General Histology Lec

Reviewer:

M4 L1 Integumentary System

Integumentary system- Is an organ system consisting of skin and its

accessory parts namely hair, nails, and exocrine glands.

The skin is the largest single organ of the body, typically accounting for
15%-20% of total body weight, and, in adults, presenting 1.5m2 of surface to
the external environment.

Functions of Integumentary System

● Sensation
● Heat regulation
● Absorption
● Protection
● Excretion
● Storage

Layer of skin

1. Epidermis -a continuously proliferating stratified squamous epithelium

which produces a non-living surface layer of the protein, keratin, which
is in direct contact with the external environment and is constantly
shed.

2. Dermis-a layer of fibrocollagenous and elastic tissue which contains

blood vessels, nerves and sensory receptors.

3. Subcutis or hypodermis-the deepest layer of skin which is mainly

adipose tissue, but also contains the larger vessels which supply and
drain the dermal blood vasculature.
Cell of epidermis

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that give rise to keratinocytes.

Stem cell are also found in the deepest layer of the epidermis

● Keratinocyte make up the majority of epidermal cells and synthesize

keratin
● Melanocytes are only found in the deepest layer and have touch
receptors associated with dermal nerve fibers.

Tactile cells are found in the deepest layer and have touch receptors
associated with dermal nerve fibers.
Dendritic cells are macrophages like and migrated from bone marrow, they
guard against toxins, microbes and others pathogens.
Langerhans cell
- It recognized phagocytose, and process foreign antigen and the
present them to T lymphocytes for an immune response. Thus, these
cells function as antigen- presenting cells (APCs) and are part of the
immunologic defense of the skin.

Merkel cells
- Are found in the stratum basale layer of the epidermis and are most
abundant in the fingertips.
- Merkel cells function as mechanoreceptor for cutaneous sensation.

Friction Blister
- Is a soft pocket of raised skin filled with clear fluid caused by irritation
from continuous rubbing or pressure.
- It usually occurs on the feet , where tight or poor -fitting shoes can rub
and irritate delicate toes and heels for a long period of time.
Corns and Calluses
- Are hard and painful areas of skin that often develop on the feet in
response to pressure or friction.
- Thick , hardened layers of skin that develop in the skin tries to protect
itself against friction and pressure.

Selected disorder of integumentary system

 ● Psoriasis
- It is a skin condition characterized by the extra skin cells that
form scales and red patches which are itchy and sometimes
painful
- This results from the rapid build up of skin due to speed up the
life cycle of skin cells.

Layer of Dermis

- The dermis is the part of skin also known as corium. It is consist of two
layers: The papillary and reticular layer

● Papillary Layer
- This layer is made of loose, areolar connective tissue, its
superficial layer projects into the stratum basale of the
dermis to form finger - like dermal papillae.

● Reticular layer
- This is the much thicker layer of dermis consisting of dense ,
irregular connective tissue. This layer is well vascularized and has
a rich sensor and sympathetic nerve supply .The reticular layer
appears reticulated (net -like) due to a tight meshwork of fibers.

Arterio- Venous anastomoses ( AVAs)

- Are direct connections between small arteries and small veins. In
human they are numerous in the glabrous skin of hand and feet.

Terms Related to Integumentary System as a diagnostic clue

● CYANOSIS
- It refers to a bluish cast to the skin and mucous membranes.
-Peripheral cyanosis is when there is a bluish discoloration to your
hands or feet. It's usually caused by low oxygen levels in the red blood
cells or problems getting oxygenated blood to your body

● Jaundice
 - The skin and whites of the eyes look yellow. Jaundice occurs
when there is too much bilirubin( a yellow pigment) in the blood-
a condition called hyperbilirubinemia.

● Erythema
- It came from the Greek erythros, meaning red.
- It is redness of the skin or mucous membranes caused by
hyperemia (increase blood flow) in superficial capillaries. It
occurs with any skin injury, infection, or inflammation.
Levels of Burn

1. First degree burns - also known as “ superficial burn” characterized by

redness, minor swelling , pain and non- blistering skin.
2. Second degree burns- More serious because the damage extends
beyond the top layer of skin, with blisters and some thickening skin.
3. Third - degree burns- widespread thickness with a white, leathery
appearance.

Selected disorder of integumentary system

● Albinism- It is a genetic disorder that affects the color of skin, hair due
to inability to produce melanin.
● Stretch marks - are long , narrow streaks, stipes, or lines that develop
on the skin. They occur when the skin is suddenly stretched and are
extremely common.
● Vitiligo - A skin condition in which melanocytes in certain areas lose
the ability to produce melanin, possibly due to an autoimmune
reaction that leads to loss of color in patches.
● Melanoma - It is also known as malignant melanoma, is a type of
cancer that develops from pigment containing cells known as
melanocytes.
● Acne - Also known as acne vulgaris, which occurs when hair follicles are
clogged with dead skin cells and oil from the skin. It is characterized by
blackheads or whiteheads, pimples, oily skin, and possible scarring.
● Bed sores- Also called pressure ulcer and decubitus ulcers. Its refers to
injuries to skin and underlying tissue resulting from prolonged pressure
on the skin.
 ● Chicken pox- (Varicella) chicken pox is a very contagious disease
caused by varicella- zoster virus (vYZ). It causes a blister-like rash,
itching, tiredness and fever.

Wounds- it refers to any damage or break in soft tissue the body. It can be
classified
by several methods.

Based on soft tissues injury

Open wounds- a type of soft tissue injuries that involve an external or internal
break in the body tissues .

Classification of open wounds according to the object that caused it:

● A superficial wound in which the uppermost layer of the skin is scraped
off.
● A wound caused by a clean, sharp edged object such as a knife, razor or
a glass splinter
● It is an irregular tear like wounds caused by some blunt trauma.
● It is an injury in which a body part is torn off due to either trauma or
surgery.

Close wounds - a type of soft tissue injuries where the skin’s surface is not
broken . it can be an internal or external. ex .bruise.

Classification of closed wound

● Contusions- It is a blunt trauma causing pressure damage to the skin
and / or underlying tissues( includes bruises)
Blisters: Fluid filled pockets under the skin
● Seroma - it is a fluid filled area that develops under the skin or body
tissue
(commonly occurs after blunt trauma or surgery).

● Hematoma- It is a blood filled area that develops under the skin or

body tissue ( occurs due to internal blood vessel damage to an artery or
vein).
 ● Crush injuries- It is a type of closed wound that can be caused by
extreme forces, or lesser force, or lesser forces over a long period of
time.

Wound healing - It is a complex process in which the skin, and tissue under
it, repair themselves after the injury. The four phases are: hemostasis (blood
clotting) ; Inflammation (Localized swelling, controls bleeding and prevent
infection); Proliferation( tissue growth) and maturation(Tissue remodeling)

Hair- Hairs develop in the fetus as epidermal down growths that invade the
underlying dermis.

Functions:
- Protection
- Regulation of body temperature
- Act as sense organs
- Facilitation of evaporation of perspiration

Types of human hair

● Lanugo hair
It refers to fine, downy, unpigmented hair that appears on the fetus in the last
three months of development.
● Vellus hair
It refers to fine , pale hair that replaces lanugo by the time of birth, and
makes up two thirds of the hair on women and one - tenth of the hair
on men; makes up all of the hair on the body of children except for
eyelashes, eyebrows and scalp.

● Terminal hair
It is the longer, coarser, and usually more heavily pigmented hair
located in the eyebrows, lashes , and hair on the scalp and forms the
axillary and pubic hair after puberty.

Hair problem
1. Alopecia areata- This is an autoimmune disease with non-
scarring hair loss in single or multiple areas of the scalp, face or
body . It has two kinds: Alopecia totalis which completely causes
 loss of hair on the scalp and Alopecia Universalis, Which is the loss
of hair in the entire body.
2. Hirsutism- A condition characterized by body hair in men and
women on parts of the body where hair is normally absent or
minimal such as on the chin , chest , face or body.

Nails - A horny covering protecting the upper surface of the tip of the finger
and toe in humans and other primates.

Selected Nails Disorder

● Beau’s lines - It refers to depressions that run across fingernails which
can be a sign of malnourishment and other conditions.
● Clubbing - Thickening and curving of nails around fingertips , which
can be the result of low oxygen in the blood and is associated with
cardiovascular diseases, Inflammatory bowel disease, liver disease and
others.
● koilonychia/ Spooning- A condition where finger nails have raised
ridges and scoop outward, like spoons. It can be a sign of iron
deficiency anemia , heart disease and other medical conditions .
● Leukonychia/ White spot- it refers to lines on the nail usually the result
of a minor trauma and harmless in healthy individuals. Sometimes it is
associated with poor health or nutritional deficiencies.

Cutaneous Sensory Receptors

- These are sensory receptor in the dermis include the Meissner’s
corpuscle (detect light motion against the skin), The pacinian corpuscle
( Detect deep pressure, High frequency vibrations); The Ruffini
corpuscle (detect deep pressure, stretch); The hair root plexus (detect
movements of hair); and a number of free nerve ending type. Free
nerve endings are thought to be integrated with a variety of sensations
including pain,heat, cold, and touch.

GLANDS
1. Sebaceous glands
- It is a microscopic exocrine gland that secrete an oily or waxy
matter called sebum consisting of lipids and some proteins.
 - It functions to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair of
mammals.
2. Ceruminous Glands
- Ceruminous Glands are specialized sudoriferous glands (sweat
glands) located subcutaneously in the external auditory canal, in
the outer 1/3.
- It is simple , coiled, tubular glands made up of an inner secretory
layer of cells and an outer layer of cells. They are classed as
apocrine glands.
3. Mammary glands
- A type of exocrine glands which are enlarged and modified sweat
glands and are the characteristic of mammals.
- It is potentially functional in women during childbearing years
under the stimulation of ovarian and pituitary hormones.
- Lactation is known as secretion of mammary glands.
4. Sudoriferous/ Sweat glands
- Eccrine sweat glands
- It is distributed all over the body and numerous in the palm
of hands, soles of feet and the forehead.
- It discharges the secretions directly to the surface of the
skin and functions to regulate the temperature of the body
by cooling it from the outside heat. It also helps in
elimination of excess salt and other electrolytes in the body.
- Apocrine sweat glands
- These glands are found in the armpits and larger in size
than eccrine sweat glands.
- It start function only after a person has attained puberty
- It produce secretion which is viscous and cloudy in nature
and end in the canals of hair follicles instead of pores.

M4 Lesson 2: Cardiovascular System

The circulatory system has two functional components:

- the cardiovascular system, or blood vascular system, and
the lymph vascular system.
 The cardiovascular system transports blood, oxygen and carbon
dioxide, nutrients, and metabolic waste products to and from the heart, and
to all tissues of the body.
The blood vascular system or cardiovascular system consists of the
following structures:
■ The heart is a muscular organ that contracts
rhythmically, pumping blood through the
circulatory system.
■ Arteries are efferent vessels from the heart that
become smaller as they branch into the various
organs to carry blood to the tissues
■ Capillaries, the smallest vessels, are the sites of
O2, CO2, nutrients, and waste product exchange
between blood and tissues. Together with the
smallest arterial and venous branches, capillaries
in all organs form a complex network of thin,
anastomosing tubules called the
microvasculature or microvascular bed.
■ Veins result from the convergence of venules
into a system of larger channels that continue
enlarging as they approach the heart, toward
which they carry the blood to be pumped again.

The whole circulatory system has a common basic structure:

An inner lining, the tunica intima – consists of

- endothelium - a single layer of extremely flattened epithelial
cells (simple squamous epithelium);
- subendothelium - basement membrane made up loose
connective tissue and a few scattered smooth muscle cells;
- internal elastic lamina or membrane (IEM) – consists of thin
band of elastic fibers that separates tunica intima from
tunica media

An intermediate layer, muscular layer, the tunica media

- consists mainly of concentrically arranged smooth muscle cells
interposed with variable amounts of elastic fibers.
- the external elastic lamina (EEM) separates tunica media from
tunica adventitia
An outer principally supporting tissue layer called the tunica
adventitia or tunica externa
- consists mainly of Type 1 collagen and elastic fibers

THE HEART
The walls of all four chamber of the heart consists of the following
layers:

Tunica Intima:
• Endocardium - consists of a single layer of endothelial cells, similar to
endothelium
- a subendothelial layer supports the endocardium and is made up of
a thin layer of fibrous connective tissue with some
elastic fibers

• Subendocardial layer - connects subendothelial layer to the

myocardium;
- contains veins, nerves and the branches of the impulse conducting
system of the heart

Purkinje cells / fibers - specialised cardiac muscle cells found in the

sub-endocardium; makes up the impulse conducting system
of the heart that generates a rhythmic contraction that spread to the
entire myocardium
Tunica Media:
• Myocardium - the thickest layer principally made up of cardiac
muscle cells arranged in layers that surround the heart chambers
in a complex spiral.
Tunica Adventitia:
• Pericardium - covering of the heart
The pericardium is a fibro-serous, fluid-filled sack that surrounds the
muscular body of the heart and the roots of the great vessels
(the aorta, pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins, and the superior and
inferior vena cavae).
The pericardium is made up of two main layers:
1. fibrous pericardium - a layer consisting of tough, non-distensable
connective tissue that provides support and
protection for the heart.

The relatively inextensible fibrous layer of the pericardium prevents the

heart from increasing in size too rapidly, thus placing a physical limit on
the
potential size of the organ. It also serves as a physical barrier between
the muscular body of the heart and adjacent organs prone to infection,
such as the lungs.

2. serous pericardium - a thin, internal layer consisting of:

a. outer parietal layer that lines the internal surface of the fibrous
pericardium; and
b. internal visceral layer (also known as the epicardium), that forms
the outer layer of the heart.
Each layer is made up of a single sheet of epithelial cells, known as
mesothelium.
Found between the outer and inner serous layers is the pericardial
cavity, which contains a small amount of lubricating serous fluid.

Pericardial fluid provides lubrication between the parietal and visceral

layer, to minimize the friction generated by the heart as it contracts,
and allows the heart to expand and contract.

Pericarditis is an inflammation of the serous pericardium of the heart.

It results in an accumulation of fluid in the pericardial cavity, which
affects the pattern of beating in the heart.

ARTERIES: There are three types of arteries in the body:

• elastic arteries - also called large arteries
- largest blood vessels in the body and include the pulmonary trunk
and aorta with their major branches, the brachiocephalic, common
carotid, subclavian, vertebral, pulmonary, and common iliac arteries
• muscular arteries – medium-sized arteries or distributing arteries
- large elastic arteries branch and become medium-sized muscular
arteries, the most numerous vessels in the body
 • arterioles - smallest branches of the arterial system that deliver blood
to the smallest blood vessels, the capillaries
Structural Pattern of Arteries
1. Tunica Intima - consists of three sublayers:
● Endothelium – simple squamous epithelium
● Subendothelial connective tissue – thin layer of connective
tissue
● Internal elastic membrane (IEM) - two thin, wavy bands of
elastic fibers; this layer is not seen in smaller arteries

2. Tunica Media – the thickest and most prominent layer

- composed primarily of smooth muscle fibers, with scattered
variable amounts of elastic and reticular fibers
- the external elastic lamina is primarily seen in
large muscular arteries
3. Tunica Adventitia or Externa – vasa vasorum is present in
large vessels

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ARTERIAL WALL

• Internal elastic membrane (IEM) appears scalloped
or corrugated after death (rigor mortis)
• Appears rigid or stable even after death.
• Tunica media is the thickest layer
• Thickness of the wall is greater than diameter
of lumen- thick wall, small lumen

VEINS: Structural Plan of Veins

Tunica Intima
- large veins exhibit a prominent endothelium
and subendothelial connective
Tunica Media
- the muscular layer is much less prominent;
- in large veins, the muscular tunica media is thin,

Tunica Adventitia or Externa

- in large veins, the tunica adventitia is the thickest
and the best-developed layer of
the three layers
- longitudinal bundles of smooth muscle fibers
are common in the connective tissue layer

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VENOUS WALL

• IEM is not scalloped after rigor mortis.
• Appears collapsed after death.
• Tunica adventitia is the thickest layer.
• Diameter of the lumen is greater than
the thickness of its wall – big lumen, thin wall
• Small-sized and medium-sized veins, particularly in the extremities, have
valves

Valves consist of semilunar folds that project from the tunica intima of most
veins to prevent backflow of blood due to low pressure of blood in the vein.
Valves are absent in veins of the central nervous system, the inferior and
superior venae cavae, and viscera.

CAPILLARIES
Capillaries are composed of the simple layer of endothelial cells rolled up as
a tube surrounded by a basement membrane.
The average diameter of capillaries varies from 4 to 10 μm, which allows
transit of blood cells only one at a time.

Capillaries are generally grouped into three histologic types, depending on

the continuity of the endothelial cells and their
basement membrane:

● Continuous capillaries - the most common type of capillary; complete

endothelial lining with tight junctions between endothelial cells
- provide continuity along the endothelium and well-regulated metabolic
exchange across the cells
- found in muscle, connective tissue, lungs, exocrine glands, and nervous
tissue
 ● Fenestrated capillaries - endothelial cells are penetrated by numerous
pored or fenestrations in addition to tight junctions
- they have a sieve- like structure that allows more extensive molecular
exchange across the endothelium
- found in kidneys, intestine, choroid plexus, and endocrine glands.

● Discontinuous capillaries, commonly called sinusoids - the least

common type of capillary
- they have extensive intercellular gaps and incomplete basement
membranes, in addition to intercellular clefts and fenestrations
- gives them Swiss cheese appearance
- found in the liver, spleen, some endocrine organs, and bone marrow

M4 Lesson 3: Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system is composed of :

the lymphatic vessels that transport interstitial fluid (as lymph) back to the
blood circulation, and
the lymphoid organs that contain lymphocytes and other cells of the body’s
immune defense system.

The major lymphoid organs include:

● Thymus
● Bone marrow
● Lymph nodes
● Spleen
● Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT) – tonsils and Peyer’s
patches

The bone marrow and thymus, where immature lymphocytes acquire the
receptors to recognize antigen, are known as primary lymphoid organs.
The lymph nodes, spleen and organized lymphoid tissues of MALT, where
lymphocytes are activated in response to antigen, are the secondary
lymphoid organs.
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphoid system collects excess interstitial fluid into lymphatic

capillaries, transports absorbed lipids from the small intestine, and responds
immunologically to invading foreign substances. The main function of the
lymphoid organs is to protect the organism against invading pathogens or
antigens (bacteria, parasites, and viruses). The immune response occurs when
the organism detects the pathogens, which can enter the organism at any
point. For this reason, lymphatic cells, tissues, and organs have wide
distribution in the body.

The lymphoid system includes all cells, tissues, and organs in the body that
contain aggregates of immune cells called lymphocytes. Cells of the immune
system, especially lymphocytes, are distributed throughout the body either as
single cells, as isolated accumulations of cells, as distinct non encapsulated
lymphatic nodules in the loose connective tissue of digestive, respiratory,
and reproductive systems, or as encapsulated individual lymphoid organs.

The major lymphoid organs are the lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, and
spleen. Because bone marrow produces lymphocytes, it is considered a
lymphoid organ and part of the lymphoid system.

All lymphoid tissues or organs consists of two basic components:

•abundant lymphocytes which represent the parenchyma of all lymphoid

organs; and •network of reticular fibers, which serve as the supporting
stroma that hold the lymphocytes, except for thymus, wherein lymphocytes
are supported by epithelial reticular cells.

Lymphoid tissue is usually reticular connective tissue filled with large

numbers of lymphocytes.

A. Encapsulated Lymphoid Organs.

 Lymph Node-a dense connective tissue capsule surrounds the lymph node
and sends its trabeculae into its interior;
- each lymph node has three regions:
a) outer cortex- dark staining area and characterized by dense aggregations
of lymphocytes called lymphoid nodules
-some lymphoid nodules exhibit lighter-staining central areas called germinal
center

b) paracortex or deep cortex –lacks lymphatic nodules

c) inner medulla-light-staining, does not contain lymphoid follicles, contains

mainly:
- medullary sinuses-large sinuses contain lymphocyte-rich lymph;
capillary-like channels that separate medullary cords, and
- medullary cords where lymphocytes and other cells are arranged as
irregular cords of lymphatic tissue

2. Thymus – a primary or central lymphoid organ – major sites of T and B-cell

precursors
- The thymus gland is a lobulated lymphoid organ enclosed by a connective
tissue capsule from which arise connective
tissue trabeculae
- The trabeculae extend into the interior of the organ and subdivide the
thymus gland into numerous incomplete
thymic lobules
- Each lobule consists of a dark-staining outer cortex and a light-staining
inner medulla
Some lobules may be incomplete, and the medulla shows continuity
between the neighboring lobules.
- The cortex of each lobule contains densely packed lymphocytes that do not
form lymphatic nodules.
- The medulla contains fewer lymphocytes but more epithelial reticular cells
- The medulla also contains numerous thymic (Hassall’s) corpuscles that
characterize the thymus gland.

3. Spleen
 - The spleen capsule is made up of dense connective tissue capsule, with
come smooth muscle cells; it gives rise to connectivetissue trabeculae that
extend deep into the spleen’s interior

the spleen is composed of :

• white pulp – consists of lymphocytes for detection of blood-borne antigens

- forms the peri-arterial lymphatic sheath (PALS), lymphoid tissue that
ensheaths the central arteries
- consists of lymphocytes and aggregations of lymphatic nodules containing
a cross-section of the central artery

• red pulp – also called the splenic pulp; surrounds the white pulp and makes
up the bulk of the organ ( more than 75%);
- the site of blood filtration and removal of worn-out, swollen of rigid RBCs.
- it is red because of its extensive vascular tissue
- primarily composed of venous sinuses, with pulp arteries, and splenic cords
(of Billroth) – Billroth cords

Billroth cords are diffuse strands of lymphatic tissue between the venous
sinuses and form a spongy meshwork of reticular connective tissue.

B. Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT)

- organized masses or nonencapsulated aggregations of lymphoid tissue

at mucosal surfaces ( lamina propia) throughout the body
Lymphocytes are common components of the mucosal lining of the
digestive, respiratory, and urogenital tracts, where they provide immune
defense against micro- organisms crossing the surface epithelium. Tonsils
are large components of this mucosa- associated lymphoid tissue (MALT),
located in the posterior oral cavity and pharynx.

1. Tonsils
- partially encapsulated lymphoid tissue beneath the epithelium of the oral
cavity and pharynx;
 - the overlying epithelium is nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium

2. Peyer’s patches - largest lymphoid aggregates

- groups of lymphoid follicles located in the mucosa of small intestine – most
prominent in the ileum
- lymphoid follicles bulge dome-like into the gut lumen
- the overlying has intestinal villi lined with ciliated simple columnar
epithelium

Endocrine System

- For synthesis and secretion of chemical messengers known as

Hormones
- Endocrine glands composed of Secretory epithelial cells, with its
supporting tissue containing blood vessels
- The secretory epithelial cells form the parenchyma of the endocrine
glands.

Type of endocrine gland stimulus

1. Humoral stimulus- capillary blood contains low concentration of

Ca+2
2. Neural stimulus- CNS
3. Hormonal stimulus - Hypothalamus

1. Pituitary gland- a small bean- shaped gland at the base of the brain,
located in a bony cavity in the base of the skull- the Sella tunica

- Secretions control the other endocrine glands and influence growth,

metabolism and maturation.

The gland is divided into:

a. Anterior pituitary- Adenohypophysis
 b. posterior pituitary- neurohypophysis or pars nervosa

Hypothalamus- synthesizes hormones the hormones hypothalamic releasing

- inhibiting hormone and hypothalamic release- inhibiting hormone. .
The working relationship of the hypothalamus and pituitary glands. Blood
vessels that connect to the anterior pituitary. The pituitary responds by
synthesizing and releasing its hormones, which have target cells in distant
organs.

2. Adrenal glands are endocrine glands located at the top of kidneys.

Composed of two structure:

● Adrenal cortex- outer layer consist of cord epithelial secretory cells,
arrange in 3 different patterns and layers
● Adrenal Medulla- Inner layer, consist of polyhedral cells arranged in
cords or clumps

Disorder of the adrenal cortex

● Addison’s disease - is the result of hyposecretion of the adrenol cortical

hormones.
● Cushings’s syndrome - is the result of hypersecretion of adrenal cortex,
primarily cortex.

Pancreatic Hormones

Cortisol- Can help control blood sugar levels, regulate metabolism, help
reduce inflammation , and assist with memory formulation. It has a
controlling effect on salt and water balance and helps control blood pressure.

Pancreatic Islets (Islets of langerhans)

- Consist spherical or egg- shaped masses of endocrine tissue embedded
within the exocrine tissues of pancreas
- Cluster of endocrine cells within the pancreas called islet langerhans
or Pancreatic islets
- Islet of langerhans , are scattered throughout the exocrine tissue of
the pancreas.
Alpha cell - which produce the hormone glucagon
Beta cells- which produce the hormone insulin
Somatostatin inhibits secretion of (from delta cells) insulin and glucagon.
G Cells- secrete gastrin which stimulates the stomach acid secretion, motility
and emptying.
F cells- inhibits gallbladder contractions and secretion of pancreatic digestive
enzymes
Type 1 diabetes - the pancreas makes little insulin or no insulin
Type 2 diabetes - The pancreas make insulin

3. Thyroid Glands
- One of the largest endocrine glands
- Located in the anterior part of the neck
- With a butterfly shaped organ and is composed of two cone- like lobes
or wings connected by isthmus.
- It produce hormones namely, triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4)
That regulates the rate of metabolism and affects growth.

Parts of anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)

Pars intermedia
● is a thin cell layer between the pars distalis and neurophysis.
● This zone of basophilic cells

Pars tuberalis
● The pars tuberalis surround the neural stalk.
● Consist of basophilic secretory cells

Pars distalis
● Consist of secretory cells called chromophils (include acidophils and
basophils) and chromophobes.
● The pars distalis is the largest part of the hypophysis.

Parts of posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

The median eminence is located at the base of the hypothalamus from

which extends the pituitary stalk of infundibulum, in which are located at
the unmyelinated axons that extend from the neurons in the hypothalamus.
The large portion of the neurohypophysis is the pars nervosa that contains
the unmyelinated axons of secretory hypothalamic neurons, their endings
with hormones, and the supportive cells, called pituicytes.

Hypothalamus
● The main role is to keep the body in homeostasis as much as possible.
● Hypothalamus sends signals to the pituitary to release or inhibit
pituitary hormone productions.
● Hypothalamus acts as the connector between the endocrine and
nervous systems to achieve this. It plays part in many essential
functions of the body such as:
● Body temperature, thirst, appetite, and weight control.
● Emotions, sleep cycles, sex drive, child birth, blood pressure and heart
rate, production of digestive juices balancinf bodily fluids.
● As different systems and parts send signals to the brain, they alert the
hypothalamus to any unbalanced factors that need addressing.
● The hypothalamus then responds by releasing the right hormones into
the bloodstream to balance the body.
Hypophysis

● Organs produced by neurons in the hypothalamus directly influence

and control the synthesis and release of six specific hormones from the
adenohypophysis.
● Releasing hormones are produced by neurons in the hypothalamus for
each hormone that is released from adenohypophysis.
● Inhibitory hormones- releasing two hormones, growth hormones and
prolactin.
● The releasing and inhibitory hormones secreted from the hypothalamic
neurons are carried from the primary capillary plexus in the
adenohypophysis via the Hypophyseal portal system.
● The neurohypophysis stores and releases only two hormones, oxytocin
and vasopressin-- which are antidiuretic hormones or ADH that were
synthesized in the paraventricular nuclei and supraoptic nuclei.
● Herring bodies- the axon terminal in the neurohypophysis.

Hormones of the hypothalamus

● Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)- this hormone increases the water

absorption into the blood by the kidneys.
● Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CHR)- CHR send a message to the
anterior pituitary gland to stimulate the adrenal glands to release the
corticosteroids, which help regulate metabolism and immune
response.
● Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) - GnRH stimulates the
anterior pituitary to release follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH), which work together to ensure normal
functioning of ovaries and testes.
● Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) or Growth hormone
inhibiting hormone (GHIH)- aka somatostatin: GHRH prompts the
anterior pituitary to release Growth hormones; GHIH has the opposite
effect. In children GH is essential in maintaining a healthy body
composition. In adults, it aids healthy bone and muscle mass and
affects fat distribution.
● Oxytocin- involved in a variety of processes, such as orgasm, the ability
to trust, body temperature, sleep cycles, and the release of breast milk.
 ● Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) or Prolactin Inhibiting hormone
(PIH)- aka dopamine: PRH prompts the anterior pituitary to stimulate
breast milk production through prolactin. therefore--milk production.
● Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)- TRH triggers the release of
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the release of
thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy, and growth and
development.

Glucocorticoid- an anti-inflammatory effect, and widely used in ointments to

relieve swelling and other signs of inflammation.

Cortisol
- helps the body adapt to stress and repair damaged tissues.

Functions:
❖ Increase use of fats
❖ Increase use of excess amino acids
❖ Conserves glucose
❖ Limits inflammation

Stress- any condition that threatens homeostasis

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)- it is our body's response to stress-

causing factors.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) stages:

1. Alarm stage- the stressor upsets homeostasis or cellular balance.
2. Resistance stage- the body fights back by adjusting to the stress.
3. Exhaustion stage- rest permits enhanced adaptation. No rest=
overtraining, injury, lack of adaptation.

Growth hormones functions:

1. Increases mitosis
2. Increases protein synthesis
3. Increases use of fats for energy.
Regulation of blood glucose concentrations

● Hypoglycemia- too little glucose

● Hyperglycemia- too much glucose
● Euglycemia- blood sugar within the normal range.

Isthmus- composed of two lobes connected by a narrow band of thyroid

tissue.

Simple goiter- enlarged thyroid; compressed and displaced trachea and

esophagus.

Thyroid Hormone excess

Graves’ disease - is a common cause of hyperthyroidism, an over- production

of thyroid hormones which causes enlargement of the thyroid

4. Parathyroid glands-
- small endocrine glands closely associated with thyroid glands
- It produce parathyroid hormone that act as increase blood calcium
levels by stimulating osteoclasts to release calcium from the bone.
- The glandular cells are of two types:
a. Chief or principal cells
b. Oxyphil cells
- The glandular are arranged as clusters, ribbon or glands
Cells within parathyroid glands
Chief cells - the role of this type of cell is to secrete parathyroid hormone
Oxyphil cells- these cells are much large but less abundant than chief cells.
Their purpose is unknown. It interesting to note however that the number of
oxyphil cells increase with age and few are seen before puberty

5. Pineal gland - contains masses of neuroglia and secretory cells called

pinealocytes

Prolactin (PH) - stimulates the development of mammary glands and milk

production.
Oxytocin
- hormone secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, a pea sized
structure at the base of the brain. It’s sometimes called the “cuddle hormone”
or the “love hormone” because it is released when people snuggle up or bond
socially.
- a neurotransmitter and a hormone that is produced in the hypothalamus.
From there, it is transported to and secreted by the pituitary gland, at the
base of the brain.
- it plays a role in the female reproductive functions from sexual activity to
childbirth and breastfeeding.
The endocrine system

- For synthesis and secretion of chemical messenger known as

hormones
- composed of secretory epithelial cells, with its supporting tissue
containing blood vessels and lymphatic vessels.
- The secretory epithelial cells form the parenchyma of the endocrine
glands.
 Parts of the endocrine gland stimuli:
1. Humoral stimulus
2. Neural stimulus
3. Hormonal stimulus

Pituitary gland
- a small bean-shaped gland at the base of the brain, located in the bony
cavity in the base of the skull-- the sella turcica.
- The gland is divided into anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) and
posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis or pars nervosa)

Adrenal gland
The adrenal glands are endocrine glands located at the top of the kidneys.
Each adrenal glands are composed of two structures (adrenal cortex and
adrenal medulla)

Aldosterone- help in regulation of blood pressure and electrolyte balance.

Cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone- their functions include the regulation of

metabolism and immune system suppression.

Dehydroepiandrosterone- androgens that are converted to fully functional

sex hormones in the gonads and other targeted organs.

epinephrine/norepinephrine- secretes catecholamines which produce a

rapid response throughout the body in stress situations.

Glucocorticoid- anti-inflammatory effect and widely used in ointments to

relieve swelling and other signs of inflammation.

Addison’s disease - the result of hyposecretion of the adrenal cortical

hormones. Most cases are idiopathic, that is, of unknown cause; atrophy of
the adrenal cortex decreases both cortisol and aldosterone secretion.
Cushing’s syndrome- the result of hypersecretion of the adrenal cortex,
primarily cortisol. The cause may be a pituitary tumor that increases ACTH
secretion or a tumor of the adrenal cortex itself.

Short-term stress response

1. Glycogen broken down to glucose; increased blood glucose
2. Increased blood pressure
3. Increased breathing rate
4. Increased metabolic rate
5. Change in blood-flow patterns, leading to increased alertness and
decreased digestive and kidney activity.

Long term stress response

Mineralocorticoids
1. Retention of sodium ions and water by kidneys
2. Increased blood volume and blood pressure

Glucocorticoids
1. Proteins and fats broken down and converted to glucose, leading to
increased blood glucose
2. Immune system may be suppressed

Pancreatic islets (islets of langerhans)

- compact spherical or egg-shaped masses of endocrine tissue embedded
within the exocrine tissue of pancreas.
- clusters of endocrine cells within the pancreas.

G cells- secrete gastrin which stimulates the stomach acid secretion, motility
and emptying.

F cells- inhibit gallbladder contraction and secretion of pancreatic digestive

enzymes

Thyroid gland
● One of the largest endocrine gland with weight of 20 grams
● Located in the anterior part of the neck
● With the butterfly-shaped organ and is composed of two coned-like
lobes or wings connected by isthmus.
● Produces T3 and T4 that regulate the rate of metabolism and affect the
growth and rate of function of many other systems in the body and
calcitonin which plays a role in calcium homeostasis.