webley type- seven grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broader
grooves( 7R G3X)

f.) Army type- four grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broader
grooves (4R G3X)

 PURPOSE OF RIFLING- Is to impact a motion of rotation to a

bullet during its passage inside the barrel in order to insure
 gyroscopic in the flight, and so that will travel nose-on towards the
target.

4.ORIGIN OF FIREARM

13TH Century- development of firearm followed the invention of gunpowder of

Western Europe.

Berthold Schwartz- a German monk, and Roger Bacon, an English monk are
both credited with gunpowder invention.
--- Most reference books credit Roger Bacon, English monk and scientist with the
invention of the gunpowder in 1248 and Berthold Schwartz, with the application
of gunpowder to the propelling of a missile in the early 1300’s. This powder was
that we now call “Black Powder”

1245- Gen Batu, the Tartar leader, used artillery in Liegnits when he defeated the
poles, Hungarians, and Russians.
- It is also often stated that gunpowder was first invented by Chinese, were
of gunpowder and its use as propellant long before its advantages
became recognized in Europe.
- It may also assume the Arabs with their advantage knowledge of
chemistry at that time.

1247- One of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in warfare was that of an
attack on Seville, Spain.

1346- Cannons used by king Edward II of England at Crecy.

1335- Mohammed II of Turkey in his famous conquest of Constantinople.

-First firearm were inefficient, large and heavy and were not capable of being
carried by an individual soldier; hnc, the development of cannons preceded that
of small arm weapons by almost 50 years.

Man never satisfies to himself. He is always trying to improve himself and his
surrounding. He created some rule crude or primitive weapons which were
subsequently developed into sophisticated firearms of modern times.

The following are the stages of development of mans weapon:

1. Stones
2. Knives
3. Cubs
4. Spears and Darts
5. Slings shots to hurl objects
6. Bows and Arrows
7. Cross- bows
8. Guns
9. Missiles

FAMOUS PERSONALITIES

1. Col. Calvin H. Goddard M. D. , OSI. Army- father of modern Ballistics.

2. Horace Smith- founded the great firm Smith and Weapon and pioneered
the making of breech- loading regales.
3. Daniel B. Wesson- an associate or partner of smith in revel verb making.
4. John M. Browning- wizard of modern firearms and pandered breech
loading single shot rifle.
 5. John T. Thompson- pioneered the making of Thompson sub machine.
6. David “carbine” Williams- maker of first known carbine.
7. Alexander John Forsythe- father of the percussion system.
8. Elisha King Root- designed machinery of making colt firearms.
9. Eliphalet Remington- one of the first rifle makers.
10. John Malon Martin- founder of martin Firearms Company.
11. James Wolfe Ripley- stimulated the development of the model 1855
riffled-musket.
12. Samuel Colt- (1814-862)- produced the practical revolver.
13. Henry Derringer- he gave his name to a whole classes of firearms.
14. John C. Garand- designed the semi- automatic US rifle, cal. 30
15. Oliver F. Winchester- one of the earliest rifles and pistol makers.

IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY

1313—Gunpowder as a propellant. The age of the gunpowder began with

outs first use a propellant for a projective.

1350—Small arms, gunpowder was first used only in cannons. It was in the
middle of the 14th century that portable hand F.A. were introduced, these guns
were ignited by a hand-held wire or lighted match.

1498—Riffling. The first reference to rifled barrels appeared. Although its

important as an aid to accuracy was recognized by some. It was many years
after before rifling was generally used.

1575—Cartridges, paper cartridges combining both powder and ball were

developed. This greatly speeded loading and reduced the hazards of carrying
loose, powder.

1807—Percussion system, the discovery of Forsythe in 807 that certain

compounds detonated by a blow would be used to ignite the charge in a
firearm, for the basis for all later percussion and cartridges development.

1835—Samuel Colt- patented the first practical revolvers in which the cylinder
was rotated by cocking the hammer.

1836—Pin fire. Cartridge. Developed by le Faucheux in 1836, was probably

the first self really the first rim fire cartridge.

1858—Center fire cartridge. The Morse cartridge of 1858 marked the

beginning of the rapid development of the center fire cartridge.

1884—Automatic machine Gun. Hiran Maxim built the first fully automatic
gun, utilizing the recoil of the piece to load and fire the next charge.

1885—Smokeless powder. In France, Veille, developed the first satisfactory

smokeless powder, a new propellant which not only lacked the smoke
characteristics of black powder, but also more powerful.

1845—Rim fire Cartridge. In France, Flobert developed a “bullet” “breech cap”

which was in really the first rimterfire cartridge.

THE EVOLUTION OF FIREARMS

Small arms, based on its approved definition, are weapons that have a
caliber of less than 15.5 mm or 0.60 inch.
 The first firearms that were developed were small arms in the form of
miniature artillery weapons and were at first called hand cannons. Ancient
hand cannons were hand – carried thus they are better examples of small
arms rather than artillery weapons.
1. FIRELOCK this weapon was developed in the first quarter of 14 th
century. Firelock was a simple, smooth – bore of iron, closed at the breech
end except for an opening called a touchhole.
2. MATCHLOCK this was introduced about the middle 15th century as a
type of musket. This weapon was essentially the same as the firelock,
except that the slow match was clamped in the top of a device called
serpentine – an S – shape piece of metal pivoted in the center.
3. WHEEL – LOCK the first firelock appeared about 1515. It has improved
firing mechanism compared to firelock and matchlock.
4. SNAPHANCE the snaphance was invented early in the 17 th century This
type of firing mechanism consisted of a hammer powered by a trigger spring
and bearing a piece of flint.
5. FLINTLOCK the final development of the flint – ignition firearm was the
flintlock. It resembled the snaphance, except that the striker plate was L –
shaped.

GUN MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

The processes of manufacturing the barrel, striker, bolt, extractor, and

ejector may be defining the individual characteristics of the firearm. Thus,
firearm examiners should have adequate knowledge how firearm
components, particularly the barrel and the bolt are manufactured.
Manufacturing the gun barrel involves four stages, which are as
follows:

1. DRILLING this is the process of making a hole from one end to another
end through the center of a steel rod.
2. REAMING this stage involves the process of cleaning or uniformly
scrapping the interior surface of the barrel to achieve the desired bore
diameter.
3. RIFLING this stage is the process of necessary for making the helical
grooves inside the barrel. This stage produces a barrel with lands and
grooves at the interior surface.
a. Cut – rifling technique also called hook – cutter system, this technique is
described as the single point broaching system
b. Broaching in this technique, all the grooves are cut at once by means of
a long progressively stepped cutter that pulled through the barrel.
c. Button rifling this is done by forcing a carbide tool with button made of
very hard steel plug through the bore.
d. The Germans before the 2nd world war developed hammer rifling this
technique. The first hammer rifling machine was built in Erfurt, Germany in
1939
4. LAPPING this is the process of polishing the inner surface of the gun
barrel.

* THE BOLT OR BREECHBLOCK

The front side of the bolt, known as breechface, is another part of the gun
that is very significant to firearm examiners.

NOMENCLATURE OF FIREARMS

A. MAIN TYPES OF FIREARMS

1. Artillery these are firearms that propel projectiles with diameter of more
than one inch.
2. Small arms the portable weapons that developed from artillery and
cannons are called small arms. Since the dividing line between small arms
and artillery weapons is so vague, various national military services have
set arbitrary maximums on the caliber of the weapons regarded as small
arms.

The types of firearms according to mechanical construction are as

follows:

1. Single – shot firearms these are guns designated to fire only one shot
for every loading
2. Bolt – action type firearms of his type are usually classified also as
single – shot types.
3. Repeating firearms these are weapons that are capable of firing several
shots in one loading since they are equipped with semi – automatic firing
mechanism
4. Automatic – loading type these are rapid – fire weapons since they are
equipped with full – automatic firing mechanism
5. Slide – action type firearms of this type are capable of feeding the
chamber by the backward – forward manipulation of the gun’s fore end
6. Lever – type the loading takes place by applying lever action gun’s
stock. This group of firearms is also called break – type

I.) TWO GENERAL CLASSES OF FIREARM (ACCORDING TO Gun Barrel

International Construction)
A. Smooth-bore firearms- firearms that have no rifling (land and grooves) inside
their gun barrel.
Ex. Shotguns and muskets

B. Rifled-bore firearms- firearms that have rifling inside their gun barrel.
Ex. Pistols, revolvers, rifles

II.) MAIN TYPES OF FIREARMS (ACCORDING TO CALIBER OF

PROJECTILES MORE THAN ONE INCH IN DIAMETER)
a.) Artillery- those types of firearms that propel projectiles more than one inch
in diameter.
Ex. Cannons, mortars, bazookas

b.) Small arms- propels projectiles less than one inch in diameter, can be
operated by one man.
Ex. Machines gun shoulder arm and hand arms

III.) TYPES OF FIREARMS According to Mechanical Construction

A. Single shot firearms- types of firearms designed to fire only one shot for every
loading.
Ex. Pistols, rifles, shotgun- single shots
a.) Repeating arms- fire several shots in one loading
Ex. Automatic pistols, revolvers, rifles, shotguns

B. Bolt action type- reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt.

Ex. Rifles, shots guns, machine guns

C. Automatic Loading Type- after the first shot is fired, automatic loading or
feeding of the chambers takes place.
Ex. Rifles, shot guns

D. Slide Action Type (Trombone)- loading takes place by cock and forth the
manipulation of the under forearm of the gun.
Ex. Rifles, shot guns

E. Lever Type (break Type)- loading takes place by lever action of the forearm.
Ex. Rifles, shot guns

IV.) TYPES OF FIREARMS according to Use

a. Military firearms

Ex. Pistols
Revolvers
Rifles
Machine guns

b. Pocket and Home defense Firearms

Ex. Pistols
Revolvers
Rifles
Shot guns

c. Target and Outdoor men’s Firearms

Ex. Pistols
Revolvers
Rifles

V.) UNUSUAL OF MISCELLANEOUS TYPE

--Those types of firearm those are unique in mechanism and construction

1. Paltik pistols
2. Paltik revolvers
3. Paltik rifles
4. Paltik shot guns

THE THREE MAIN PARTS

REVOLVERS-CAL.38 PISTOLS-CAL.45
1. Barrel assembly 1. Barrel assembly
2. Cylinder Assembly 2. Slide Assembly
3. Frame or Receiver 3. Frame or
Receiver

RIFLE-CAL.38 SHOTGUN-GAUGE 12

1. Barrel assembly 1. Barrel Assembly

2. Magazine Assembly 2. Magazine Assembly
3. Stock Group 3. Stock Group

DETAILED PARTS
REVOLVERS .38 c. Ejection port
d. Rear sight
1. BARREL ASSEMBLY e. Breech block
a. Breech end f. Breech face
b. Muzzle end g. Extractor
c. Bore h. Firing pin
d. Rifling i. Firing pin stop
j. Serrations
k. Trade mark
2. CYLINDER ASSEMBLY l. Model
a. Chambers m. Interlocking lugs
b. Extractor
c. Extractor rod 3. FRAME RO RECEIVER
d. Racket a. Ejector
e. Cylinder grooves b. Hammer
f. Yoke c. Spur
g. Cylinder locking d. Grip safety
notches e. Thumb safety
f. Disconnector
3. FRAME OR RECEIVER g. Back strap
h. Butt
a. Top strap i. Lanyard loop
b. Rear sight j. Front strap
c. Breech face k. Magazine well
d. Hammer l. Right side stock
e. Spur m. Left side stock
f. Thumb latch n. Trigger
g. Side plate o. Trigger guard
h. Back p. Model
i. Firing pin q. Plunger
j. Butt r. Serial number
k. Front strap
l. Trigger guard
m. Trigger
n. Cylinder lock
o. Right side stock
p. Left side stock
q. Trade mark
(monogram)
r. Serial number

AUTOMATIC PISTOL .45

1. BARREL ASSEMBLY
a. Breech end
b. Muzzle end
c. Bore
d. Rifling
e. Chamber
f. Interlocking ribs
g. Barrel lug
h. Barrel link
i. Barrel link pin
j. Barrel lead (lead)
2. SLIDE ASSEMBLY
a. Front sight
b. Top strap
The automatic pistol caliber .45 besides having the main parts and detailed parts
it has also the so-called auxiliary parts (accessories) that must all be removed
before disassembly of the weapon can be accomplished.

1. Recoil plug
2. Barrel blushing
3. Slide stop pin
4. Recoil spring
5. Recoil spring

ADVANTAGES OF A REVOLVER

1. It is an old standard weapon. Everyone is used to it, and almost every one
knows something about it.
2. The revolver is safer for inexperienced people to handle and carry them
an automatic pistol.
3. The mechanism of a revolver allows the trigger pull to be better than that
of the average automatic weapon.
4. A misfire does not put a revolvers out of action.
5. It will handle satisfactory old or new or partly deteriorated ammunition
which gives a reduced velocity that would jam an average automatic
pistols.

DISADVANTAGES OF REVOLVERS

1. It is more bulky to carry than that of automatic pistols.

2. It’s grip or handle is generally not as good as that of pistol.
3. It is hard to clean after firing.
4. It is slower to load.
5. It is harder to replace worn out or broken parts, it is factory job.
6. Worn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy due to
improper up of cylinder.

Advantages of an automatic pistols

1. It has a better grip, fits the hand points naturally

2. It is more compact for the same power.
3. It s easier to load than a revolver
4. In case of worn or corroded barrel a new one can be put in at little
expense w/out sending the gun to the factory.
5. It gives greater number of shots than a revolver.
6. It is easier to clean than a revolver.
7. It gives greater fire power and greater ease of firing.
8. There is no gas leakage in its operation.

Disadvantages of an Automatic pistols

1. Ammunition must be perfect. Old and deteriorated ammunition will cause
a jam.
2. A misfire stops the functioning of the gun.
3. When the gun is kept loaded for a long period of time, the magazine
spring is under tension and may deteriorate and may cause trouble.
4. The automatic pistol can use blank or reduced loads.
5. It has a poor trigger pull than the revolver.
6. The magazines require a jacketed bullet, which is not for practical use as
that of a practical bullet.
 7. The automatic pistol is more dangerous to handle and fire especially for
inexperienced people due to the fact that after the one shot it is always
cocked and loaded.
8. It is not adapted to reloading; it throws away empty shell at each shot.
9. Its mechanical action ejects empty shell towards the face at each shot.
10. It’s throws out empty shells on the ground to remain as evidence.
11. It can be fired from the pocket without jamming.

EVERY POLICE OFFICER should frequently check his revolvers for:

1. Obstruction in the barrel.

2. Bulging or swollen barrel.
3. Firing pin protrusion through recoil plate when trigger is rearward position.
4. On older revolvers, the imprint of the primer on the recoil plate in relation
to the firing pin hole (to insure blow center of the primer).
5. Evidence of “spitting lead” around breech of barrel complaints of fellow
shooters in the firing line.
6. Tightness of all side plate screws.
7. Tightness of ejector if the weapon is a smith and Wesson revolver.
8. Cleanliness and protective film of oil to prevent rust.

MISCELLENEOUS FUNCTIONS OF THE STANDARD PARTS OF

COMMON FIREARMS

PART DESCRIPTION/PURPOSE

Action The main operating mechanism of a firearm that

loads, fires, and ejects the cartridge.

Barrel Gives direction to the bullet; the part of the gun that
initiates the path of the bullet

Breech The part of the barrel at the opposite end of the

muzzle

Breech – Also known as the bolt

block

Butt The part of the stock which is held against the

shoulder to stabilize the gun during firing (for rifles
and shotguns)

Chamber The part of the bore into which a cartridge is placed;

the enlarged space at the breech of the barrel where
the cartridge is fed

Choke The constriction in smoothbore barrels designated to

cause the shot to leave the bore in a more dense
pattern and retain this pattern for longer range

Cylinder The part of the revolver that serves as the magazine

as well as chamber for cartridges.

Ejector The mechanism that throws the empty shell (cartridge

 case) from the firearm

Extractor The mechanism that pulls the empty shell from the
chamber
Forearm Also called for – end

Frame Also called receiver, the part of the gun that houses
the internal part

Grip The smaller part of the stock behind the trigger guard
(for rifles and shotguns)

Hammer The part of the firing mechanism in revolvers and

some pistol that is release by the sear or the main
spring once the trigger is pressed

Magazine A device for storing cartridges in a repeating firearm

for loading into the chamber

Main spring The spring in a pistol or revolver which propels the

hammer

Muzzle The end of the front end of the barrel where the bullet
or pellet exists
Front sight The fixed sight on top of the barrel near the muzzle
used to aim the gun at the target

Rear sight The sight found at the top of the breech area; this
sight can be moved to change where the bullet will hit

Recoil spring The spring in automatic or self – loading weapons

which returns the bolt or breech block after recoil

Trigger The part of the gun that initiates the action when the
shooter is ready to fire his weapon

Trigger guard The safety device designed to protect the trigger from
accidental bumping or pressing that may result to
accidental firing

Safety The gun mechanism that prevents the firearm from

firing

Sear The part of the firing mechanism, linked to the trigger

Stock The wooden, plastic, or metal frame that holds the

barrel and action

Alternative term for the firing pin when that firing pin is
axially mounted and spring propelled inside the bolt
 MODULE 2

AMMUNITION COMPONENTS

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: At the end of the unit, the students should be

able to:
1. recall the basic functions and compositions of;
a. cartridge
b. bullet
c. primers
d. gunpowder

AMMUNITION FOR SMALL ARMS

Legally speaking, ammunition refers to any loaded shell for rifles,

muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a bullet, ball
shot, shell or other missiles maybe fired by means of gunpowder or other
explosive. The term also includes ammunition for air rifles… (Section 290 of
the National Internal Revenue Code; Section 877 of the Revised
Administrative Code).

1. CARTRIDGE

a. ANATOMY OF STANDARD CARTRIDGE

1. Bullet also called “slug”, this is the projectile propelled from a firearm by
means of the expansive force of gases coming from burning gunpowder.
2. Cartridge case also called “shell”, this is the tubular metallic container for
the gunpowder
3. Propellant this is the powder charge intended to be burned thus
generating an energy that will launch the bullet
4. Primer also called “percussion” this is composed of the metal cup and
priming mixture that is highly sensitive.

PARTS:

1. RIM – Serve the purpose of limiting the forward travel of the cartridges into
their chambers & this also limit the clearance. If any between the heads &
the supporting surface of the bolt or breech block.

2. PRIMER POCKET – Performs triple function:

a. Holding primer securely in control position.
b. Providing or means to prevent the escape of jobs to the rear of the
cartridges.
c. Providing a solid support from primer anvil without which the latter
could not be fired.
3. VENTS OR FLASH HOLE – is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer
pocket thought which the primer “flash” imparts ignition to the primer
charges.
The “opening” or “canal” that connects the priming mixture with the
gunpowder.
4. THE HEAD – THE BODY – constitute th “cork” that plugs the breech of
the barrel against the escape of the gas.
5. NECK – that part of the cartridges case that is occupied by the bullet.
6. CANNELURES – are the separate groves that are sometimes found
“rolled” into the neck & bodies of the cases at the location of the bullets
bases to prevent the bullet from being pushed back or loosened.
 7. CRIMP – is that part of the mouth of the cases that is turned in upon the
bullet.
8. BASE – the portion of case w/c contains:
a. The primer w/c contains the priming mixture
b. The shell head w/c contains the head stamp caliber & the year of
manufacture.
9. SHOULDER – that portion which support the neck.
10. EXTRACTION GROOVE – the circular grooves near the base of the case
of shell designed for automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing.

NOMENCLATURE OF CARTRIDGE

1. Bullet—a projectile propelled from a firearm by means of explosive force

of gases from burning powder.
2. Cartridge case—a tabular metallic container for the gunpowder
sometimes called shell.
3. Gun powder—is the propellant w/c when ignited by the primer flash is
converted to gas under high pressure and propels the bullet or shot
charge through the barrel and on the target.
4. Primer – the metal cap containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of
chemical compound which when hit or struck by the firing pin would ignite,
such action is called “PERCUSSION.”

b. GENERAL TYPES OF AMMUNITION

1. Dummy this carefully made replica of a cartridge, usually made of steel

and discreetly dimensioned to be used by weapons instructions.
2. Drill ammo this type of ammunition is completely inert and without an
explosive propellant. It is used in military training to practice loading and
manipulation of firearms.
3. Blank ammo this is a cartridge without a bullet. It may contain
gunpowder and priming mixture thus designated to produce gunshot to
indicate firing.
4. Live ammo this is the real ammunition since it is composed of a
complete unit of unfired cartridge.
Types of ammunition according to common types of firearms are as follows:
1. Revolver ammo designed for revolvers, this type of ammunition has a
rimmed base and a straight case that allows the bullet to be rammed the
chamber of the revolving cylinder.
2. Pistol ammo designed for pistols, carbines and most submachine guns.
3. Rifle ammo designed for hunting rifles, sniping rifles, assault rifles,
machine guns and some submachine guns this type of cartridge has a
bottle – neck shape.
4. Shot shell this type of ammunition is for shotguns
5. Case – less ammo this is a special type of ammo

c. CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGES

1. Classification according to location of primer

a. Pin – fire cartridge this is the type of cartridge in which the primer cup is
connected inside the cartridge case.
b. Rim – fire cartridge this is the type of cartridge in which the priming
mixture is located at the hollow portion of the rim of the cartridge case
c. Center – fire cartridge this is the type of cartridge mostly used today.
All the three above-mentioned types of cartridges apply the percussion
system. Percussion is a means of igniting the propellant by using spark
produced by the mechanical blow against the primer.

2. Classification according to rim

a. Rimmed cartridge the design of cartridge for revolvers, shotguns and

some rifles.
b. Semi – rimmed cartridge the is slightly wider than the case
c. Rimless cartridge the type of cartridge which is true to pistol and rifle
ammunition
d. Rebated cartridge a rare type of cartridge because the rim has smaller
diameter than the cartridge case
e. Belled cartridge the type of cartridge originally designed for
machineguns

3. Classification according to power

a. Low – power cartridge a cartridge that fires a projectile with a muzzle
velocity of less than 1,850 fps
b. High – power cartridge a cartridge that fires a projectile with a muzzle
velocity between 1,925 and 2,500 fps
c. High – intensity cartridge the projectile fired from this cartridge has
muzzle velocity of more than 2,500 fps
4. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CASE SHAPE (3 GEN SHAPES)
A. Straight case- Straight
- all rim fire shell & most center fire revolver cartridges that are new
manufactured have straight cases.

B. Tapared case- tapered

- is very rare but presently being used in the so called “magnum jet”
cartridges cal.22

C. Bottle neck case- bottle neck case

- most modern center fire rifle cartridges case are of bottle neck types.
Since this case form provides the greatest powder capacity
commensurate w/ over all case length.

Range simply refers to the linear distance between the gun muzzle
and the target. In exterior ballistics, the two types of range discussed
are:
a. Accurate range – also called maximum effective range, which refers to
the distance within which the shooter has control of his shots such that he
can place his bullets at the desired specific spots.
b. Maximum range – also called absolute maximum range, it refers to the
farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm.

d. The Three General Types of Projectile’s Motion

1. Direct motion is the forward movement of the projectile inside the gun
barrel resulting from the expanding force of gases produced after
combustion of the gunpowder.
2. Rotary motion is the gyrating action of the projectile while passing
through a gun barrel.
3. Translational motion is the movement of a projectile in a straight line
so that every part of the projectile follows a parallel path and no rotation
takes place.
e. THE VELOCITY OF PROJECTILES

The first idea on how to measure muzzle velocity of firearms was

suggested in 1707 by Giovanni Cassini, a French astronomer. About 1740,
measuring the muzzle velocity of any firearms was made possible because
of an instrument invented by a British Engineer named Benjamin Robins.
By determining the relations that should be exist between the caliber and
length of barrel and charge of powder. Robins substantially advanced the
science of gunnery thus today; he is called the father of modern gunnery.
In 1840, the British physicist Sir Charles Wheatstone suggested the use of
electricity for measuring small intervals of time. This suggestion led to the
development of the chronograph, a device for recording, by electrical
means, the time required for a projectile to pass between two screens of
fine wire.

MORE SIGNIFICANT DEVELOPMENTS

In 1807, Alexander John Forsythe, a Scottish Presbyterian Minister,

introduced the idea of using detonating chemicals to ignite the gunpowder
placed in the cartridge case. He was the first to use such kind of technique
that applied the principle of percussion to improve firearms and
ammunitions. His idea earned him the title of being the father of percussion
ignition in ballistics.
In 1841, a breech – loading infantry rifle the so-called needle gun because
of its long sharp firing pin was invented by Johann Dreyse and issued to
some Prussian regiments.
In 1845, Major Cavalli of Sardinia developed a serviceable breech –
loading artillery rifle.
In 1857, works of General Thomas Jackson Rodman in United States led
to improvements in the grain –form of powder and in making guns.
In 1886, Paul Vieille in France invented smokeless gunpowder called
Poudre B, which is more efficient than black powder.
In 1887, Alfred Nobel developed another kind of smokeless gunpowder.
This eventually became known as cordite, a powder easier to handle and
more powerful than Poudre B.

f. DEVELOPMENT OF THEORY ABOUT TRAJECTORY

1. TARTAGLIA an Italian mathematician, whose real name is Niccolo

Fontana, conducted the first systematic study on gunnery.
2. GALILEO GALILEI was the first to conclude that reduction of speed due
to drag depends on the projectile’s shape, density and weight.
3. SIR ISAAC NEWTON a British scientist discovered that the drag was
apparently proportional to the square of the projectile’s velocity. He found
out this by dropping pellets from different altitudes.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE

A. According to the type of firearms asked

1. Revolver cartridges – used in revolver
2. Pistol cartridges - used in automatic pistol
3. Rifles cartridges – used in rifles
4. Shot cartridges - used in shot gun

B. According to location of primer

1. Pin fire cartridges no longer used (absolute)
2. Rim fire – the primer is located at the rim or the base portion
 - use in cal 1.22, pistols, revolvers, and rifles
3. Center fire priming powder is located at the center
- economical can be repealed
a. Rimmed type – used in revolvers cal .38 and .35
b. Semi- Rimmed – used in super .38
c. Rimless- used in 45 pistols, Thompson, grease gun submachine
gun

A. Typical rimmed fire cartridges

a. –Case
b. – Priming mixture
c. –Propellant powder
d. –Bullet
e. – Sensitive area

B. According to caliber

1. cal. 22- used in revolvers, pistols and rifles

2. cal.25- used in pistols and rifles
3. cal.30- used in carbines and other pistols
4. cal.32- used in automatic pistols and revolvers
5. cal.380- used in pistols
6. cal. 38- used in revolvers
7. cal. 357- used in 357 revolvers ( magnum)
8. cal.44 – used in magnum recovers
9. cal.44- used in automatic pistols
10. cal.50- used in cal.50 machines gun (not in use in crimes)

Cartridges life- a well made cartridges have a life of ten years some have
only 5-6 years.
45 years or more –depends upon the surrounding of the cartridges and
climate, damp, warn, condition.

Bullet/ slugs- Is a metallic or non metallic cylindrical projectile propelled

from a firearm by means of expansive gases coming from burning
gunpowder.

Slugs- laymen’s term use in court during proceedings

Projectiles propelled from a shot gun are termed shots or pellets.

Iced bullet- a super cooled water made as a projectile, of solidified bullets

have a life of 3 minutes maximum.

History- Bullet derive from a French word Boulette w/c means small ball

In Gov’t parlance a cartridges containing bullet is called Ball-Bullet

Ball- comes from terminology of bullet

- The core of a slug is an alloy of lead, antimony & sometimes tin.

Armor piercing bullet a core of tungsten chrome steel w/ continues to

penetrate armor cars after the jackets and the filler have been striped away
by contract w/ the resistance surface.
 2. THE BULLET

A bullet is a metallic or non – metallic cylindrical projectile propelled from

a firearm by means of the expansive force of gasses coming from burning
gunpowder. In layman’s term, the bullet is called slug. The word bullet came
from the French word “boulette” which roughly means little ball.

a. PARTS OF STANDARD BULLET

1. Base – the portion of the bullet that receives the thrust and heat from
the burning gunpowder
2. Heel – the part where the base and bearing surface meet
3. Bearing surface – the cylindrical side of the bullet that comes in
contract with the barrel rifling
4. Cannelure – the groove around the body of a bullet to receive the case
crimp; for lead bullets, this part is better known as lubricant groove
5. Jacket – a metal covering of the bullet’s lead core which could be made
of copper, brass, steel, aluminum or an alloy of these metals; it may partially
or completely cover the lead core
6. Core – bulk of mass in the bullet; the main component of the bullet that
is usually made of lead but sometimes alloyed or replaced with other metals
for special purposes such as deeper penetration and tracing
7. Shoulder – the part where the parallel sides end and the ogive begins
8. Ogive – the radius of curve between the bearing surface and the point
usually stated with respect to the caliber
9. Tip or Nose – the most forward point of the ogive
10. Head – height – the length of the bullet from the shoulder to the tip.

b. CLASSIFICATION OF BULLETS

1. Lead bullets these are made of pure lead or alloyed with tin and
antimony. Lead alloys are slightly harder than pure lead. Traditionally, lead
bullets are for revolvers and caliber .22 rim fire cartridges.
2. Jacketed bullets metal-jacketed bullets are the types of bullets with
lead core covered by soft brass or cooper – plated soft steel jacket.

Two Types of Jacketed Bullet

1. Full – metal jacketed bullets (FMJ) – for military ammunition

2. Semi – jacketed bullets – for hunting rifles and semi – automatic pistol
ammunition

2. According to mechanical construction

a. Lead bullet- Those w/c are made of alloys of this mental- lead, tin, antonym-
w/c are slightly harder than pure lead.
b. Jacketed bullet- Those w/c core of lead covered by jacketed of harder metal
the primary function of the “jacketed” in bullet is to prevent adherent of metal
(lead) to the inside of the gun barrel.

3. According to shape

- Flat Base -Boat Tailed -Square Base -Hollow Base

4. According to Type/common bullet type

Solid Lead Solid hollow point Solid paper Metal case point patched
-Soft -Metal case hollow point -Metal point -Rifled slug
-Metal point -Rifled - Gaypely -Quadraximun -Slug-Bullet

PURPOSE OF BULLETS
. 38 Bullet—disability purpose- used by police officers to get confession

.45 Bullet—Knocking subdue purpose

M16- Fatal effect
Garand & carbine – penetration, long range shooting
.45 Bullet- Knowing subdue purposes

RIFLED BULLETS (5 PRINCIPAL PARTS)

1. Ball bullets
2. Armored piercing
3. Tracer bullet
4. Incendiary
5. Explosive (fragmentation)

 All bullets- have soft lead cores inside a jacketed & are used against
personnel only.
Armored Piercing- have hardened steel cores and are a fired
against vehicle and other armored target is general.

Tracer bullets- contains a compound at the base usually similar

barium nitrates w/c is set on fire when the bullet is projected.
- The flash of the smoke from the burning permits the light of the
bullet to be seen.
Incendiary- contains a mixture of such phosphorous and other
materials that can be set on fire by impact
- They are used against target that will readily burn such as aircrafts or
gasoline depot.

Explosive (fragmentary) contains a high changed explosive, because of

their small size it is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small size
ammunition.
For the reason of high explosive bullets is usually limited to 20m.m & above.

Pointed bullet- is more effective ballistically than the round ball of the same
weight.

Soft pointed or Mushroom Bullet- will expand and striking an objects and
there for produce much more serious check, and have corresponding greater
stopping power.

Hollow point bullet- a bullet w/a a cavity in the nose design to increase the
expansion when it hits the target.

Metal case bullet- colonially uses to indicate cithera metal patched or full
patched bullet.

Metal patched- any metal-patched bullet

Bullet having soft steel jacket often clog or plated w/ gilding metal to prevent
rusting reduce frictional resistance in the bore.
 3. PRIMERS

- Is that portions of the cartridge w/c consist of the brass gilding metal cup
containing a highly mixture of chemical compound/c when struck by the
firing pin would detonate or ignite. Such action is called percussion.
- Use for igniting the gunpowder, a blow from the firing pin on the primer
cup compresses the priming mixture and this causes the composition to
detonate on explode. This detonating on explosion produces “flame” w/c
passes through the “event” on “flash hole” in the cartridges case & this
ignites the gunpowder.

a. ORIGIN

-1807- Alexander John Forsyth

- first one to conceive the idea of using denoting compounds for igniting
powder charges in small arms by percussion.
- A scotch Presbytorian minister chemist & hunter
- A well known authority on firearms
- First successful priming mixture was one composed of potassium chlorate,
charcoal in powder form

PARTS: in a typical center fire cartridges have four parts

1. PRIMER CUP- container of the priming mixture made up of brass, gilding

metal or copper
2. PRIMING MIXTURE- highly sensitive chemical mixture contained in the
primer cups.
3. ANVIL- that portion of the primer against w/c the priming mixture is
crushed by a blow from the firing pin. To provide the resistance necessary
to fire the priming mixture.
4. DISC- piece of small paper on disc of the thin, foil w/c is pressed over the
priming mixture.

Two fold purposes

a. to help hold the priming mixture in place
b. to exclude moisture

1. primer cup 2. priming mixture 3. anvil 4. disc

b. PRIMING COMPOUNDS: CLASSES

1. Corrosive primers- e.g. potassium chlorate- if ignited produce potassium

chloride, draws moisture from the air and this moisture speeds the rusting
and the corrosion in gun barrel. Advance in chemistry produces new
composition w/c potassium chlorate has been eliminated.

2. Non corrosive – every manufacture has his own formula

 mixture of the mercuric primers of 25 years ago.

Ingredient:
-Potassium chlorate (initiator &fuel 45%)
-Antimony Sulfide (elements & fuel 23%)
-Fulminate of mercury (initiator) 32%
-When way came the standard mixture by Frankford arsenal known
as FH-24 had the ff. composition:

- sulfur -21.97 %
 - Potassium chlorate -47.20 %
- Antimony Sulfide - 30.33 %

- Germans have their own composition barium nitrate in the place of

Potassium chlorate together w/ some Picric acid to strengthen mixture.
- Swiss Army had been using non-corrosive primer since about 1911. this
was base on the formula of a Swiss inventor named ZIEGLER: Swiss
Formula:

Fulmirate of mercury – 40%

Barium nitrate - 25%
Antimony sulfide - 25 %
Barrium carbonate - 6 %
Ground glass - 4%

4. GUN POWDER

Is the propellant w/c when ignited by the primer flash is converted into
gas under high pressure and this propels the bullet or shot changes
through the barrel & on the target.

a. Class or Composition:

1. BLACK Powder – although if features loss important still manufactured by

the Europeans. In recent time has completely superseded by smokeless
powder.

Ingredients:
Potassium nitrate - 75 %
Sulfur - 10 %
Charcoal - 15 %

Produces grayish smoke & considerable residue is left in the barrel

Burns with reasonable great rapidity when ignited.
Block Powder – relies for its explosive properties on 3 quantities w/c
are typical of all explosives.

FIRST – when ignited it will burn by itself w/o aid from the outside air.
SECOND – in burning, it gives off a large amount of gas.
THIRD – a considerable amount of heat is evolved

2. SMOKELESS POWDER –terms smokeless powder is misnomer for there

are neither powder nor they are smokeless. The letters terms being
applied to them only because they do not give off huge cloud of white
smoke like the black powder.

 Two main classes of smokeless powder

1. SINGLE – BASE PROPELLANT OR NITROCELLULOSE

- contains only the pure nitroglycerine gelatinized w/
nitrocellulose.

2. DOUBLE – BASE PROPELLANT

- composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine as
their major ingredients according by one or more ingredients such as:
a. Centralize
b. Vaseline Phthalate esters
 c. Inorganic salt

Purpose of Minor ingredients

a. Insure stability
b. Reduce flash or flame temperature (or both)
Double – base propellant are gray green color and the grains are similar in
size and shape to the single – base propellants.
Almost all smokeless powder grains have perfectly definite shape such as
a. small squares
b. discs
c. flakes
d. strips
e. pellets
f. perforated cylindrical grains

THE FOUR MAIN CLASSES OF PROPELLANTS

1. Single – based propellant this is composed of pure nitroglycerin

gelatinized with nitrocelluse.
2. Double – based propellant this type is composed of nitrocellulose and
nitroglycerin mixed with any or all of the following minor ingredients:
centralite, Vaseline phathalate esters, and inorganic salts.
3. Triple – based propellant this is composed of three principal ingredients
that are nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin, and nitroguanidine.
4. HIT (high – ignition temperature) propellant the main ingredient of this
class of propellant is the RDX (cyclonite) group of high explosives
 MODULE III

FORENSIC BALLISTICS IDENTIFICATION AND INVESTIGATION

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: At the end of the unit, the students should be able
to:
1. critique the scientific equipment used in Firearms Identification;
2. justify the techniques of Firearms Examination;
3. assess the fundamental Principles of Forensic Ballistics and FA
Identification;
4. evaluate the field operation of Forensic Ballistics Principles;
5. appraise the laboratory examination of Firearms Evidence;
6. recall the definition of terms used in Forensic Ballistics.

1. SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENTS GENERALLY USED IN FIREARMS

IDENTIFICATION

a. Bullet Comparison Microscope

A piece of optical equipment frequently employed by firearms
identification expert is the bullet comparison microscope, with camera
attachment.

b. Stereoscopic Microscopes
No camera attachment and no photomicrograph can be taken for
court tampered serial number.
For so-called orientation purposes.

c. Shadowgraph
A series of microscopic lenses of different magnification use to
determine class characteristics of fired bullets and shells.
Also for orientation purposes
It can take phomigrograph of the observations and comparisons and
comparisons made in the circulation ground glass.
Also for orientation purposes
It can take phomigrograph of the observations and comparisons made in
the circulation ground glass.

d. CD- Comparison Projector

Very much similar with the bullet comparison microscope
No eyestrain because the magnified image appears on the large
screen. What can be seen in the screen can be photograph by any kind of
camera.

e. Bullet recovery box

Long box (12” x 12” x96” ) filled with ordinary cotton and separated
into sections by and board partitions.

f. Helixometer
Used in measuring “pitch of rifling”. Distance traveled by the bullet
in one complete rotation.

g. Micrometer
Similar in use as caliper
h. Caliper
Use for making measurements such as bullet diameter barrel
length.
 i. Analytical or torsion balance
Use to determine weights of bullet and pellets for possible
determination of type, caliber and make from w/c fired.

j. Onoscope
Small instruments sometimes used in examining the internal
surface of the gun barrel in determining the irregularities inside the bore of
the gun barrel. It has a tiny lamp at the terminal portion and is inserted the
bore for internal examinations.

k. Taper gauge
Use primarily for determining bore diameter.

l. Electrical gun maker

Used in the laboratory for marking fired bullets fired shells and
firearms
submitted for examination.

m. Magnifying Lens this is the handiest equipment for

preliminary and close – up examination of ballistics related
evidences

n. Analytical or Torsion Balance this is an instrument for

measuring weight of bullets and shotgun pellets for possible
determination of type caliber and make of firearm from which
they were fired

o. Electronic Gun Marker this is an instrument used to mark

firearms including fired/test bullets and shells intended to be
submitted at the crime lab for forensic examination.

p. Stroboscope this is a modern instrument developed by

Harold Eugene Edgerton (American Engineer) used in
photographing a bullet if flight

2. TECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION

MARKS FOUND ON FIRED AMMUNITION COMPONENTS

In firearms identification, the marks imparted by the firearm on

ammunition components are not treated as ordinary marks. These marks
contain a degree of forensic value which experts in firearms identification
must be preserve. When ammunition components bearing these marks are
brought at the crime laboratory, these are scientifically investigated to
develop evidence that can be used in:
1. Establishing the element/s of a crime
2. Associating suspects/accused with crimes
3. Helping reconstruct the crime or the crime scene

a. MARKS FOUND IN FIRED BULLETS

1. Landmarks these are marks on a fired bulled caused by contact

between the elevated portions of the rifling and the bearing surface of the
bullet.
2. Groove marks these are marks found on a fired bullet caused by the
contact between the bullet’s bearing surface and the rifling grooves. Groove
marks are more obvious in lead bullets.
3. Skid marks these are marks that are generally found on fired bullet from
a revolver.
4. Stripping marks these are marks found on bullets fired from a loose – fit
barrel wherein the rifling is already badly worn – out.
5. Shaving marks these are marks commonly found on bullet fired from a
revolver caused by its forward movement to the barrel that is poorly aligned
to the cylinder
6. Slippage marks there are marks found on fired bullets passing through
an oily barrel or if not, in an oversize barrel.

b. MARKS FOUND IN FIRED SHELLS

1. Striated Action Marks (Striations)

a. Chamber marks – marks mostly found around the body of the fired shell
caused by the irregularities or nips inside the walls of the chamber
b. Shear marks – sometimes called shearing marks and secondary firing
pin marks; these are found in the primer near the firing pin mark
c. Firing pin drag marks
d. Extractor marks - marks found at the extracting groove of the fired
cartridge case caused by withdrawal of the spent from the chamber
e. Ejector marks – marks generally found on shells fired from an automatic
firearm; it is usually located at the head stamp (or rim) of unfired cartridge
ejected from an automatic gun.
2. Impressed Action Marks (Impressions)
a. Firing pin impressions – marks found at the primer cup of a center – fire
cartridges or at the rim of rim – fire cartridges; considered as the most
important marks for identification of firearms using fired shell
b. Breech marks – marks found at the base portion of the shell caused by
backward movement to the breech face of the firearm
c. Ejector marks – marks found on fired cartridges case thrown out from
automatic or semi – automatic firearms
3. Other marks found in fired cartridge cases
a. Pivotal marks
b. Magazine lip markings

3. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS AND

FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

Two things mark by one and same tool will bear the same markings, likewise
two or more things mark by different tools will have the same markings.

The main forensic principle applied in firearms identification states that

EVERY GUN LEAVES CERTAIN MARKS ON THE BULLET IT FIRES.
These marks differ from those made by any other gun. This principle
provides the reason of forensic ballisticians and firearm examiners. These
experts can examine marks on bullets and determine whether a particular
bullet was fired from a particular gun.

a. PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (BULLETS)

a. No two barrels are microscopically identical as the surface of

their bores all possess individual characteristics markings of their
own.

b. When a bullets is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes engraved

by the rifling and this engraving will vary in its minute details with
every individual bore. So it happens that the engravings on the
 bullets fired from one barrel will be different from one another bullet
fired from another barrel.

c. Every barrel leaves its thumb mark or fingerprint on every single

bullet fired through it just as every breechface leaves its thumb
mark on the base of every fired cartridges case.

PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (SHELLS)

1. The breechface and the striker of every single firearm leave micro scopical
individualities of their own.
2. The firearm leaves its “fingerprints” or “thumb mark” on every cartridges
case which it fires.
3. The whole principles of identification is based on the fact that since the
breechfece of every weapon must be individuality distinct, the cartridges
cases which it fires are imprinted with this individuality. The imprints on all
cartridges cases fired from different weapons are different.

b. TYPES OF PROBLEMS: There are six(6) types of problems in Forensic

ballistics, namely:

Type 1- Given bullets, to determine the caliber and the type of firearm from
which it was fired.

Type 2- Given a fired cartridge case, to determine the caliber and type of
firearm from which it was fired.

Type 3- Given a bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not

the bullets was fired from the suspected firearm.

Type 4- given a fired cartridge case and a suspected firearms, to determine

whether or not the cartridge case was fired from the suspected firearm.

Type 5- Given two or more bullets, to determine whether or not they were
fired from only one firearms.

Type 6- Given two or more cartridges cases, to determine whether or not they
were fired from only one firearm.

c. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS- Those which are determinable prior to the

manufacturer of the firearm and are within the control of the man. These
serve as basis to identify a certain class or group of firearm.

a.) Caliber(Bore Diameter)

b.) Number of lands
c.) Number of grooves
d.) Width of lands s
e.) Width of grooves
f.) Direction of twist
g.) Pitch of rifling
h.) Depth of grooves

d. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS- Those which are determinable only

after the manufacturer of the firearm. They are characteristics whose
existence is beyond the control of man and which have random distribution.
Their existence in a firearm is brought about by the tools in their normal
 operation resulting through wear and tear, abuse, mutilations, corrosions,
erosion and other fortuitous causes.

4. FIELD OPERATIONS INVOLVING FORENSIC BALLISTICS

PRINCIPLES

A. POLICE OPERATIONS AND FORENSIC BALLISTICS

1. Field Investigation this is the task of first responding officers at the crime
scene where firearms and/or ammunitions have been used.
2. Technical Examination this is performed by forensic ballisticians or
firearm examiners at the crime laboratory, which may include marking of
ballistics related evidence (ballistic exhibits)
3. Court Presentation this covers the responsibility of the firearm examiner
or forensic ballistician to appear before the court and provide testimony for
being the expert witness.

B. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION

Upon arriving at the crime scene, responding officers should consider

performing the following steps:
1. Record the date and time of arrival.
2. Render assistance for injured persons or arrange for medical attention,
identification and removal
3. Locate and conduct initial interview on victims and/or witnesses
4. Arrest any suspected offender found at the crime scene or in its general
vicinity
5. Protect the crime as soon as possible
6. Determine and record the identities of those persons present at the
scene, including those who may have entered and already left
7. Immediately start crime scene documentation in any manner necessary
to preserve the original appearance of the crime scene and the possible
evidence it contains

C. SEARCHING FOR BALLISTIC RELATED EVIDENCES

1. Point – to – point search the search and collection of ballistics exhibits

based on obvious location of physical evidences
2. Strip method applicable if shooting incident took place in closed small
rectangular area
3. Grid search also called “double – strip search”, this is applicable if
incident took place in a bigger rectangular area
4. Spiral – search the type of search usually applied in outdoor crime
scenes although it can be used also indoors.
5. Wheel method this is applicable in wide outdoor crimes scenes and
requires tow or more investigators.
6. Sector method this is also applicable in wide outdoor scenes or indoor
crime scene encompassing tow or more rooms.

D. COLLECTING FIREARM EVIDENCE AT THE CRIME SCENE

The rule in recovering firearm at the crime scene is – “Do not lift or handle
suspected firearms by inserting objects at the barrel”. The proper method is
to insert a string at the trigger guard then lift it. Modern onoscope,
helixometer and similar instruments are capable of detecting minute clues
from interior of the gun.
The general rule in collection states that – Do not M-A-C the physical
evidence.
M (mutilation) Do not mutilate or cut physical evidence. Violating this will
greatly affect the nature of the evidence and eventually raise questions as
to its source.
A (alteration) in no case should the nature of the evidence be altered by
adding or removing anything that makes up the physical or chemical nature
of it when it was discovered.
C (contamination) pieces of physical evidence are not supposed to be
mixed together. Every piece of evidence requires different method of
collection and preservation depending on its nature.

PROCEDURE AT THE SCENE OF SHOOTING CASES

These steps are as follows:

1. Note accurately in writing the time he received the call and by

whom it was sent.

2. Note accurately the time he arrive at the scene and the correct
address.

These first two items seem to be arrival, but it is amazing how often in
court they become of vital importance. It is not uncommon that the
officer is unable to fixed the time accurately within an hour to the
satisfaction of a jury.

3. He should ascertain if the victim is dead, and if not non- medical aid
or remove the body to a hospital. Otherwise the body should not be
disturbed.
4. Immediately clear the premises of all bystanders, and under no
circumstances allow anyone to touch or remove anything in the
vicinity.
5. Use every effort and means to identify the deceased.
6. Does the body lie where the shooting took place. Often before the
officer arrives the body will be moved by a bystanders. Frequently it
will be picked up off the floor and put a bed or taken from one room
to another.
7. Take the names and addresses of all witnesses and take written
notes on the statement of as many persons as practicable.
8. Photograph the body from all angles to show its relationship to
doors, windows, furniture and other objects in the room.
9. Measure with a tape the exact distance of the body with relation to
the previously mentioned fixtures of the premises.
10. Note in writing the exact position where he found the body whether
he found it lying on the side, back or abdomen; that objects if any,
were in the hands; report what was the conditions of the clothing
and the amount of bleeding.
11. Examine the ceiling, floors and furniture for bullet holes, blood stain
, fired bullets, fired shells or shotgun wadding.
12. If there is a firearm at the scene, he should note in writing the
following observations:
a.) Exactly where found
b.) Type of weapon- automatic pistol, revolvers, rifle, or shotgun,
caliber or gauge designation.
c.) Make and serial numbers and at that time he should mark his
initials on the butt or frame of the weapon for future identification.
d.) Other distinct features

13. At the crime scene note down where the empty shells, bullets
and/or firearms where found and make a diagram to illustrates the
same, to show their relative distances from the body of the victim,
photograph if possible.
14. Be careful in handling firearms found at the scene of the crime for
they may have latent fingerprints on the parts of the firearm. Note
down the type, kind, make caliber and serial number. If there are
fingerprint technician but be sure that the bore of the firearm should
not be disturbed.
15. Mark the empty cartridges cases inside or near the mouth by
scratching the initials to the investigation or the initials of the
victims.
16. Mark the bullets at the give(or nose) by scratching the investigators
initials or initials of the victim, but definitely NOT at the rifling marks
(landmarks and groove marks).
17. Mark the empty shotgun shells with indelible ink at the body.
18. The barrel of the firearms must be marked too.
19. After marking the empty shells or bullets, wrap them separately and
individually with soft tissue paper and note down on the wrapper
where each was found, the time and date. The purpose of wrapping
them separately is to avoid being scratched.
20. When a lead bullet is found at the scene of the crime the body of
the victim, the presumption is that a revolver was used.
21. When a jacketed bullets is found at the scene of the crime or in the
body of the victim, it can be measured that a presumed that a
automatic pistol or automatic weapon was used.
22. When an empty shells is found at the scene of the crime, the
presumption is an automatic pistol or weapon was used.
23. When an empty shell found at the scene of the crime, the
presumption is a revolver was used.
24. In the bore of a barrel, the depressed portions are the grooves,
and the raised are the lands.
25. On a fired bullets, it is the reverse. The landmarks are the
depressed portions, and the grooves marks are the raised portions.
26. To determine the real direction of the rifling twist in a rifled barrel,
peep thru the barrel, place a land or a groove in inclines to the right,
then it has the right twist and if it inclines to the left , then the rifling
twist is left.
27. To determine the direction of the twist of the bullet, look on the
bullets in an elongated position. If the landmarks and the groove
marks incline to the right, then it has a right twist and if it inclines to
the left, then the rifling twist and if it inclines to the left, then the
rifling twist is right. If the inclination is left then it is a left twist.
28. A fired bullet will acquire the class characteristics of the bore of the
barrel from which it was fired. So therefore if a bore has a class
characteristics of .45 caliber .6 lands, .6 grooves, right twist, groove
wider than the land, such characteristics will be marked on the
bullet it fires.
29. It is the rifling of the bore that marked a fired bullet.
30. So if a fatal will have the same class characteristics as the bore of
the suspected gun, then it is possible that the bullets could have
been fired from the suspected gun.
31. To determine definitely if the bullet above was fired or not from a
suspected gun, then the case must be sent to a forensic ballistics
experts who will conduct the proper examinations.
 32. If two bullets do not have the same class characteristics, definitely
and conclusively they were NOT fired from the same barrels.
33. If a fatal bullets does not have the same class characteristics as
the suspected firearm(barrel), then conclusively the bullets was not
fired from the said barrel.

The following are suggestions for the investigator to observe in testifying

in courts of justice:

1. Be prepared
2. Be calm and well poised
3. tell the truth, nothing but the truth
4. Be courteous
5. Be natural and sit straight forward
6. Do not volunteer
7. Keep tour temper
8. Listen to the question asked before giving your answer
9. Speak loud enough to be heard.
10. Watch your personal appearance and conduct in the
courtroom.
11. Answer only what you are asked, no more.

5. LABORATORY EXAMINATION OF FIREARMS EVIDENCE

A. TESTING FIRING
Every suspected firearm that is recovered should be test fired. Test firing
should be done using a bullet recovery capsule/box. In the absence of such
equipment, a water tank maybe employed. There are three primary
purposes of test firing:
1. To determine if the suspected firearm is functional
2. To obtain test bullets for comparison with evidence/suspect fired bullets
3. To obtain test cartridge cases for comparison with evidence/suspect
fired cartridge cases

B. BALLISTICS EXAMINATION AND FINDINGS

1. Identification (positive ID) this is the description of the examiner’s finding

if a match between an ammunition component and a firearm exist
2. Exclusion (negative ID) this is the finding if the possibility of an
association between the items compared is excluded
3. No conclusion (inconclusive) this is the description of the finding of 2 or
more ammunition components that were compared could not be identified
nor excluded if they were fired from a single firearm based on the quantity
and quality of microscopic markings.
For conclusiveness of findings, there must be at least 3 test bullets or
cartridge cases to be compared with a questioned bullet or cartridge case
1st test bullet or case is for preliminary comparison;
2nd test bullet or case is for confirmation; and
3rd test bullet or case is for conclusion

PHYSICAL: evidence bullets, cartridges cases and suspected firearms

once submitted by the requesting party will be physically examined to
determine its markings or initials made by the investigators for identification
purposes.

TEST FIRING: the firearms is test fired from a bullet recovery box in order
to obtain test bullets and test cartridges cases for comparison with evidence
 bullets and cartridges cases, but before firing the cartridge will be marked at
the side of the case on the portion of the bullet w/ letter T(Test) followed (eg
T-77-1 to T-77-3) in their order of firing to distinguish the number 1 test from
2 and 3. After the recovery of the test bullets and test cartridges cases, they
will be compared w/ the evidence bullet and evidence cartridges cases,
under the bullet comparison microscope to determine whether or not they
have the congruency of striations or the same individual characteristics.

Under the bullet comparison microscope, the two fired bullets or fired shells
are examined in a JUXTAPOSITION- that is, the two objects-evidence and
the test bullets are examined and compared:
1. at the same time
2. at the same plane or level
3. at the same direction
4. at the same magnification
5. at the same image

For conclusiveness of findings, there shall be at least 3 test bullets

that should be compared.

First 1 for comparison/preliminary

Second 1 for confirmation
Third 1 for conclusion

PERIPHERY
These are the sides of the bullet that are in contact w/ the inner surface of
the barrel.

STRIATIONS
A individual characteristics of the cartridges found at the base portion and
of the side of the bullet come in contact w/ the inner surface of the barrel.

TEST BULLETS
Are those recovered from bullet recovery box for comparison w/ the
evidenced bullets under the bullet comparison microscope.

A fired or evidenced bullets or cartridges cases are those recovered from the
crime scene.

Inter connected or the court can accept intermarriages 8 or more striations.

3 Points of basic positive identification the markings must be:

1.Prominent
2. Significant and are
3. Consistent

Means of-test firing, other than the recovery box.

1.Water tank
2.Saw dust w/ oil
3.Sand
4.Waste threads
5.Darak
6.Banana Trunk
7.Rubber trips
 RELATED DEFINITIONS:

ABRASION (in the world) Scratches caused by using improper cleaning

materials, or by firing ammunition with bullets to which abrasive material was
adhering. Normal enlargement of the bore and wearing away of lands due to the
abrasive action of the bullets.
ACCURATE RANGE- The distance with in which he shoot has control of his
shots.
AMMUNITION (technical)- refer to a group of cartridge or to a single unit of
cartridges, meaning a complete unfired unit consisting of bullets, cartridges case,
gun powder and primer. The term may also refer to a single round.
AMMUNITION(legal)- section 877 0f RAC- Shall mean loaded shell for rifles,
muskets, carbines, shot guns, revolvers and pistols which a ball, bullet shot, shell
or other missile may be discharges by means of gunpowder or other explosives.
The term includes ammunition for air rifles as mentioned else where in the code.
AUTOMATIC- a weapon is automatic when its mechanism is so arranged that it
will continuously while the trigger is depressed.
BALL BULLETS- Bullets have soft lead cores inside a jacket.
BALLISTA- The early Roman war Machine- a gigantic bow or catapult.
BALLISTICIAN- Person whose knowledge of identification is accepted by the
courts and other investigation agencies.
Ballistics related evidence, otherwise called “ballistics exhibit”, is usually
is the form of a real object such as a firearm, bullet or shell that can be
brought to the court and presented as physical evidence.
BALLISTICS- Science of the motion of the projectiles.
BALLO or BALLEIN- Greek words where ballistics was derived from which
means “to Throw”.
BERDAN PRIMER- a primer with two flash holes or vents
BORE- the cylindrical passage of the barrel through which the projectile travels.
BOXER PRIMER- a primer with only one flash hole or vents.
BREECH END- the rear end of the bore of an arm where the cartridges is
inserted.
BREECHBLOCK- the steel block which closes the rear of the bore against the
force of charge or that part in the breech mechanism that locks the action against
the firing of the cartridges: the face of this block is known as the breech face
BULLET ENERGY- The powder possessed by a moving bullet, or in other words
its ability to keep going when it meets an obstacle of immense importance, for
obviously, the more powder a bullet has and the harder it is to stop the, more
effective it can be as a weapon.
BULLET- is a projectile propelled from a charge.
BULLET RECOVERY BOX- Consist of a wooden box, 12”x 12” x 96”, with a
hinged to cover and with one end open. This long box is filled with ordinary
cotton and separated into section by cardboard partitions.
CALIBER- Is the diameter of the inner surface of the barrel that is measured
from land to land.
CALIBER- term used to indicate the bore diameter, which is measured between
two opposite lands.
CALIPER- An instrument used for making measurement such as the diameter
and bore diameter.
CANNELURE (bullet)- A knurled ring or serrated grooved around the body of the
bullet which contains wax for lubrication in order to minimize friction during the
passage of the bullet inside the bore.
CARTOUCHE- French word of cartridges which means ROOL OF PAPER.
CARTRIDGE- Is a complete unfired unit of bullets, cartridge case, gun powder
and primer.
CARTRIDGE- term used to described a complete unfired unit consisting of the
bullets, primer cartridges case and powder charge.
CHAMBER- that part of the weapon in which the cartridges is placed into
position for firing.
CHARTA- Latin word for cartridges which means PAPER.
CHILLED SHOT-Shot gun pellets made from lead specially hardened by addition
of a slight amount of antimony.
CORROSION- the chemical eating away of the bore of an arm due to rusting or
the action of salts deposited from they cap or powder.
CORROSION- The mechanical wear and tear of the inside of the gun barrel due
to rust formation or chemical action of the products of combustion after firing.
DOUBLE ACTION- weapons in which pressure upon the trigger both cocks and
releases the hammer.
DUMDUM BULLET- “Dumdum” is an out moded and generally misused term. It
was an unofficial name first applied to hollow point bullets made at the British
arsenal at Dumdum, India.
EFFECTIVE RANGE- The maximum distance at which a bullet may reasonable
be expected to travel accurately and skill a particular types of live target.
EJECTOR- that the mechanism in a firearm which causes the empty shell or
ammunition to be thrown out from the gun.
EROSION- mechanical wear and tear of the bore of an arm due to sliding fiction
when the bullet passes through it.
EROSION- The mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel
due to mechanical abrasion or sliding friction.
Ex. 6 inches at 15 yards in white pinewood.
EXPERT- as used in court includes all witnesses whose opinions are admitted on
grounds of specialized knowledge, training and experience.
EXTRACTOR- that mechanism in a firearm which the empty shell, or ammunition
withdrawn from the chamber.
EXTREME RANGE- The greatest distance the bullet will travel the cartridge is
fired.
FIRING PIN- that part of the firearm, which strikes the primer causing the firing of
the cartridge.
Forensic ballistics is the application of ballistics principles to legal matters.
Law enforcers and criminal investigators encounter cases that require them
to utilize their knowledge in ballistics and resolve legal issues regarding a
shooting incident.
FORENSIC BALLISTICS- The study f firearms identification by means of fired
from them.
FORUM- A Greek word of forensic which means debatable, argumentation in
relation to the court of justice.
FOULING- The accumulation of a deposit with in the bore of a firearm caused by
solid by products remaining a cartridges is fired.
GALLERY RANGE- The indoor targets ranges on properly can strutted indoor
ranges, firing maybe conducted with center fire pistols and revolvers at ranges of
25 years and 50 years. Such installation are generally referred to as indoor
ranges the term gallery being applied usually only to short range .22 caliber
installation.
GAUGE OR GAGE- as applied to shot guns, it indicates that the bore diameter is
equal to the diameter of a lead ball whose weight in pounds is equal to the
reciprocal gauge index. Ex. Bore diameter of a lead ball weighting 1/12 of pound.
GROOVES- the depressed channels cut in the interior of a rifled gun barrel.
GUM COTTON- A very powerful explosive, nitroglycerine which is a chemical
compound and not a mixture. This is formed by the action of nitric and sulfuric
acid on cotton or nay other kind of cellulose.
HAMMER- that part of the firearm controlled by the trigger, which causes the
firing pin to strike the primer striking the gun.
JUXTAPOSITION- Two objects evidence bullet and test bullet are examined and
compared under the bullet comparison microscope. Includes also the
examination of fired shells.
KNOCKING POWER- Power of the bullet which believer a very paralyzing blow
that put the victim down and may then recover if the wound inflicted upon is not a
fatal.
LANDS- that raised portion between the grooves inside a rifled gun barrel.
LANDS- The raised portion between the grooves in the interior surface of the
gun barrel.
LAPPING- is the smoothening of the inner surface of the barrel.
MACHINE REST- A machine used for testing the accuracy of the firearm.
MAXIMUM RANGE- The farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from
a firearm.
OGIVE- is the technical name of the cylindrical head critic of the bullets.
PENETRATION- the depth to which a projectile sinks in the target.
PERCUSSION- Action when the priming mixture of chemical compound hit or
struck by firing in would ignite.
PISTOL- a hand firearm usually applied to simple shot and automatic loading.
PITCH OF RIFLING- the distance that the rifling advances to make one complete
turn.Places cartridges into position for firing.
POINT BLANK RANGE-Popularity used to indicate the distance the bullet will
travel before it drops enough to require sight adjustment. A shot fired so closed
to the target that no sighting is necessary for effective aiming.
PRESSURE- the outward thrust of the burning powder gases against the breech
block, the chamber and bore normally measured one inch from the breech and
recorded in pounds per square inch. Ex. 14,000 to 15,000 pounds per square
inch for caliber .45 automatic pistol.
PRIMER- a small sensitive explosive contained in the cap and explosion of this
mixture detonate the powder charge.
PRIMER- The complete assembly of cup, priming composition, paper disc and
anvil.
PROJECTILE refers to an object that can be fired or launched, such as
bullet, artillery shell, or rocket.
PROPELLANT refers to an explosive charge that projects a bullet from a
gun.
RANGE- The straight distance between the muzzle and the target.
RANGE- the straight distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target.
REVOLVER- a hand firearm in which a rotating cylinder successively
RIFLE- a type of weapon designed to fired from the shoulder
RIFLING simply refers to spiral lands and grooves found at the bore of the gun
barrel.
RIM- the projection edge of the base or head of a certain cartridge.
ROUND- One single complete cartridge.
SHOTGUN- a smoothbore weapon designed to shoot a number of lead pellets in
one charge.
SINGLE ACTION- weapons in which pressure upon the trigger release the
hammer that must be manually cocked.
STOPPING POWER- power of the bullet which put the victim out of the action
instantly. So it should be understood that stopping power is not necessarily the
same thing as killing power. However, stopping power depends very largely on
the location of the shot.
TRAJECTORY- in the actual pattern or curved path of the bullets in flight.
VELOCITY- is the forward speed in which the bullet travels measured in feet per
second.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS:

Crim
363.25 Del Rosario, D. (1996). Forensic ballistics: firearms
D761 investigation and identification, 3rd edition. Manila: KSY
Enterprises.

R
623.403 Hogg, Ian V. (2003). The illustrated encyclopedia of firearms.
H679 Singapore: Quarto Publishing Ltd.

Crim Lajom, F. (1998). Criminalistics. Quezon City: Rex Printing

363.26 Company, Inc.
L174

Crim Tradio, C. (1997). A Compendium on Criminalistics. Quezon

364 City: Central Law Book Publishing Co., Inc.
T675

C Saferstein, R. (2004). Criminalistics: An Introduction to

363.25 Forensic Science. New Jersey: Prenctice Hall.
S917

L Solis, P. (1987). Legal Medicine. Quezon City: National Book

364 Store.
S14

Compiled Review Notes in Criminalistics of UC

ONLINE REFERENCES:

Doyle, S. 2003. Firearms Identification. 2004 (available @

http://www.firearmsID.com)

Doyle, S. 2003. FirearmsID Gallery. 2004 (available @

http://www.firearmsID.com)

Microsoft Encarta. (2002). Microsoft Encarta Reference Library 2003.

(Electronic Encyclopedia)

Grolier Interactive. (2001). Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia 2002.

(Electronic Encyclopedia)
 COURSE SYLLABUS IN CRIMINALISTICS 3

I. COURSE TITLE: FORENSIC BALLISTICS

II. COURSE DESCRIPTION

The course deals with forensic applications of ballistics and firearms
identification. Introductory part of the discussion covers background
information on the subject, which covers the definition of key terms, history of
ballistics, branches of ballistics, and history and nomenclature of firearms and
ammunition. The focus of the study is on the functions of the key components
of firearms and ammunition, class and individual characteristics of firearms,
principles of firearms identification, and procedures in handling ballistic related
evidences, including the preparation of forensic ballistics report.
No. of lecture hours: 16 hours

III. COURSE RATIONALE

This course is very relevant in the review and for the law enforcement
profession and other fields related to crime detection and investigation. It is
designed to prepare and equip future law enforcers and criminal investigators
with the fundamental knowledge and skills needed in detecting and
investigating crimes involving the use of firearms.
Forensic ballistics and firearms identification play a vital role in the speedy
and fair administration of justice. Most index crimes today involve the use of
firearms. Seemingly, the court is overwhelmed with criminal cases and most of
these cases directly or indirectly involve discharge of firearm. To find solution
of these cases, the police and the investigators need the application of science
regarding ballistics and firearm forensics. The knowledge in these fields
facilitates the investigation of such cases. Pieces of evidence obtained and
developed using forensic ballistics are more objective, thus more credible, as
bases in establishing the proof about the facts in dispute regarding a shooting
incident.

IV. GENERAL OBJECTIVES

At the end of the course, the student should be able to:
1. evaluate the importance of forensic ballistics in the field of law
enforcement and criminal investigation;
2. recall the pioneers in the field of ballistics and their respective
contributions;
3. classify the different types of firearms, ammunition, shells, and bullets;
4. know the principal problems involved in firearms identification;
5. recognize the significance of forensic ballistics in the field of crime
detection and investigation;
6. assess effectively if firearms evidences have forensic value in relation to
firearms identification;
7. justify if two or more fired bullets or shells were discharged from the same
gun;
8. appraise properly the basic procedure in searching, lifting, marking,
tagging, and packaging ballistics exhibits to preserve their forensic value;
V. COURSE CONTENT

MODULE I: BACKGROUND INFORMATION (4 hrs.)

A. MODULE TOPICS
1. Definition and scope of ballistics
2. The main branches of ballistics
a. division of forensic ballistics
b. legal definition of Firearms
c. Technical definition of Firearms

3. Small Firearms
4. Evolution of Firearms
a. Gun Manufacturing
b. Classes of firearms
c. Advantages and Disadvantages of Revolvers and Pistols
d. Firearms Nomenclature

B.REFERENCES
Del Rosario, pp 1-11
Lajom, pp 61-67
Microsoft Encarta Reference Library (electronic encyclopedia)
Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia (electronic encyclopedia)

MODULE II: AMMUNITION COMPONENTS (4 hrs.)

A. MODULE TOPICS

1. Cartridge
a. Anatomy of standard cartridge
b. Ammunition
c. Projectiles
d. Velocity
e. Trajectory
2. Bullet
a. Parts of standard bullet
b. Classification
3. Primers
a. Origin
b. Parts
Priming Compound

4. Gun Powder
a. Classes
b. Composition

B. REFERENCES
Del Rosario, pp 7-34
Doyle, Ammunition Gallery (online @ http://www.firearmsID.com)
Hogg, pp 6-26
Solis, pp 336-340
Tradio, pp 11-18
MODULE III: FORENSIC BALLISTIC IN IDENTIFICATION AND
INVESTIGATION (8hrs)

A. MODULE TOPICS
1. Scientific Equipment used in firearms identification
2. Techniques of Examination
a. Marks Found on Bullets
b. Marks Found on Shells
3. Fundamental Principles of Forensic Ballistics and FA Identification
a. Principle of Shell and Bullet Identification
a.1 Class Characteristics
a.2 Individual Characteristics
b. Types of problems encountered in FA identification
4. Field Operation Involving Forensic Principles
a. Police Operations and Forensic Ballistics
b. Preliminary Investigation
c. Searching for Ballistics Related Evidence
d. Collecting FA Evidence at the Crime Scene (procedure)
5. Laboratory Examination of Firearms Evidence
a. Test Fire
b. Ballistics Examination and Findings
c. Means of Test Firing other than recovery box
6. Related Definition of Terms

B. REFERENCES
Del Rosario, pp 85-105
Doyle, Firearm Identification (online @ http://www.firearmsID.com)
Lajom, pp 86-70
Safertstein, pp 432-440
Solis, pp 382-393

VIII. COURSE METHODOLOGY

Modular approach will be the primary method to be used. However,
this will supplemented by other teaching strategies such as informal lecture,
multi-media aided lecture, film showing, and reportorial approach. Students’
comprehension on the subject matter will be checked through oral recitation,
pre- and post- tests, progress checks, laboratory exercises, and periodical
examinations.

IX. COURSE REQUIREMENTS

To successfully pass the course, the students must:
1. actively participate during discussions;
2. regularly attend the review;
3. obtain passing score in the mock board and board exam;

X. BASES OF EVALUATION
The board examination result will evaluate the student.
XI. BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS

Crim
363.25 Del Rosario, D. (1996). Forensic ballistics: firearms
D761 investigation and identification, 3rd edition. Manila: KSY
Enterprises.

R
623.403 Hogg, Ian V. (2003). The illustrated encyclopedia of firearms.
H679 Singapore: Quarto Publishing Ltd.

Crim Lajom, F. (1998). Criminalistics. Quezon City: Rex Printing

363.26 Company, Inc.
L174

Crim Tradio, C. (1997). A Compendium on Criminalistics. Quezon

364 City: Central Law Book Publishing Co., Inc.
T675

C Saferstein, R. (2004). Criminalistics: An Introduction to

363.25 Forensic Science. New Jersey: Prenctice Hall.
S917

L Solis, P. (1987). Legal Medicine. Quezon City: National Book

364 Store.
S14

Compiled Review Notes in Criminalistics of UC

ONLINE REFERENCES:

Doyle, S. 2003. Firearms Identification. 2004 (available @

http://www.firearmsID.com)

Doyle, S. 2003. FirearmsID Gallery. 2004 (available @

http://www.firearmsID.com)

Microsoft Encarta. (2002). Microsoft Encarta Reference Library 2003.

(Electronic Encyclopedia)

Grolier Interactive. (2001). Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia 2002.

(Electronic Encyclopedia)