Laboratory Manual

COMPUTATIONAL SUB-SUFARFACE VENTILATION AND

ENVIRONMENT PRACTICAL

(MNC 537)

Faculty In-charge
Dr. Patitapaban Sahu

Technical Support
Mr. N.K. Hembram

DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING

IIT (ISM), DHANBAD

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 General instructions on safety and Do's and Don'ts

• Come to the practical classes on time wearing cotton clothes.

• Keep your mobile phones in switched off mode in the laboratory.

• Listen carefully to your instructor and don’t hesitate to ask question in case of any
doubts.

• Do wear protective shoes, gloves and goggles while conducting the experiments to
ensure proper safety.

• Don’t touch or operate any laboratory instruments unless asked to do so.

• Do practice fire and electrical safety. Ensure that all electrical instruments are turned off
before plugging in the sockets.

• In case any instrument is not functioning properly, bring it to the knowledge of your
instructor.

• Read the laboratory manual carefully in advance, carry out the experiments as per the
procedures laid down in it and record the observations in the appropriate format.

• Don’t touch the hot surfaces of the equipment.

• Maintain safety distance from the instrument producing heat or flame.

• Keep the workplace clean.

• Handle the equipment with care and leave them in good condition after the experiments.

• Don’t eat, drink or chew gums during the course of laboratory experiment.

• Don’t leave any of your belongings in the laboratory and check before you leave.

• In case of any impending danger, evacuate the place and inform the concerned.

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 LIST OF PRACTICALS
1. Measurement of airflow in tunnel using Vane Anemometer and Velometer.

2. Measurement of air pressure and airflow using Pitot tube

3. Estimation of air-cooling power using Kata thermometer

4. Computation of psychrometric properties of underground air

5. Determination of thermal properties of rocks

6. Compositional analysis of air using Gas Chromatograph.

7. Plotting of fan characteristic curves

8. Determination of dust concentration using dust samplers.

9. Determination of noise level using Noise Level Meter.

10. Determination of illumination level in underground using Lux meter.

11. Ventilation simulation of underground workings

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 EVALUATION PATTERN

Sl. No. Head Distribution of marks

1 Practical record 20

2 Quiz/assignment 50

4 Viva-voce 30

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 Experiment-1
Measurement of airflow in tunnel using Vane Anemometer and Velometer.

Aim: To measure the airflow using vane anemometer and velometer.

Airflow

The measurement of airflow generally involves the measurement of the average air velocity at
a point in a mine airway and multiplying the same with the cross-sectional area of the airway
at that point. The airflow measuring instruments are vane anemometer and velometer. These
two instruments are described below.

Vane anemometer: It consists of a 100 mm diameter cylindrical structure enclosing a hub on

which eight light metal vanes are mounted at an angle of 45° to the direction of airflow. The
van circle operating through gearing rotates at a speed proportional to the air velocity and a
counter located at the centre of the hub can read the number of revolutions of the wheel or
distance travelled by the vanes in metres. In most models, arrangements are provided to reset
the counting mechanism to zero before each reading. A clutch with a lever is provided to allow
starting and stopping the counting mechanism at the desired time so that the instrument reading
for a given time of one or two minutes noted with a stop-watch can be obtained. Then air
velocity in m/s can be calculated by dividing the reading with the duration of measurement. In
some models, a built-in stopwatch mechanism is fitted which automatically engages the
counting mechanism for one minute and hence air velocity in m/min can be obtained directly
from the reading on the dial. The anemometer is provided with a hook which helps in holding
it or suspending it from a hooked rood of 1.5 m length. Anemometers commonly used in mines
are suitable for measuring air velocities in the range of 1-15 m/s.

Fig. 1.
Procedure

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 Following steps should be carried out to determine the average velocity of air in an
underground roadway:
1. The reading of the pointers of anemometer should be noted during declutched position. It
should be held away from the body of the observer. It can be held at the end of a rod to
avoid obstruction by the body of the observer.
2. Keep a stopwatch ready at hand.
3. At the desired moment, set the stopwatch in motion and simultaneously engage the gears
of the anemometer by the clutch arrangement.
4. Rotate the instrument throughout the cross-section of the roadway as shown by the path
line in the Figure 2. The instrument now records the distance travelled by the air.
5. After 2, 3 or 4 minutes, declutch the instrument and simultaneously stop the stopwatch.
Then take the readings.
6. The difference between the initial and final readings indicates the distance travelled by air
in the time recorded by the stopwatch.

Fig. 2. Path of a moving anemometer traverse

The places, where the average velocity is measured, should be selected on the following
considerations:

• The roadway should have nearly uniform cross-section for nearly 15 m on either side
and it should be straight.
• The cross-section should be such that its area can be easily calculated.
• It should be away from bends, junctions and places having sudden changes in cross-
section, and free from obstructions that may cause turbulent air flow.

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Precautions
a. The presence of operator in roadway gives rise to the obstruction of the airflow &
distorts the velocity pattern in airway. Hence anemometer rod should be used to suspend
it freely.
b. The plane of traverse of anemometer should be totally at right angle to the axis of
roadway.
c. Traversing should be done at slow speed so that error over estimation of air velocity can
be eliminated.
d. Calibration of anemometer should be carried out at a regular interval & before every
important ventilation survey.

Velometer: The velometer, a direct-reading velocity meter, is used widely in industrial surveys
of ducts. It consists of a jewel mounted and spring-held vane located in a rectangular passage
with a pointer and dial, all housed in a molded case. In operation, air enters a port on one side
of the instrument, deflecting the vane. The amount of deflection, directly proportional to the air
velocity, is indicated by the pointer on a marked dial. The velometer is a versatile instrument
since it may be supplied with interchangeable jet probes and multiple scales, permitting accurate
measurements of velocities over a broad range. Its principal shortcoming is its inability to
measure an integrated, average velocity for an airway. For use in dusty mine atmospheres, a
special filter is attached to the intake port of the instrument. Because of its directional
sensitivity, the correct reading is the maximum reading obtained when it is rotated gently from
side to side.

Fig. 3. Velometer

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 Experiment- 2
Measurement of Air Pressure and Airflow using Pitot Tube

Aim: To measure the air pressure and airflow using Pitot tube.

Description of Pitot tube

Pitot tube is suitable for measuring high air velocity. It comprises of two concentric tubes. The
inner tube has an open end to face the airflow to measure the total pressure ‘PT’ and the outer
tube is closed at the end but has side orifices drilled at right angles to the axis of the tube to
measure static pressure ‘PS’. The other end of the Pitot tube is fitted with two fittings where the
two limbs of a manometer are connected. The dimensions of Pitot tube chosen for use in mines
are of 6-8mm diameter, 1.2-1.5m length for long stem, 0.8-1.2m length for shorter head bent at
right angle to the main stem, orifice holes of 0.3mm diameter and a hemispherical or ellipsoidal
head to avoid undue turbulence.

Figure 1: Pitot-tube

Figure 2: Pitot-tube and manometer connections to measure differential heads in ventilation

pipe or tubing.

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 In operation, the instrument is pointed directly into the airflow and the pressure effect
of moving air depresses the fluid in the manometer. The difference in elevation in the fluid is a
measure of the pressure or head of the air. For air-velocity measurements, each fitting is
connected to opposite legs of a manometer as shown in Figure 2. The indicated reading is a
measure of the velocity head ‘HV’ from which the velocity pressure can be obtained. Once the
velocity pressure is known, the velocity of air can be obtained by using the following relation:
2 Pv
v=
k

Where v is the velocity of air (m s-1), Pv is the velocity pressure (Pa),  is the density of air (kg
m-3) and K is the correction factor for the particular pitot-static tube (for standard design, K =
1). Assuming the standard design of Pitot - static tube and normal density of air of 1.2 kg m-3,
the above equation can be written as

v = 1.29 Pv

A Pitot tube can give the air velocity at one spot only. To get the average air velocity, a
number of spot readings has to be obtained or the air velocity measured at the centre of the
airway has to be multiplied by a suitable method factor.

For measuring the total head Ht, the inner tube is connected to one leg of the manometer
with the other leg open to the atmosphere as shown in Figure 2b. This arrangement measures
the total pressure. For measuring static head Hs, only the outer tube is connected to a manometer
as shown in Figure 2C. Since the openings of the outer tube are perpendicular to the direction
of airflow, only static-head component is measured.

Note
Static pressure: This is the pressure exerted by a moving fluid on a surface parallel with the
direction of movement.
Velocity pressure: This is the pressure exerted by fluid by virtue of its motion and it varies with
the square of velocity.

Precautions

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For accurate results, the Pitot tube must have its head aligned with the direction of the air
current. The correct alignment of the standard Pitot tube corresponds to the maximum reading
of the manometer and a misalignment of the tube up to 10° is ignored as the error in velocity
measurement is within 3% at this angle of yaw. Thus, head of the Pitot tube should be turned
to record the highest velocity pressure.

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 Experiment- 3
Estimation of air cooling power using Kata thermometer

Aim: To estimate the air cooling power using Kata thermometer.

Apparatus
• Kata thermometer
• Stopwatch
• Hot water in thermo flask
• Wet Cloth.
Theory
Kata thermometer is a method used for expressing comfort condition of an environment that
takes into account all the heat stress parameters. It consists of a glass thermometer with a
cylindrical bulb of 2cm diameter and 4cm length filled with coloured alcohol connected to a 20
cm long stem having two smaller bulbs or reservoirs at the top and bottom ends. The stem has
two marks at 35 °C (308 K) and 37.8 °C (311 K) in between the two bulbs. While taking a
reading with the Kata thermometer, the bulb is first heated by dipping it in hot water so that the
liquid rises to the top reservoir. The bulb is then taken out of water, wiped with a dry cloth and
is allowed to cool in the mine air. The time taken by the thermometer to cool from 37.8 °C to
35 °C is noted. The Kata cooling factor which gives the amount of heat lost per cm2 of the
surface of the bulb in cooling from 37.8 °C to 35 °C is usually written on the Kata thermometer.
This factor divided by the time taken for the cooling gives the rate of heat loss from the Kata
thermometer.

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 The dry-Kata reading gives an estimation of the heat loss from the surface of the bulb
due to radiation and convection and hence is of little importance, particularly under hot and
humid conditions where most of the heat loss from the human body is through evaporation.

The wet-Kata reading is obtained by covering the bulb of the Kata thermometer by wet
muslin. The idea is to make it resemble the human body which loses heat by radiation,
convection as well as evaporation. The wet-Kata cooling power is related to the wet-bulb
temperature and the air velocity by the following relation:

𝐾= (14.65+35.59𝑣1/3) (309.65−𝑇𝑤), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣 ≤1 𝑚/𝑠

𝐾= (4.19+46.05𝑣1/3) (309.65−𝑇𝑤), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣 ≥1 𝑚/𝑠

Where,
𝐾 = Kata cooling power (W/m2)
𝑣 = velocity of mine air (m/s)
𝑇𝑤 = wet bulb temperature (K)
Wet-Kata reading can be approximated from air velocity 𝑣 and wet-bulb temperature 𝑇𝑤
𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑘𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝐾= (0.7+𝑣0.5) (36.5−𝑇𝑤)

Where,
𝐾= 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑘𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑚𝑐𝑎𝑙/ (𝑐𝑚2𝑠)),
𝑇𝑤=𝑤𝑒𝑡−𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (℃)
𝑣=𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑚/𝑠)
Procedure for taking the reading
• The larger bulb or reservoir is dipped in hot water until the thermometer fluid rises and
fills up the smaller bulb at the top of the stem.
• The bulb of the kata thermometer is taken out of the hot water and wiped with cotton to
remove any water drops/layer on the bulb surface.
• The larger bulb or the reservoir is covered with wet muslin cloth to record wet-kata
thermometer reading and allowed to cool in the mine air. To take dry-kata reading, it is
allowed to cool in the mine air without application of wet muslin cloth on the larger
bulb/reservoir.
• Using a stopwatch, the time taken by kata thermometer in cooling from 37.8 °C to 35
°C is recorded.
• For obtaining rate of heat loss from the surface of kata thermometer, kata factor (written
on it, provided by manufactures) is divided by time taken for cooling from 37.8 °C to
35 °C.

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Limitations

• Variation of kata factor with temperature.

• Kata thermometer underestimates effect of temperature and humidity of mine air and
overestimates the effect of air velocity.
• The convective and evaporative coefficients of kata thermometer are twice as that of
human body and therefore it cools much faster than the human body.
• Kata thermometer has smaller volume to surface area ratio as compared to human body
which further makes it to cool faster than that of human body.
• Its use as heat index is limited to hot and humid climate.
• A person doing moderate work generally produces 165 W/m2. It means, a kata reading
of 165 W/m2 will provide a comfortable working environment. However, it is not the
case. As discussed earlier, the kata thermometer cools much faster than that of a human
body and therefore for a comfortable working condition, 165 W/m2 should be multiplied
by a factor. This factor has been arrived at 5 through various experimental procedures.
Therefore to provide a comfortable working environment, a kata reading of 5 x 165
W/m2 is essential.
• The larger bulb (or reservoir) is fragile in nature.

Fig. 2: Procedure for wet-Kata reading

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 Experiment- 4
Computation of Psychrometric Properties of Underground Air

Aim: To compute the psychrometric properties of Underground air.

Psychrometry terms
Psychrometry is the science dealing with physical and thermodynamic properties of mixtures
of dry air and water vapour and certain psychrometric terms are used in describing the moisture
content in atmosphere i.e. a dry air-water vapour mixture.
Description of instruments
Aneroid (no liquid) barometer is commonly used for the atmosphere pressure measurement in
the mines owing to its portable & rugged nature. It consists of an airtight chamber with flexible
diaphragm retained under partial vacuum conditions. The collapse and motion of the diaphragm
is restricted by a spring element. Any increase or decrease in the atmospheric pressure results
in the diaphragm moving inward or outward respectively from its normal position. The
movement is magnified to 200 times through a system of levers connected to a pointer moving
over dial over which graduations are in pressure units.

Hygrometers, which contain a pair of thermometers, are used for determining the wet
and dry bulb temperature of the air from which the moisture content and relative humidity of
air can be determined. There are three types of hygrometers such as fixed ore non-ventilated
hygrometer, whirling hygrometer or sling psychrometer and assmann psychrometer.
Fixed hygrometer: This is fixed at a suitable place inside the mine in such way that it should be
well ventilated by the mine air-current. It consists of two thermometers mounted side by side,
the bulb of one being exposed to the air and that of the other covered with a thin gauze of
muslin, the lower end of which is dipped in a container filled with water. Distilled water should
be used in the container as impurities in water affect its rate of evaporation. The surface of the
muslin should be clean and the muslin should be changed from time to time. Care should be
taken to wipe all dirt and moisture from the surface of the dry bulb.
A defect of the fixed hygrometer is that unless it is place in an air-current with a velocity of 3
m s-1 or more, the moisture evaporated from the wet bulb surrounds both the dry and wet bulbs
resulting in the inaccuracy of the readings. Furthermore, the evaporative cooling of the wet bulb
may also affect the dry-bulb temperature with low air velocity.

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Whirling hygrometer: Whirling hygrometer is commonly used in mines for better accuracy. It
consists of two thermometers mounted side by side, the bulb of one being exposed to the air
and that of the other covered with thin gauze of muslin, the lower end of which is dipped in a
container filled with water. Distilled water should be used in the container as impurities in water
affect its rate of evaporation. The surface of the muslin should be clean and the muslin should
be changed from time to time.
Precautions should be taken to take the thermometer reading as quickly as possible after
stopping the rotation of the hygrometer. As the wet-bulb temperature gets affected most by the
presence of stagnant air, the wet-bulb reading should be taken first.

Assmann psychrometer: This is an aspiration psychrometer with the bulbs of the thermometer
ventilated by a fan operated by a clock-type spring. The bulbs of the thermometer are covered
with metal sleeves whose outer surface are bright chromium-plated in order to prevent radiation
from surrounding surfaces affecting the readings of the thermometers. For the same reason, it
is desirable to hold the psychrometer away from the body of the observer and other surfaces.
The fan should be run for three minutes before taking a reading. For accuracy, an occasional
checking and control of ventilation speed is essential.

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Calculation
Saturated vapour pressure (Svp): This is the maximum pressure that can be exerted by the water
vapour in a saturated atmosphere corresponding to a particular temperature. Svp in terms of kPa
can be calculated using the following formula:

(
Svp = 0.6105 exp 17.27  t
237.3 + t
)
where Svp is the saturated vapour pressure (kPa) and t is the temperature (°C).

Vapour pressure (Vp): This is the partial pressure of water vapour present in a certain volume
of air. This is also sometimes called as actual vapour pressure. Vp can be approximately
determined from the following formula:
Vp = (Svp )wb − 0.000644  P  (tdb − twb )

and

(S ) = 0.6105  exp
17.27  t wb 
237.3 + t wb 

vp wb

where Vp is the actual vapour pressure (kPa), (Svp)wb is the saturated vapour pressure at wet bulb
temperature (kPa), P is the barometric pressure (kPa), tdb is the dry bulb temperature (°C) and
twb is the wet bulb temperature (°C).

Relative humidity (RH): RH is the ratio of actual vapour pressure to the saturated vapour
pressure at the given dry bulb temperature. It can be calculated in terms of percentage using the
following formula:
V 
 (Svp )db 
RH =  p  100

and

(S ) = 0.6105  exp
17.27  tdb
+


 237 .3 t db 
vp db

Mixing ratio (M): This is the ratio of mass of water vapour present to the unit mass of dry air.
Mathematically,
Vp
M = 0.622 
P − Vp

This is often expressed as moisture content in kg of moisture per kg of dry air.

Specific humidity (SH): This is the mass of water vapour present in kg per kg of moist air.

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 0.622V p
SH =
P − 0.378V p

Dew point (DP): The temperature at which the air attains saturation is known as its dew point.
It can be calculated using the following formula:
237.3 X
DP =
17.27 − X
where
 Vp 
X = ln  
 0.6105 
Density of unsaturated air (kg/m3): This can be calculated from the barometric pressure,
temperature and vapour pressure of the unsaturated air from the following formula:
P − 0.378V p
=
0.28704  (273.15 + t )
Specific volume (m3/kg): it is reciprocal of density.

0.28704  (273.15 + t )
Vm =
P − 0.378V p

Observation table:
Location Barometric Dry-bulb Wet-bulb Remarks
pressure (kPa) temperature, °C tempearture, °C

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 Experiment- 5
Aim: Determination of thermal properties of rock samples

Apparatus Required:-
• Transient plane source (TPS) sensors
• Hot disk TPS software
• Computer
Theory:
Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity or the thermal conductivity coefficient of a
material defines its ability to transfer heat. Consider an infinite plane wall of a certain material
with a thickness of one unit in length. The sides of the wall are maintained at constant
temperatures and the temperature difference is equal to 1 °C. Let us also assume that a sensor
can measure the amount of heat per unit of the area of the wall per unit of time. In this case the
amount of heat measured will be numerically equal to the thermal conductivity coefficient (k)
of the given material. The dimension of this quantity in SI is J m-1 s-1 K-1 or W m-1 K-1. The
amount of heat transferred through the wall (qA) is proportional to the area (A) and to ratio of
the temperature difference (ΔT) to the wall thickness (Δx). This statement is known as Fourier’s
law (or equation) of thermal diffusion. In the differential form, the Fourier law for a unit of area
may be expressed by the formula,
T
q = −
x
where q is the heat flow rate in the direction of x. The negative sign is due to the fact that heat
flows in the direction of lower temperatures.
Thermal Capacity: This parameter is defined as the amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit of the mass of a substance by 1°C. The specific heat indicates the
capability of the formations to store heat. The dimension of specific heat in the SI is: J/kg K.
Thermal Diffusivity: Under transient conditions this parameter determines how fast the
temperature field of a solid changes with time. The coefficient of thermal diffusivity (a) is
expressed by the formula

a=
c

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Types of method of measurement of the thermal conductivity

19
20
TPS Method
The Transient Plane Source (TPS) method is today arguably the most precise and convenient technique
for studying thermal transport properties. It is an absolute technique, yielding information on thermal
conductivity, thermal diffusivity as well as specific heat per unit volume of the material under study, in
accordance with ISO 22007-2.
The TPS method is based on the use of a transiently heated plane sensor, and is in its most common
adaptation referred to as the Hot Disk Thermal Constants Analyser. The Hot Disk sensor consists of an
electrically conducting pattern in the shape of a double spiral, which has been etched out of a thin
metal (Nickel) foil. This spiral is sandwiched between two thin sheets of an insulating material (Kapton,
Mica, etc.).

Hot Disk sensors with Kapton insulation (left) and Mica insulation (Middle) and Teflon (Right).
When performing a measurement, a plane Hot Disk sensor is fitted between two pieces of the sample
– each one with a plane surface facing the sensor. The sample pieces are clamped firmly together so
that there is no air gap between the sensor and the sample surfaces. Else, this might cause overheating
and damage the sensor during the experimental recording. By running an electrical current, strong
enough to increase the temperature of the sensor between a fraction of a degree up to several
degrees, and at the same time recording the resistance (temperature) increase as a function of time,
the Hot Disk sensor is used both as a heat source and as a dynamic temperature sensor.

21
Typical sample sizes are between 1 and 10 cm3 but can in special situations be reduced to 0.01 cm3.
The sample preparation is limited to the cutting of one plane surface on each one of the two sample
pieces. From what is said above it is important to note that the size of the flat sample surfaces should
be appreciably larger than the diameter of the Hot Disk sensor in order to allow for not too short a
transient recording.
Available Probing Depth: The relation between the probing depth and the total measuring time of
the experiment indicates that it is easier to make measurements on larger samples. In order to
determine both the thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity with good accuracy, the thickness of
a flat sample should not be less than the radius of the hot disk sensor. It is advised that the diameter
of the sample not be less than twice that of the sensor and that the thickness of the sample not be
less than the radius of the sensor). Hot Disk sensor with radii from approx. 3.2 to 15 mm. It is important
to realise that the shortest distance from the sensor to the outside sample surface defines the available
probing depth.

Minimum distance from sensor to boundary surface.

Description of the instrument

Hot Disk Transient Plane Source Technique:

• Absolute method for the measurement of thermal conductivity and thermal
diffusivity, with calculation of specific heat and thermal effusivity

22
 • No calibration required in order to make measurements
• No contact agent required between sensor and sample
• Thermal conductivity from 0.001 W/m•K up to 1800 W/m•K
• Temperatures from - 250 °C up to 1000 °C
TPS Testing Modules:
• Standard: for measurement of bulk thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of
isotropic solids, liquids, pastes and powders
• Anisotropic: for measurement of directionally-dependent (in-plane and
• through-plane) thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity
• Slab: for thin, highly thermally conducting materials
• Thin film: for measurement of coatings and stand-alone films
• 1-Dimensional: for 1D measurement of elongated materials like rods
• Specific Heat: direct measurement of specific heat
TPS Sensors:
• The TPS sensor is comprised of a planar 10 μm double nickel spiral covered on both
sides by a protective film (either Kapton, Mica or Teflon depending on the desired
temperature and application)
• Kapton: Up to 300 °C
• Mica: Up to 1000 °C
• Teflon: Acidic or corrosive environments
• Different radii sensors are available
• From left to right: Kapton, Mica, Teflon

Experimental Parameters
• An appropriate power output is chosen so as to raise the temperature of the
sample between 1 and 4 °C
• Highly thermally conductive materials will require higher power output than
thermally insulating materials
• A measurement time is chosen so as to allow the introduced heat to penetrate
some distance into the sample, but not reach the outer bounds of the sample
pieces
Two-Sided Experimental Sample Setup:
• The sensor is clamped in to the sample holder

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 • The bottom sample piece is placed on the adjustable plate, which is raised so the
bottom sample makes contact with the sensor
• The top sample piece is placed on top of the sensor and a light pressure is applied
to ensure good contact between sensor and sample

Single-Sided Experimental Sample Setup:

• A single-sided sensor is also available for use if two pieces of the same material cannot
be prepared
• A highly insulative, known backing material is used underneath the sensor to prevent
heat loss to the surroundings
• The sensor is spring-loaded to help ensure good contact between sensor and sample
and a weight is also placed on top of the sample to improve contact
• The sensor can also be placed upside down on a sample

Hot Disk Software (Hot Disk TPS7 software):

• Experiment parameters are entered on the input screen:
- Sample Identity
- Available Probing Depth: (Say, 8.40 mm)
- Sensor Type and Radius (Say, 3.189 mm Kapton Sensor and Grey cable (Max 50 °C))
- Measurement Temperature (say, sample temperature 21.4 °C)
- Measurement Time (say, 5 s)
- Heating Power (say, 200 mW)

24
Hot Disk TPS Software:
• Baseline temperature drift is monitored before the experiment and a correction is applied if
needed
• Temperature increase vs. time graph is plotted.

• 200 data points are collected for each transient measurement

• Some of these points near the start will be eliminated to remove the effect
of contact resistance between the sensor and sample

• Slope is plotted from the T increase vs. time graph, which gives thermal conductivity
• A residual plot is also included, which compares data to the curve fit, providing extra
confidence

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• Results are calculated and shown for each experimental run
• Guiding warnings are provided for Total to Characteristic Time and Total Temperature
Increase to ensure optimized parameters are used. A yellow or red warning means that the
parameter was slightly off (yellow) or significantly off (red). Simple power and time
adjustments can then be made.

Characteristic time is the square of radius of the sensor divided by the thermal diffusivity of
the material.

Experiment- 6
Analysis of mine gases using Gas Chromatograph

Aim: - To analyse the mine gases using gas chromatograph.

Description of gas chromatography

Gas chromatography is an analytical method of separating, identifying and estimating
quantitatively mixtures of gases. In this method, the sample of gas mixture is passed in a stream
of carrier gas through a tube (the chromatographic column) containing an adsorbent, which
selectively retards the flow of the various components of the gas mixture. The column contains

26
the stationary phase (e.g. polysiloxane material), which is coated on the interior walls of a
tubular column with a small inner diameter. The components in the sample get separated on the
column because they take different amounts of time to travel through the column depending on
how strongly they interact with the stationary phase.
Sample injection port
• The injection port is heated at 200 °C in order to volatilize the sample. Once in the gas
phase, the sample is carried into the column by the carrier gas, typically Helium (at flow
rate of 0.5 mL/min). The carrier gas is also called as mobile phase.
Carrier gas pressure and flows
• H2 (to FID detector) = 60 kPa
• Air (to FID detector) = 50 kPa
• N2 (make-up gas) = 60 - 70 kPa
• He (carrier gas) = 0.5 mL/min
Temperatures
• Column = 100 °C
• Injector = 200 °C
• Detector = 200 °C
Types of coulmns
• These rea made of stainless steel or glass.
• The commonly used film thickness in gas chromatography columns ranges from 0.1 to
5 µm
Packed column (1.5 – 10 m in length & 2-4 mm id):
• Stationary phase is directly coated in the column and it is having short length and high
internal diameter
• Packed columns are more durable, have higher sample capacity (sample load), more
phase selectivity, and has lower cost.
• The disadvantages are larger amounts of bleed (i.e. the escape of fluid or gas from a
closed system through a valve), smaller number of theoretical plates/efficiency (i.e.
separating power for similar compound is much low) and particle loss into the detector.
Capillary column (10 – 100 m in length & 0.1 -0.5 mm id):
• Stationary phase is coated with the inner wall of the column and it is having high length
and low internal diameter.
• Capillary columns have the advantage of larger theoretical plate
numbers/efficiency/higher resolution.
• They excel at low ppm to ppt level analysis.
• Typical sample loading ranges around 10 ng for 0.1mm id columns to up to 2000 ng for
0.53 mm id columns.
• Longer column provides greater resolution of sample components. However, increasing
column length increases analysis time.

27
The various components of the gas mixture emerge from the column as bands separated by
zones of the carrier gas and the composition is sensed by a detector which records the changes
in composition against time on a chart. Difference in thermal conductivity of the separated
component gas and the carrier gas is the most commonly adopted sensing property, but
hydrocarbon gases which can burn in a flame can be detected with a far greater accuracy in a
flame ionization detector (FID).

28
Integrating recorder: The output of the detector, where the current is converted into voltage,
is sent to an integrating recorder that plots, stores and analyses the data.
The detector voltage (y-axis) is plotted as a function of time (x-axis). Each peak corresponds to a
separate component. The time it takes for a given peak to appear after injection is called the
retention time (i.e. the characteristic time taken by a particular analyte to pass from the column inlet
to the detector). If the column conditions are kept constant, the retention time for each component
is quite reproducible from one sample and injection to the next. The identity of each peak can be
determined by injecting pure samples of the individual components of the mixture and noting their
retention times.

Terms
Chromatogroph:- An equipment that enables sophisticated separation of gas or liquid.
Analyte:- The substance that is to be separated during chromatography.
29
Bonded phase:- A stationary phase that is covalently bonded to the inside wall of the column
tubing.
Chromatogram:- The visual output of the chromatograph is known as chromatogram.
Different peaks or patterns on the chromatographs corresponds to different components of the
separated mixture.
Retention Time: - The characteristic time taken by a particular analyte to pass from the column
inlet to the detector.
Mobile Phase: - The phase which move in definite direction may be liquid or gas. It consists
of the sample being separated, analyzed & the solvent that moves the sample through
chromatography column.
Stationary Phase: - The substance fixed in place of column tubing.
Sample: - The matter analyzed in chromatography. It may consist of a single component or a
mixture of compound. Generally a chromatograph is composed of.
Carrier gas supply
Sample inlet
Column
Carrier gas supply:- A mobile phase, an inert gas is used, which is delivered by a gas generator
or a gas cylinders. The most common carrier gases are N2, H2 & He. These inert gases should
have high purity & thermal conductivity.
Sample injection part:- The most common injection method is that where a microsyringe is
used to inject sample through a rubber septum in a flask vaporizer part the heads of the column.
This injector can be used in one of the 2 modes split or splitless. This injector contains a heated
chamber containing a glass liner in which sample is injected through the septum.
Column: In the column, the components of the gas mixture are separated. The column contains
the stationary phase. Gas chromatography columns are of two types i.e. packed and capillary.
Capillary columns are those in which the stationary phase is coated on the interior walls of a
tubular column with a small inner diameter. The components in the sample get separated on the
column because they take different amounts of time to travel through the column depending on
how strongly they interact with the stationary phase.
Detector: It comprises of thermal conductivity cells having elements of heated wires or
thermistors. If the column conditions are chosen correctly, the components in the sample will
exit the column. The flame ionization detectors (FID) are commonly used in gas
chromatographs for analysis of organic samples.

30
 Experiment- 7
Plotting of fan characteristic curves

Plotting of fan characteristic curves

Aim: To plot the fan characteristic curves.

Fan characteristic curves

The performance of a fan under various conditions can’t be expressed by simple mathematical
equations but is most conveniently expressed by a series of curves known as characteristic
curves showing the variations in head developed by the brake horse power of the drive motor
and the efficiency of the fan on the basis of volume passing through the fan for a constant fan
speed and air density.

A fan characteristic curve is a curve which shows how the magnitude of one quantity varies
with changes in some other related quantity. In case of a fan for every speed, a set of curves can
be drawn to show variation of fan-drift pressure, B.H.P. of the prime-mover and mechanical
efficiency of the fan with changes in volume of air. These curves are indicative of the
performance or the characteristic of the fan and hence, are referred as the ‘characteristic curves’
of that particular fan.

Sometimes the term “fan characteristic” is used to denote the first (pressure-volume curve) of
the set of these curves.

Uses:

• To assess the efficiency of construction of a fan.

• To compare two or more fans.
• To choose the most efficient fan for a given mine resistance.
• To anticipate changes in performance of a fan with changes in mine resistance.
• To choose a prime-mover of suitable H.P. and type.
• To detect leakage through airlocks.
• To know the performance of a combination of fan in series or in parallel, by
compounding curves of individual fans.

Types of fan

• Centrifugal fan: It utilises the centrifugal force of rotating mass of air to produce the
pressure required for causing airflow.
• Axial flow fan: It pushes the air forward in the direction parallel to the axis of the fan
without changing the direction of air current.

31
Saddle shaped

Overloading

Mine characteristic curves

• Mine characteristic curve is a curve showing the pressure-quantity relationship of the

mine (with a particular resistance).
• It is the curve of the equation P = RQ2, where R is the resistance of the mine.
• If the resistance of the mine changes, mine characteristic changes.
• Mine characteristic by itself is not of sufficient use.
• Only when it is superimpose on fan characteristic curves, one gets an idea of pressure
that the fan would produce, quantity that it will deliver, and suitability and efficiency of
the fan for that stage of the mine.

32
 • Just as the main fan characteristic curve is a pressure volume (P-V) curve showing the
relationship between (a) the effective fan-drift w.g. produced by a fan and (b) the
volume of air delivered by it at constant speed as the equivalent orifice increases (or the
mine resistance decreases), so mine characteristic curve is one showing the relationship
between fan-drift w.g. and the volume of air flowing in a mine of given equivalent
orifice (or the mine resistance) and based on P = RQ2 .

Fan operating point

• System characteristic curve will be superimposed on fan characteristic curve. Both the
curves will be plotted to the same scale on the graph paper.
• Pressure and volume of air will be noted from the point of intersection of the system
characteristic curve with the pressure-volume curve of the fan, i.e. operating point.
• Performance of the fan will be predicted based on the pressure and volume of air
obtained from the operating point.

Figure: System and fan operating point

Fans in series and parallel

Figure shows the characteristic curves for fans in series and in parallel. In this figure; XY, ZY
and XW indicate the characteristic curve of a single centrifugal fan, series characteristic and
parallel characteristic respectively, whereas RA, RB and RC indicate a mine of high, medium
and low resistance respectively. The series characteristic ZY is obtained from the single fan
characteristic and is such that the pressure generated by two fans in series for any given volume
of air flowing is twice that for the same air flow through a single fan. The parallel characteristic
XW is plotted on the basis that the quantity of air flowing with two fans in parallel is twice that
for the same pressure with a single fan.

From the figure, it can been seen that with a single fan; the operating point of the fan is
at D in the case of mine RA, H in the case of mine RB and K in the case of mine RC.

33
 Fans in Series RA (High Resistance)

Z RB (Medium Resistance) RC (Low

E
Resistanc
e)
Single Fan Characteristic
Pressure

F
X D J
Fans in Parallel
H
M

K
L
W
Y
Air Flow
Fig. 1

Fans in parallel

When the operating point moves from D to F in mine RA, both pressure developed and quantity
flowing remain almost unaltered. In mine RB; if the operating point moves from H to J, the
pressure developed is about 1.35 times that of a single fan and the quantity of air flowing is

34
increased by less than 20%. The same results can also be obtained in case of fan in series in
mine RB. In mine RC; if the operating point moves from K to M, the air quantity is now more
than doubled due to the fans operating at a higher efficiency under new conditions and the
quantity of air flowing is increased by about 50%.
Fans in series
In mine RA, the operating point of the fan moves from D to E and this shows that the pressure
developed by the two fans is about 1.8 times that of a single fan and the quantity of air flowing
is increased by more than 30%. In mine RB; when the operating point moves from H to J, the
pressure developed is about 1.35 times that of a single fan and the quantity of air flowing is
increased by less than 20%. In mine RC; if the operating point moves from K to L, the variations
of pressure developed and the quantity of air flowing are observed to be negligible.
Conclusions
• In a mine of high resistance, the series arrangement gives a considerable increase in
quantity of air flowing, while the parallel one gives a negligible increase or a decrease
depending on the shape of the fan characteristic curve in some cases.
• In a mine of medium resistance, both the series and parallel give the same result.
• In a mine of low resistance, where the single fan is operating at a very low efficiency
on an unsuitable part of its characteristic curve. At this mine, the series arrangement
gives a negligible increase in quantity, while the parallel one gives a significant increase
in quantity. Thus, the parallel arrangement should be preferred in a mine of low
resistance.

35
 Experiment-8
Aim: Determination of airborne respirable dust concentration using Real-time Aerosol
Monitor (Model: RAM 1).
Apparatus Required: Real-time Aerosol Monitor (Model: RAM 1)
Theory:
The RAM-1 is a portable, self-contained aerosol dust monitor whose sensing principle is based
on the detection of near forward scattered electromagnetic radiation in the near-infrared. The
instrument uses a pulsed gas as semiconductor light emitting diode which generate a narrow-
band emission centered on 940 nm. The scattered radiation is detected by means of silicon
photo-voltaic-type diode with integral low noise preamplifier.

Signal processing is performed by employing a lock -in synchronous scheme which allows for
continuous cancellation of detector and electronic circuitry drift and noise. The standard
instrument is supplied with three selectable ranges (0-2, 20, 200 mg/m3) to allow for high
resolution over a concentrated range of five decades. Further read out flexibility is obtained
through four selectable time constant (0.5, 2.8, and 32 second); thus, the operator has complete
control over both the range and speed of response.

The concentration data are continually displayed by a three and one half digit liquid crystal
displayed. Included in the display are two diagnostics to alert the operator; a flashing "K" on
the right hand side of the display indicates that the reference scatterer is inserted, and a flashing
"VDC" indicates a low battery voltage. An analog voltage (0-10 VDC) output proportional to
the concentration is also available for strip chart recording, data logging and /or telemetry.

The flow system employs a diaphragm pump to produce the desired sampling flow of 2
liters/minute. A secondary clean air steam of 0.2 liters/minute provide continuous flushing of
filtered air over all critical optical surface. Also during a zero check, the entire inlet air flow is
filtered to effect a self-cleaning of the optical sensing chamber. The flowmeter are provided to
allow foe continuous monitoring of the total and filtered flows. All filter cartridges are readily
accessible and require no disassembly for replacement.

The instrument is designed to operate continuously for about 6 to 8 hours after its internal
battery has been fully charged. A separate charger is provided with which the RAm-1 can
operate indefinitely from the AC line.

36
 Figure: Photographs and schematic diagram of Real-time Aerosol Monitor (Model: RAM 1)
Measurement of airborne respirable dust concentration: The real-time Aerosol monitor
(Model: RAM 1) directly measures the respirable dust concentration on real-time basis spot
reading in following ranges:

1. 0 to 2 mg/m3
2. 2 to 20 mg/m3
3. 20 to 200 mg/m3.
Observation Table:

Sl. No. Sample Dust concentration, mg/m3

37
 Experiment-9
Determination of noise level using Noise Level Meter.

Aim: To determine the noise level using noise level monitor.

Apparatus Required: Sound level meter
Background
Noise is defined as a sound without agreeable musical quality or as an unwanted sound. It is
generated from all the opencast and underground mining operations from almost different fixed,
mobile and impulsive sources; thereby becoming an integral part of mining environment.
Increased mechanization brought in use of large and high capacity equipment. This increased
the magnitude of the problem of noise in mines. Prolonged exposure of miners to high levels
of noise can cause auditory and non-auditory health effects. Before initiating any
administrative, engineering and medical measures against the noise hazards, noise surveys are
essential. They help in identifying the noise pollution sources and quantifying the risk exposure
of workers. Effective anti-noise measures can be accordingly formulated and implemented,
thereafter.
Basic terminology of noise
i. Sound and Noise
Sound is what we hear through our ear out of which noise is unwanted sound. Sound is a form
of energy which is emitted by a vibrating body which on reaching the ear causes sensation of
hearing through nerves. Sounds produced by all vibrating bodies are not audible. The frequency
limits of audibility are from 20 Hz to 20 KHz. A noise problem generally consists of three inter-
related elements- the source, the receiver and the transmission path. This transmission path is
usually the atmosphere through which the sound is propagated, but can include the structural
materials of any building containing the receiver.
Noise may be continuous or intermittent. Noise may be of high frequency or of low frequency
which is undesired for a normal hearing. The discrimination and differentiation between sound
and noise also depends upon the habit and interest of the person/species receiving it, the ambient
conditions and impact of the sound generated during that particular duration of time.
ii. Decibel
The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit of measurement that expresses the magnitude of a
physical quantity (usually power or intensity) relative to a specified or implied reference level.
Since it expresses a ratio of two quantities with the same unit, it is a dimensionless unit. A
decibel is one tenth of a bel, a seldom-used unit. The decibel can be expressed as:
Decibel = 10 log (P / Pref)
Where, P = signal power (W)
Pref = reference power (W)

iii. Sound Power Level

Sound power is the energy rate - the energy of sound per unit of time (J/s, W in SI-units) from
a sound source. Sound power can be expressed as a relation to the threshold of hearing - 10-12
W - in a logarithmic scale named Sound Power Level - Lw:
Lw = 10 log (N / No)
Where, Lw = Sound Power Level in Decibel
N = sound power (W)

38
The lowest sound level that people of excellent hearing can discern has an acoustic sound Power
about 10-12 W, 0 dB. The loudest sound generally encountered is that of a jet aircraft with a
sound power of 105 W, 170 dB.
iv. Sound Intensity Level
Sound Intensity is the Acoustic or Sound Power (W) per unit area. The SI-units for Sound
Intensity is W/m2. The Sound Intensity Level can be expressed as:
LI = 10 log (I / Iref )
Where LI = sound intensity level (dB),
I = sound intensity (W/m2),
Iref = 10-12 reference sound intensity (W/m2)
v. Sound Pressure Level
Sound pressure converted to the decibel scale is called sound pressure level (Lp). The zero of
the decibel scale (0 dB) is the sound pressure of 0.00002 Pa. This means that 0.00002 Pa is
the reference sound pressure to which all other sound pressures are compared on the dB scale.
This is the reason the decibels of sound are often indicated as dB re 0.00002 Pa. The SI-units
for the Sound Pressure are N/m2 or Pa
The Sound Pressure Level:
Lp = 10 log( p2 / pref2 ) = 10 log( p / pref )2 = 20 log ( p / pref )
Where Lp = sound pressure level (dB)
p = sound pressure (Pa)
pref = 2 × 10-5 - reference sound pressure (Pa)
If the pressure is doubled, the sound pressure level is increased with 6 dB (20 log (2)).
vi. A-weighted decibels
Sensitivity of the human ear to sound depends on the frequency or pitch of the sound. Some people
hear some frequencies better than others. If a person hears two sounds of the same sound pressure
but different frequencies, one sound may appear louder than the other. This occurs because people
hear high frequency noise much better than low frequency noise.
Noise measurement readings can be adjusted to correspond to this peculiarity of human hearing. An
A-weighting filter which is built into the instrument de-emphasizes low frequencies or pitches.
Decibels measured using this filter are A-weighted and are called dB(A). Legislation on workplace
noise normally gives exposure limits in dB (A). A-weighting serves two important purposes:
• Gives a single number measure of noise level by integrating sound levels at all frequencies
• Gives a scale for noise level as experienced or perceived by the human ear.
vii. Frequency analysis
It is measuring noise level at each frequency or pitch. Frequency analysis is not required when
the purpose of noise measurement is to assess compliance with regulatory exposure limits or to
assess risk of hearing loss. For such purposes the A-weighted noise level in dB (A), percent
noise dose or time-weighted average (TWA) equivalent sound level is sufficient. The frequency
analysis is usually needed only for the selection of appropriate engineering control methods.
Sometimes it is necessary to determine the actual frequency distribution of the noise. A detailed
frequency analysis is called narrow band analysis. In this method the entire audible frequency
range is divided into frequency windows of fixed width of a few hertz and noise level is
measured in dB units at each of these frequency windows. Narrow band analysis is normally
not needed for workplace noise. Such analysis is used for engineering measurements. For
workplace noise we need octave band analysis.
Octave bands are identified by their centre frequency. The band width increases as the centre
frequency increases. The audible sound frequency range (approximately 20 to 20,000 Hz) has

39
been divided into 11 octave bands for this purpose. An octave band filter set can be attached to
an SLM to measure the sound level in each octave band.
Work Place Noise Standards
DGMS Circular No.18 (Tech), 1975 A warning limit of 85-dB (A) may be set as the level below
which very little risk to an unprotected ear of hearing impairment exists for an eight-hour
exposure.
• The danger limit value shall be 90-dB (A) above which the danger of hearing impairment
and deafness may result from an unprotected ear.
• A worker should not be allowed to enter, without appropriate ear protection, an area in
which the noise level is 115-dB (A) or more.
• Personal protective equipment shall be worn, if there are single isolated outbursts of noise,
which can go above 130-dB (A) "Impulse", or 120-dB (A) "Fast". ¨ No worker shall be
allowed to enter an area where noise level exceeds 140-dB (A).
Sound Level Meter (SLM)

A Sound level meter is the simplest instrument available to determine noise levels. The meter
usually contains the following basic elements:
• A microphone to sense the sound-wave pressure and convert pressure fluctuations into an
electrical voltage,
• An input amplifier to raise the electrical signal to a usable level,
• A weighting network to modify the frequency characteristics of the instruments,
• An output amplifier,
• A rectifier to determine the RMS value, and
• An indicating instrument to display the measured sound level.
Uses:
• The SLM must be calibrated before and after each use.
• With most SLMs, the readings can be taken on either SLOW ‘S’ (1 second) or FAST ‘F’
(125 millisecond) response. The response rate is the time period over which the instrument
averages the sound level before displaying it on the readout.
• Workplace noise level measurements should be taken on SLOW response. Impulse ‘I’
characteristics (35 millisecond) and peak-hold features (hold noise readings of F, S and I)
are sometimes provided as special features.

40
 • To take measurements, the SLM should be held at arm's length at the ear height for those
exposed to the noise. With most SLMs it does not matter exactly how the microphone is
pointed at the noise source.
Fast, Slow, Impulse Time Weighting
Sound levels are measured by detecting the changes in air pressure created by the sound. These
Sound Pressure Levels (SPLs) fluctuate quite quickly with common sound sources such as music,
speech or environmental noise. Reading the sound level in real time on a display is difficult due to
these quick level changes. SPL Meters thus dampen their reaction to sudden changes, creating a
more smoothed display. This process is called Time Weighting.
Fast, Slow Time Weightings
The IEC 61672-1 standard describes two different time weightings, Fast (F) and Slow (S). They
both dampen the reaction of the displayed level to a sudden change in the sound level. Fast reacts
quicker than Slow. If for instance in a quiet environment a loud, constant sound is suddenly switched
ON, the 'F' weighted level display would take approximately 0.6 seconds to reach the new level,
while the 'S' weighted level display would reach the new level only after approx. 5 seconds. These
values are given by the time constants for the 'F' (t = 125 ms) and the 'S' weighting (t = 1 s), which
are defined in the standard. When the sound is suddenly switched OFF, the displayed 'F' level decays
at a rate of 34.7 dB/s, while the displayed 'S' level decays at a rate of 4.3 dB/s.
Example of F, S weighting
The following sketch shows such a sudden event and the behavior of the displayed Fast and Slow
levels.

Impulse Time Weighting

The old superseded IEC 651 standard also included the Impulse (I) Time Weighting, which was
intended for the analysis of short impulses. In contrast to 'F' and 'S', the 'I' time weighting is
asymmetric, i.e. it adapts very quickly to a rising slope (t = 35 ms), while it decays very slowly after
a level drop (2.9 dB/s).

41
 Experiment-10
Determination of illumination level in underground using Lux meter.

Aim: To determine the illumination level in underground using Lux meter.

Apparatus required: Lux meter
Background:
Mine illumination refers to the lighting up of the mine. Surface mines are sufficiently
illuminated by the sun in the day times but needs to be provided with some artificial illumination
during the night times. But in case of an underground mine artificial illumination is required
right from the starting of the mine till its closure. Illumination system in underground mines
must be designed to be either “intrinsically safe” or “explosion proof” due to presence of
inflammable gases causing underground explosion. An intrinsically safe light source is one in
which the current feeding the light has very little energy so that any short in the circuit will not
produce a spark which can ignite the methane gas. In an explosion proof lamp, any explosion
triggered by the lamp’s electrical activity will be contained within the device. In addition, the
device itself will not become hot enough to cause an explosion.
In fact any mining task can be performed quickly, safely, and accurately, if the working
field is clearly visible and the miner has the skills and desire to do the job.
Visual performance = Task Visibility + Human Factor
Task visibility depends on four measured variables. These are:
• The size and detail to be seen
• The time available for seeing the task
• The luminance and colour contrasts between the task and its background.
• The average luminance to which the eye adapts when viewing the task.

In any underground mine the first two parameters are not in our control, whereas the last two
parameters can be altered wisely by having a good understanding of glare and its effect on task
visibility. Glare reduces the task contrast and causes the eye to adapt to a higher luminance
level than necessary. Other factors like emotional state, fatigue, motivation, job training, and
health should be considered in the human factor of the visual performance. Safety and
production are adversely affected by irritation and fatigue, caused by glare. Glare is classified
into discomfort glare and disability glare. Discomfort glare increases eye fatigue, causes
distraction, and generally plays havoc with the human factor. Disability Glare reduces the task
visibility.

1. Discomfort Glare
At higher luminance levels, task visibility is not affected but the human factor will be
influenced because of the discomfort experienced due to the sudden increase in light. This
discomfort ranges from a slight wincing (slight involuntary shrinking movement of the eye out
of pain or distress) reaction to acute pain when exposed to very bright lighting. Discomfort
glare increases with the luminance of the glare source, increases with the number of glare
sources in the field of view, decreases as the angle of the source from the observer’s line of
sight increases, and is reduced if glare source is seen in bright surroundings. Discomfort glare
is further divided into two types – saturation glare and contrast glare.
1.1.Saturation glare: Saturation glare refers to a situation where the visual field’s brightness
is beyond the limit of the eye’s adaptation ability thus causing irritation. As we know that

42
 underground mines are completely dark, this type of glare is completely ruled out in the
underground mines.
1.2.Contrast glare: Contrast glare, which is most common in the underground mines, occurs
when the luminances of the objects we intend to see are within the eye’s adaptation limit,
but the light source in the visual field has a luminance higher than the eye’s adaptation state.
2. Disability Glare:
The task visibility is directly affected by the disability glare, which ultimately results in the
visual performance getting affected. It increases with the age of the eye and decreases as the
angle from the glare source to the line of sight increases. It depends mainly on the illuminance
from the glare source falling on the eye, and decreases with the distance from the glare source.
Disability glare is sub-divided into two parts, i.e. veiling brightness and successive glare.
2.1 Veiling brightness: Veiling brightness is resulted from the scattering of light from the glare
source, which results in a loss of contrast perception. Thus in order to obtain the normal level
of visibility when veiling brightness is present, the task contrast should be increased and if the
veiling brightness is removed then the task returns to full visibility.
2.2 Successive glare: Successive glare or transient adaption is resulted by the neural response
in retina, which causes a shift in the eye’s adaptation state or luminous sensitivity range.
Increasing the task luminance can minimize successive glare. Since the eye takes some time to
adjust and readapt to the normal conditions, it is characterized by a continuous loss of seeing
efficiency even after the glare source is removed.
Basic terminologies of photometry
1. Luminous Flux: Luminous flux describes the total amount of light emitted by a light
source. The amount of light emitted by a light source is the luminous flux Φ and its unit
is lumen (lm).
2. Luminous Efficacy: Luminous efficacy is defined as the luminous flux of a lamp in
relation to its power consumption and is therefore expressed in lumen per watt (lm/W).
Luminous efficacy varies from light source to light source.
3. Luminous Intensity: An ideal point-source radiates luminous flux uniformly into the
space in all directions. This result partly from the design of the light source and partly
on the way light is intentionally directed, therefore, to have a way of presenting the
spatial distribution of luminous flux, i.e. the luminous intensity distribution of the light
source. The unit for measuring luminous intensity is candela (cd).
4. Illuminance: Illuminance is the amount of luminous flux from a light source falling on
a given area and can be determined from the luminous intensity of the light source.
Illuminance decreases with the square of the distance from the light source (inverse
square law). The unit for measurement is lux.
5. Luminance: Luminance is defined as the ratio of luminous intensity of a surface (cd)
to the projected area of the surface (m2).

LAWS OF ILLUMINATION
1. Lambert’s Cosine Law: Lambert's cosine law states that the luminous intensity observed
from an ideal diffused reflecting surface is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle θ
between the observer's line of sight and the surface normal. The representation of Lamberts
Cosine Law is illustrated in the Fig. 2.1.

43
 Representation of Lambert’s Cosine Law

2. Inverse Square Law:

A problem common in lighting system design is determining the illumination on surfaces at
various distances from a light source. This can be handled using the inverse square law. The
equation relates illumination, intensity, and the distance between the source and light receiving
surface is known as the inverse square law, given as:
E= I/D2
Where E is illuminance, I is Luminous Intensity and D is the distance between the source and
light receiving surface. It enables illumination of a surface to be calculated if the intensity of
the light source and the distance between the light source and the surface are known.
The assumption made in the inverse square law is light as a point source. A second assumption
inherent in the inverse square law is that the surface area is perpendicular to the direction of
light flow. When this is not the case, the inverse square law can be combined with the cosine
law given as follows:
E= Enormal × cosθ = I cosθ / D2

Lux meter

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 Experiment-11
Aim: Computer simulation of ventilation network.
Apparatus Required: Ventsim software

Simulation Functions

Airflow Simulation ( )
Performs an airflow simulation on the model data.
Ventsim DESIGN™ has two options for running Airflow Simulations: the Matrix solver and
the Sequential solver. Each solver can be run by choosing it from the dropdown list of the
Airflow simulation button. Ventsim will remember the selection and use the chosen solver in
subsequent Airflow, Heat, Contaminant and Dynamic simulations.
Sequential solver: The Sequential solver uses the Hardy-Cross method to calculate the mine
network airflows. This solver is the same solver used in previous versions of Ventsim.
Matrix solver: The Matrix solver is a new solver option in Ventsim DESIGN™. In contrast to
the Sequential solver, it uses a matrix equation to solve the equations for airflow
simultaneously.
In the majority of mine networks - particularly large models - the new Matrix solver should
solve noticably faster than the Sequential solver.
The two solvers will solve for the same network and design inputs, but since they use different
numerical methods, some small differences in results between the two solvers are to be
expected, particularly where compressible flows are enabled.

Heat Simulation ( )
Performs a thermodynamic simulation on the model data
Model Environmental Settings
While VentSim DESIGN™ analysis automatically considers heat from strata, autocompression
and fans, the correct base assumptions or ‘environmental’ factors must be first entered in the
VentSim model settings to establish the conditions in which the mine is being simulated. See
the Settings > Simulation – Environment section for further details.
User Inputs
All direct user specified heat into airways is entered via the EDIT box > HEAT. The most
common user heat input source will be diesel heat or sensible (dry) heat, however the user can
also input latent (water vapour) heat, refrigeratiion and oxidisation if applicable. In addition,
the temperature of the air at a location can be specifically fixed to match actual data, or to
provide simulated feedback from VentSim DESIGN™ on what is required to achieve such
temperatures.

Contaminant Simulation ( )
Performs a steady state contaminant simulation on the model data. Contaminant sources
or flag must be present in the model to work. Three different types of contaminant simulations

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are available from the sub menu pull down (arrow to the right of the icon). See the Contaminant
Menu bar for more information.

Example 1
An underground mine is to be designed from near the base of an open pit that is 100m deep. A
decline will extend down some 140m below the pit floor, travelling adjacent to a sub vertical
orebody. Three drilling / production sub levels will branch off the main decline every 40 vertical
metres, starting at 60m below the pit floor. Main production will be from the bottom two levels.
A ventilation shaft some 400m away (outside the pit boundary) extends from the mine base to
the surface, connecting all sub levels. An exhaust fan on the shaft will need to pull 150m3/s to
supply the mines production needs. Fresh air is supplied to the mine via the main decline.
1. Conceptually design a mine ventilation model incorporating the three simple sub levels.
Ensure air is
supplied equally to each level.
2. Due to power restrictions, main exhaust fan power must not exceed 300kW. What diameter
shaft
should be mined?
3. Emergency plans require stench gas to be delivered from the decline portal to all parts of the
mine. What is the maximum time for the stench gas to be delivered to all areas of the mine?

Suggested Steps

4. Select the toolbar ADD function , and set the view to Plan.
5. Establish an initial working elevation by using the Set Edit Centre function under the View menu.

Figure: Set the starting edit location

Figure: Enter the starting elevation of the drawing (edit) plane

6. Draw a decline loop, using the Construct Ramp function in VentSim

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 Figure: Construct an initial ramp decline
8. From the ramp base, use the ADD button (looks like a pencil) to draw horizontal airways across to a
‘shaft’ location. Add some additional detail if you like.

Figure: Draw horizontal airways from the ramp base

9. To create a shaft, the easiest way is to CLICK the end of the airway while in the drawing ADD mode. This will allow the
coordinate or offset of the shaft to be entered. For example, to create a 200m high shaft, simply enter ‘200’ as the Z offset.

Figure: Construct a shaft to the surface

10. To create additional sublevels, simply draw new airways across from the ramp to the shaft.

Figure: Draw multiple levels for the mine

11. Edit the shaft airways and set them to a required size. Label the airway, and set the airflow as a fixed airflow to the desired
amount of 150m3/s. Ensure the airway has the ‘Surface Connection’ checked. Click on the top decline ramp airway, and
also ensure the ‘Surface Connection’ is checked. Click on Air Simulation to ensure everything works correctly.

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12. Click on the sublevel entries to the exhaust shaft. Use the RESTRICT ONLY function to
set the 1st and 2nd sublevel airflows to 50m3/s. The lower sublevel will automatically simulate
to 50 m3/s to balance the 150m3/s total airflow into the shaft. Clicking on the Edit Box info will
show the required resistance to produce this airflow.
13. If you need to estimate a regulator size from the fixed flow restriction, click the ‘?’ next to
the RESTRICT ONLY function to recommend a size. Accepting this size will replace the fixed
flow with an orifice regulator. This is normally not recommended until the design process is
finished as flow will continue to change.

Figure: Converting a Fixed Flow to an Orifice

14. Adjust the shaft diameter until the required power constraints are met. Ensure you simulate the model between each
adjustment. In this case, a shaft size of 2.5m was found to produce the desired result. The required duty point is 921Pa Collar
Total Fan pressure, 150m3/s with a fan motor size of 273kW and an electrical power consumption of 287kW.

Figure: Use the Edit – Info to view airway flow, pressure and power

15. To perform a stench gas simulation, place a contaminant in the upper decline with the Edit
Box. Set the contaminant to a strength of 100, and run the contaminant simulation. The colour
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display will initially show a strength of 100 is spread all through the mine, which is to be
expected as the decline is the only source of fresh air. Change the Display Manager to show
‘Spread Time’. The lower corner will show spread times of up to 600 seconds or around 10
minutes.

Figure: Colouring showing contamination spread time in seconds

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