Why we study physics?

1.1 Standard units (length, mass, and time).

1.2 Scalars and Vectors
1.3 (rectangular, polar, and relation between rectangular and polar
system)
1.4 Components of vector 1.4.1- the unit vector 1.4.2 vectors addition 1.4.3
vectors subtraction 1.4.4 products of vector 1.4.5 the scalar products
2.1 reference frames, coordinate system and displacements,
2.2-interpretation of average speed and velocity and instantaneous velocity
2.3 acceleration 2.3.1 motion and constant acceleration
3.1 force and concepts of forces
3.2 Newton’s first law
3.3 Mass
3.4 Newton’s second law
3.5 The force of gravity and Wight
3.6 Newton’s 3ed law
4.1 Viscosity
4.1.1 Etymology 4.1.2 Definition
4.2 Dynamic (shear) viscosity
4.3 Kinematic viscosity
4.4 Bulk viscosities
5.1- Ionizations radiation and its definition 5.1.1 x-ray 5.1.2 laser
5.1.3 Gamma ray
5-2 interaction radiation with matter
5.2.1 Photon Interactions 5.2.2 Compton 5.2.3 Pair Production
5-3 effect of radiation on cells 5.3.1 direct effect 5.3.2 indirect effect
6.1 Physical instrument in medicine (1- Flowcytomerty 2- MRI
3- Radiotherapy instruments)

1
1-Why we study physics?
Physical education helps students to develop the skills, knowledge,
and competencies to live healthy and physically active lives at school
and for the rest of their life. They learn ‘in, through, and about’
movement, gaining an understanding that movement is integral to
human expression and can contribute to people’s pleasure and
enhance their lives.
So, why physics important in medicine
Ever wonder why physics is important in the field of medicine? Well,
there are numerous reasons why it is very vital to this field. One
reason is “medical physics”, it is one of the branches of physics.
Medical physics is a branch of applied physics concerning the
application of physics to medicine. It generally concerns physics as
applied to medical imaging and radiotherapy.
Medical imaging refers to the techniques and processes used to
create images of the human body (or parts thereof) for clinical
purposes (medical procedures seeking to reveal, diagnose or examine
disease) or medical science (including the study of normal anatomy
and function. Under this are the following:
- An MRI scan
- Diagnostic radiology, including: x-rays, fluoroscopy,
mammography, Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, angiography
and Computed tomography
- Ultrasound, including intravascular ultrasound
- Non-ionizing radiation (Lasers, Ultraviolet etc.)
- Nuclear medicine, including SPECT and positron emission
tomography (PET)
- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), including functional magnetic
resonance imaging (FMRI) and other methods for functional
neuro- imaging of the brain.

2
 For example, nuclear magnetic resonance (often referred to as
magnetic resonance imaging to avoid the common concerns about
radiation), uses the phenomenon of nuclear resonance to image the
human body. Magneto encephalography Electrical impedance
tomography
- Diffuse optical imaging. Optical coherence tomography
Through Physics the treatment of diseases has been possible, such
processes as:
Defibrillation: High intensity focused ultrasound, including
lithotripsy
Interventional radiology Non-ionizing radiation Lasers, Ultraviolet
etc. including: photodynamic therapy and LASIK.
Nuclear medicine, including: unsealed source radiotherapy Photo
medicine, the use of light to treat and diagnose disease.
Radiotherapy: Sealed source radiotherapy Terahertz radiation
2-General Physics:
In order to be able to answer all scientific inquiries into a universally intelligible
format, one has to develop commonly accepted language in which to converse. It
was this need which led to the development of
Units and dimensions:
It is an effort to do away with subjectivity of forms and personal prejudices
and introduce a common objectivity. If we are to report the result of a
Measurement to someone who wishes to reproduce this measurement, a standard
must be defined. Therefore, in order to reduce and eliminate such and other
discrepancies, an international committee set up in 1960, established a set of
standards for measuring the fundamental quantities. Measurement, Dimensions,
Vectors and Scalars.
Do not hold lot of significance as we cannot expect a number of questions
directly based on this. However, we cannot completely ignore this chapter as this
forms the basis of all chapters to follow.

3
1-Units
The former Weights and Measures office in Seven Sisters, London
Units of measurement
A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a quantity, defined and adopted by
convention or by laws, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same kind of
quantity. Any other quantity of that kind can be expressed as a multiple of the unit of
measurement

Return to Definitions of the SI base units

Units
home page
Unit of length meter The meter is the length of the path travelled by
light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299
Units
792 458 of a second.
Topics:
Unit Base
of mass kilogram The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the
Derived mass of the international prototype of the
kilogram.
Prefixes
UnitNon-SI
of time second The second is the duration of 9 192 631
Rules 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
Background ground state of the cesium 133 atom.

UnitUnits
of ampere The ampere is that constant current which, if
Bibliography
electric current maintained in two straight parallel conductors of
infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section,
Constants, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce
Units & between these conductors a force equal to 2 x107
Uncertainty newton per meter of length.
home page
Unit of kelvin The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is
thermodynamic the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
temperature temperature of the triple point of water.

Unit of mole 1. The mole is the amount of substance of a

amount of system which contains as many elementary entities
substance as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12;
its symbol is "mol."

2. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be

specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons,
other particles, or specified groups of such particles.

Unit of candela The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given

luminous direction, of a source that emits monochromatic
intensity radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz
Rad: a unit of absorbed dose of ionizing radiation equal to an energy of 100 ergs per
gram of irradiated material.
4
 The gray (symbol: Gy) is a derived unit of ionizing radiation dose in the International
System of Units (SI). It is defined as the absorption of one joule of radiation energy per
kilogram of matter.

‫علم المتجهات‬
Vector and Scalar

‫ والثانية الكمية‬scalar ‫ األول الكمية القياسية‬،‫جميع الكميات الفيزيائية (أساسية أو مشتقة) يمكن تقسيمها إلى نوعين‬
‫ أما الكمية المتجهة تحتاج إلى أن تحدد‬.5kg ‫ مثل أن تقول أن كتلة جسم‬،‫ الكمية القياسية يمكن تحديدها بمقدارها فقط‬.vector ‫المتجهة‬
.ً‫ غربا‬10km/h ‫ مثل سرعة الرياح‬،‫اتجاهها باإلضافة إلى مقدارها‬

.‫في الجدول التالي قائمة ببعض الكميات القياسية والكميات المتجهة‬

Vector Quantity Scalar Quantity

Displacement Length
Force Mass
Acceleration Speed

Coordinate system

‫ ولتحديد موقع هذا الجسم فإننا نستعين بما يعرف‬،ً‫نحتاج في حياتنا العملية إلى تحديد موقع جسم ما في الفراغ سوا ًء كان ساكنا ً أم متحركا‬
Rectangular ‫ وهناك نوعان من اإلحداثيات التي سوف نستخدمها في هذا الكتاب وهما‬،Coordinates ‫باإلحداثيات‬
.polar coordinates ‫ و‬coordinates

The rectangular coordinates

The rectangular coordinate system in two dimensions is shown in Figure 1.1. This coordinate system
is consist of a fixed reference point (0,0) which called the origin. A set of axis with appropriate scale
.and label

5
 The polar coordinates

Sometimes it is more convenient to use the polar coordinate system (r, θ)

Where r is the distance from the origin to the point of rectangular coordinate (x, y) and θ, is the
angle between r and the x axis.

The relation between coordinates

The relation between the rectangular coordinates (x,y) and the polar coordinate, where,

x= r cos θ )1.1(

And

y = r sin θ )1.1(

Squaring and adding equations (1.1) and (1.2) we get

)1.1(

Dividing equation (1.1) and (1.2) we get

tanθ = x/y )1.1(

6
 Properties of Vectors

Vector addition

Only vectors representing the same physical quantities can be added. To add vector A to vector B as
shown in Figure 1.5, the resultant vector R is
R= A + B (1.5 )
.i.e ,Notice that the vector addition obeys the commutative law

A+B=B+A (1.6 )

The unit vector

A unit vector is a vector having a magnitude of unity and its used to describe a direction in space .

‫ كالتالي‬a ‫ ضرب متجه الوحدة‬A ‫ يمكن تمثيله بمقدار المتجه‬A ‫المتجه‬

)1.11( Aa=A

‫) كما في الشكل‬x, y, z rectangular coordinate system ‫) لمحاور اإلسناد المتعامدة‬i, j, k( ‫كذلك يمكن تمثيل متجهات وحدة‬
-:‫التالي‬

7
 ‫‪Product of a vector‬‬

‫‪There are two kinds of vector product the first one is called scalar product or dot product because the‬‬
‫‪result of the product is a scalar quantity. The second is called vector product or cross product‬‬
‫‪.because the result is a vector perpendicular to the plane of the two vectors‬‬

‫ينتج من الضرب القياسي كمية قياسية وينتج من الضرب اإلتجاهي كمية متجهة‬

‫‪The scalar product‬‬

‫يعرف الضرب القياسي ‪ scalar product‬بالضرب النقطي ‪ dot product‬وتكون نتيجة الضرب القياسي لمتجهين كمية قياسية‪ ،‬وتكون‬
‫هذه القيمة موجبة إذا كانت الزاوية المحصورة بين المتجهين بين ‪ 0‬و ‪ 90‬درجة وتكون النتيجة سالبة إذا كانت الزاوية المحصورة بين‬
‫المتجهين بين ‪ 90‬و ‪ 180‬درجة وتساوي صفراً إذا كانت الزاوية ‪.90‬‬

‫يعرف الضرب القياسي لمتجهين بحاصل ضرب مقدار المتجه األول في مقدار المتجه الثاني في جيب تمام الزاوية المحصورة بينهما‪.‬‬

‫(‪)1.11‬‬

‫يمكن إيجاد قيمة الضرب القياسي لمتجهين باستخدام مركبات كل متجه كما يلي‪:‬‬

‫‪8‬‬
The scalar product is

9
 The vector product

‫ كما في الشكل‬.‫ وتكون نتيجة الضرب االتجاهي لمتجهين كمية متجهة‬cross product ‫ بـ‬vector product ‫يعرف الضرب االتجاهي‬
:‫التالي‬

.is 90o k , j ,i To evaluate this product we use the fact that the angle between the unit vectors

10
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Plot points using the rectangular coordinate system.

2. Calculate the distance between any two points in the rectangular coordinate plane.
3. Determine the midpoint between any two points.

Rectangular Coordinate System:

The rectangular coordinate system consists of two real number lines that intersect at a right
angle. The horizontal number line is called the x-axis, and the vertical number line is called
the y-axis. These two number lines define a flat surface called a plane, and each point on this
plane is associated with an ordered pair of real numbers (x, y). The first number is called
the x-coordinate, and the second number is called the y-coordinate. The intersection of the
two axes is known as the origin, which corresponds to the point (0, 0).

11
An ordered pair (x, y) represents the position of a point relative to the origin. The x-
coordinate represents a position to the right of the origin if it is positive and to the left of the
origin if it is negative. The y-coordinate represents a position above the origin if it is positive
and below the origin if it is negative. Using this system, every position (point) in the plane is
uniquely identified. For example, the pair (2, 3) denotes the position relative to the origin as
shown:

This system is often called the Cartesian coordinate system, named after the French
mathematician René Descartes (1596–1650).

The x- and y-axes break the plane into four regions called quadrants, named using roman
numerals I, II, III, and IV, as pictured. In quadrant I, both coordinates are positive. In
quadrant II, the x-coordinate is negative and the y-coordinate is positive. In quadrant III, both
coordinates are negative. In quadrant IV, the x-coordinate is positive and the y-coordinate is
negative.

12
Example 1: Plot the ordered pair (−3, 5) and determine the quadrant in which it lies.

Solution: The coordinates and indicate a point 3 units to the left of and 5 units above the
origin.

Answer: The point is plotted in quadrant II (QII) because the x-coordinate is negative and
the y-coordinate is positive.

Ordered pairs with 0 as one of the coordinates do not lie in a quadrant; these points are on
one axis or the other (or the point is the origin if both coordinates are 0). Also, the scale
indicated on the x-axis may be different from the scale indicated on the y-axis. Choose a
scale that is convenient for the given situation.

Example 2: Plot this set of ordered pairs: {(4, 0), (−6, 0), (0, 3), (−2, 6), (−4, −6)}.

13
Example 3: Plot this set of ordered pairs: {(−6, −5), (−3, −3), (0, −1), (3, 1), (6, 3)}.

Solution: Try this! Plot the set of points {(5, 3), (−3, 2), (−2, −4), (4, −3)} and indicate in
which quadrant they lie.

Graphs are used in everyday life to display data visually. A line graph consists of a set of
related data values graphed on a coordinate plane and connected by line segments. Typically,
the independent quantity, such as time, is displayed on the x-axis and the dependent quantity,
such as distance traveled, on the y-axis.

Example 4: The following line graph shows the number of mathematics and statistics
bachelor’s degrees awarded in the United States each year since 1970.

a. How many mathematics and statistics bachelor’s degrees were awarded in 1975?

b. In which years were the number of mathematics and statistics degrees awarded at the low
of 11,000?

Distance Formula:

Frequently you need to calculate the distance between two points in a plane. To do
this, form a right triangle using the two points as vertices of the triangle and then apply the
Pythagorean Theorem. Recall that the Pythagorean theorem states that if given any right
14
triangle with legs measuring a and b units, then the square of the measure of the
hypotenuse c is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs: In other words, the hypotenuse
of any right triangle is equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of its legs.

Example 5: Find the distance between (−1, 2) and (3, 5).

Solution: Form a right triangle by drawing horizontal and vertical lines through the two
points. This creates a right triangle as shown below:

The length of leg b is calculated by finding the distance between the x-values of the given
points, and the length of leg a is calculated by finding the distance between the given y-
values.

15
Next, use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the length of the hypotenuse.

Answer: The distance between the two points is 5 units

Generalize this process to produce a formula that can be used to algebraically calculate the
distance between any two given points.

Given two points, and, then the distance, d, between them is given by the distance formula

Example 6: Calculate the distance between (−3, −1) and (−2, 4).
Solution: Use the distance formula.

It is a good practice to include the formula in its general form as a part of the written solution
before substituting values for the variables. This improves readability and reduces the chance
for errors.

Answer: units
16
Try this! Calculate the distance between (−7, 5) and (−1, 13).

Answer: 10 units

Example 7: Do the three points (1, −1), (3, −3), and (3, 1) form a right triangle?

Midpoint Formula:

The point that bisects the line segment formed by two points, and, is called the midpoint and
is given by the following formula:

The midpoint is an ordered pair formed by finding the average of the x-values and the
average of the y-values of the given points.

Example 8: Calculate the midpoint between (−1, −2) and (7, 4).

Solution: First, calculate the average of the x- and y-values of the given points.

Next, form the midpoint as an ordered pair using the averaged coordinates.

Answer: (3, 1)
17
To verify that this is indeed the midpoint, calculate the distance between the two given points
and verify that the result is equal to the sum of the two equal distances from the endpoints to
this midpoint. This verification is left to the reader as an exercise.

Try this! Find the midpoint between (−6, 5) and (6, −11).

Polar Coordinate System:

The polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate system in which each point
on a plane is determined by a distance from a reference point and an angle from a reference
direction.
The reference point (analogous to the origin of a Cartesian coordinate system) is called the
pole, and the ray from the pole in the reference direction is the polar axis. The distance from
the pole is called the radial coordinate or radius, and the angle is called the angular
coordinate, polar angle.

In polar form. When converting from rectangular to polar coordinates,

and,
18
 .
A point (r, θ) in the polar coordinate system is not unique because it repeats every 2π
radians.
The radial coordinate is often denoted by r or ρ, and the angular coordinate by φ, θ, or t. The
angular coordinate is specified as φ by ISO standard .However, in mathematical literature the
angle is often denoted by θ instead of φ.
Angles in polar notation are generally expressed in either degrees or radians (2π rad being
equal to 360°). Degrees are traditionally used in navigation, surveying, and many applied
disciplines, while radians are more common in mathematics and mathematical physics.

Reference frame
A “frame of reference” is just a set of coordinates: something you use to measure the
things that matter in Newtonian problems, that is to say, positions and velocities, so we also
need a clock. A point in space is specified by its three coordinates (x, y, z) and an “event”
like, say, a little explosion, by a place and time: (x, y, z, t).

19
What does position mean?
In physics, we love to precisely describe the motion of an object. To describe an object's
motion, we have to first be able to describe its position—where it is at any particular time.
More precisely, we need to specify its position relative to a convenient reference frame.
Earth is often used as a reference frame, and we often describe the position of an object as it
relates to stationary objects in that reference frame. For example, a professor’s position could
be described in terms of where she is in relation to the nearby white board (Figure 1). In
other cases, we use reference frames that are not stationary but rather are in motion relative
to Earth. To describe the position of a person in an airplane, for example, we use the
airplane, not Earth, as the reference frame (Figure 2).
The variable X is often used to represent the horizontal position. The variable Y is often used
to represent the vertical position.
What does displacement mean?
If an object moves relative to a reference frame—for example, if a professor moves to the
right relative to a whiteboard, or a passenger moves toward the rear of an airplane—then the
object’s position changes. This change in position is known as displacement. The word
displacement implies that an object has moved, or has been displaced.
Displacement: is defined to be the change in position of an object. It can be defined
mathematically with the following equation:
Displacement Δx=xf−x0

xf refers to the value of the final position.

x0 refers to the value of the initial position.
Δx is the symbol used to represent displacement.
f location, which is called position.
After working through this module, you should be able to:
 Define a coordinate system.
 Construct position vectors.
 Explain the similarities and differences between position, displacement and distance.
 Calculate the displacement between two locations.
 Distance versus Displacement

It is important to separate the concept of distance from that of displacement. Both

quantities are measured in units of length. But it should be clear from common usage that
distance is not a vector. Consider the first two legs of the trip described in the example at the
top of this Module. In the first leg (dorm room to physics building) the student has a
displacement of + 2 blocks in our initial coordinate system, or 2 blocks east. We would
20
simply say that the student moved a distance of 2 blocks. No direction is needed when
specifying distance. In the second leg of the trip (physics building to cafeteria) the
displacement was − 3 blocks, or 3 blocks west. Again, we would simply say the distance
traveled was 3 blocks.
From this discussion, it may be tempting to say that the distance is equivalent to the
magnitude of the displacement. There is an important problem with this definition, however.
Consider the students movement from another perspective: put the first t wo legs together
into one trip. For the student's trip from the dorm to the physics building and then to the
cafeteria, the initial position was xi = 0 blocks (the dorm) and the final position was xf = −
1 block (the cafeteria). The total change in position for this trip was:

In other words, the student ended the trip one block west of where they started (the cafeteria
is one block west of the dorm). Tracing the complete trip on the map, however, makes it
clear that the distance traveled by the student was actually 5 blocks (2 blocks to get to the
physics building plus 3 blocks to get to the cafeteria). Clearly the size of the displacement is
not equal to the distance. This discrepancy is not a problem, however. The distance measures
the total length of the trip, while displacement measures the net effect of the trip. The student
moved 5 blocks total, but because they turned around during the trip, two of the three blocks
moved in the second leg (from the physics building to the cafeteria) were used to "undo" the
first leg (by returning to the dorm). Thus, they ended up only 1 block from where they
started.

Multi-Dimensional Coordinate Systems:

Position and displacement can be generalized to more than one dimension by using the
rules of vector addition and subtraction. Suppose that we re-imagine the campus of the
example we have been using. Suppose that the distance from the dorm to the physics
building is still 2 blocks and the distance from the physics building to the cafeteria is still 3

21
blocks, but suppose that the cafeteria is now 3 blocks south of the physics building rather
than 3 blocks west of the physics building. If we choose a coordinate system with the physics
building at the origin, we can represent this situation as shown in the left picture below. Note
that we have been forced to define a y-axis as well as an x-axis, because the campus map is
now two-dimensional.
The net displacement achieved by the student in this trip is now determined by using the
Pythagorean Theorem to be about 3.61 blocks. The direction of this displacement is usually
reported as an angle. The angle shown in the figure (56.3°) was determined using
trigonometry from the sides of the triangle formed by the green and red arrows. It is not,
however, appropriate to simply state that the displacement of the student was 3.61 blocks at
56.3°. The angle that is reported must be referenced to the coordinate system chosen. The
usual technique is to measure angles clockwise from the positive x-axis, so that in this case
the appropriate angle to report is 303.7°. It is also fairly common to call this angle− 56.3°.

22
Distance Speed Time Formula:
Speed is a measure of how quickly an object moves from one place to another. It is
equal to the distance traveled divided by the time. It is possible to find any of these three
values using the other two. This picture is helpful:

The positions of the words in the triangle show where they need to go in the equations. To
find the speed, distance is over time in the triangle, so speed is distance divided by time. To
find distance, speed is beside time, so distance is speed multiplied by time.

, ,

, ,
s = speed (meters/second)
d = distance traveled (meters)
t = time (seconds)
Distance Speed Time Formula Questions:
1) A dog runs from one side of a park to the other. The park is 80.0 meters across. The dog
takes 16.0 seconds to cross the park. What is the speed of the dog?
Answer: The distance the dog travels and the time it takes are given. The dog’s speed can be
found with the formula:

s = 5.0 m/s
The speed of the dog is 5.0 meters per second.
2) A golf cart is driven at its top speed of 27.0 km/h for 10.0 minutes. In meters, how far did
the golf cart travel?

23
Answer: The first step to solve this problem is to change the units of the speed and time so
that the answer found will be in meters, since this is what the question asks for. The speed is:
s = 27.0 km/h

s = 7.50 m/s
Converting the units, the speed is 7.50 m/s. The time the cart traveled for was:
t = 10.0 min

t = 600s
The speed of the cart and the time of travel are given, so the distance traveled can be found
using the formula:
d = st
d = (7.50 m/s)(600 s)
d = 4500 m
The golf cart traveled 4500 m, which is equal to 4.50 km.

Velocity

The average speed of an object is defined as the distance traveled divided by the time elapsed.
Velocity is a vector quantity, and average velocity can be defined as the displacement divided by
the time. For the special case of straight line motion in the x direction, the average velocity takes
the form:

The units for velocity can be implied from the definition to be meters/second or in general any
distance unit over any time unit.

You can approach an expression for the instantaneous velocity at any point on the path by taking
the limit as the time interval gets smaller and smaller. Such a limiting process is called
a derivative and the instantaneous velocity can be defined as

24
 Average Velocity, Straight Line
The average speed of an object is defined as the distance traveled divided by the time elapsed.
Velocity is a vector quantity, and average velocity can be defined as the displacement divided
by the time. For the special case of straight line motion in the x direction, the average velocity
takes the form:

If the beginning and ending velocities for this motion are known, and the acceleration is
constant, the average velocity can also be expressed as

For this special case, these expressions give the same result.

The average speed of an object is defined as the distance traveled divided by the time elapsed.
Velocity is a vector quantity, and average velocity can be defined as the displacement divided
by the time. For general cases involving non-constant acceleration, this definition must be
applied directly because the straight line average velocity expressions do not work.

25
Instantaneous velocity:
Now the idea of average velocity is something that is fairly straightforward, but the idea
of instantaneous velocity is a little trickier. It really requires calculus to fully appreciate, but
hopefully you already know what a derivative is, so this shouldn't be too hard.

ً ‫ إنها تتطلب حقا‬.‫ ولكن فكرة السرعة اللحظية هي أكثر صعوبة‬، ‫اآلن فكرة متوسط السرعة هي شيء بسيط إلى حد ما‬
‫ لذلك ال ينبغي أن يكون ذلك‬، ‫ ولكن نأمل أن تعرف بالفعل ما هو المشتق‬، ‫حساب التفاضل والتكامل إلى أقصى حد ممكن‬
‫صعبا ً للغاية‬

Suppose the velocity of the car is varying, because for example, you're in a traffic jam. You
look at the speedometer and it's varying a lot, all the way from zero to 60 mph. What is the
instantaneous velocity? It is, more or less, what you read on the speedometer. I'm assuming
you've got a good speedometer that isn't too sluggish and can change its reading quite
quickly. Your speedometer is measuring the average velocity but one measured over quite a
short time, to ensure that you're getting an up to date reading of your velocity.

So if you measure the displacement of the car over a time , you can use that to
determine the average velocity of the car. What we want is to take the limit as goes to
zero. More formally, the instantaneous velocity v is defined as

Most of the time we'll be working with instantaneous velocity, so we'll just drop the
instantaneous, and call the above v the velocity.

To justify that such a limit exists is something that you've hopefully had to grapple with already.
For physics problems, this limit does indeed exist and gives the derivative:

We can go through how this limit works out in the following example.

Example of a limit

Suppose you know that the position of an object depends on time as (here I'm being
naughty and forgetting about units for the moment). Lets calculate the instantaneous velocity
at t = 1.

So in this case , and . We'll want to try different values of and verify
that we do appear to converge to a sensible final answer.

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Let's start with , then so from eq. (3.1) we have, over this time
interval is

OK that's fine, but this is clearly not an infinitesimal interval. Let's shrink the interval by 1/2 so
that . Then

If we shrink the interval even further, so that then going through the same steps
gives . If we now try , then .

It looks pretty clear that as we're coming up with an instantaneous velocity of 2.

This is what you'd expect since the derivative of is 2t . Evaluating this at t=1, we get 2.

Average velocity:
Suppose you're cruising down the highway and you go 60 miles in 1 hour. Then
your average velocity is 60 mi/hr. Now we are going to go through this more formally as
follows. Say we measure everything along a line from point. That is we were driving along a
straight road and we had set our odometer to zero in San Jose. Now it reads 15 miles, and we
look at our clock and it says that it's 9 A.M. Introducing variable names to describe this, our
initial position equals 15 miles, and our initial time equals 9 hours Later on we look at
the odometer and it reads 75 miles, and our clock reads 10 AM. So we can introduce two
other sets of variables to describe this. Our final position equals 75 miles, and our final
time equals 10 hours.

Acceleration:
Why bother to go to all the trouble of inventing four variable names? It seems like a
pretentious way of saying something quite simple. Well the reason is that physics is much
easier dealt with in terms of mathematical equations. If we can translate everyday
happenings into a precise mathematical formulation, then we'll see that it's possible to do
pretty amazing things! So just put up with this for the moment, and later on you'll see that it
is indeed quite useful.

So now we are in a position to define the average velocity in one dimension . It is the ratio
of the change in position , to the change in time .

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Often as a shorthand, we'll write , and . So the Greek letter can be
thought of as meaning "the change in". In this way, our definition of average velocity can be
written more succinctly as:

In physics, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time. An
object's acceleration is the net result of all forces acting on the object, as described by
Newton's Second Law. The SI unit for acceleration is meter per second squared (m s−2).
Accelerations are vector quantities (they have magnitude and direction) and add according to
the parallelogram law. The vector of the net force acting on a body has the same direction as
the vector of the body's acceleration, and its magnitude is proportional to the magnitude of
the acceleration, with the object's mass (a scalar quantity) as proportionality constant.

Acceleration is a measure of how quickly the velocity of an object changes. So, the
acceleration is the change in the velocity, divided by the time. Acceleration has a magnitude
(a value) and a direction. The direction of the acceleration does not have to be the same as
the direction of the velocity. The units for acceleration are meters per second squared (m/s2).

a = acceleration (m/s2)
vf = the final velocity (m/s)
vi = the initial velocity (m/s)
t = the time in which the change occurs (s)
Δv = short form for "the change in" velocity (m/s)
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Acceleration Formula Questions:

1) A sports car is travelling at a constant velocity v = 5.00 m/s. The driver steps on the gas,
and the car accelerates forward. After 10.0 seconds, the driver stops accelerating and
maintains a constant velocity v = 25.0 m/s. What was the car’s acceleration?
Answer: The initial velocity is vi = 5.00 m/s, in the forward direction. The final velocity
is vf = 25.0 m/s in the forward direction. The time in which this change occurred is 10.0 s.
The acceleration is in the forward direction, with a value:

The car's acceleration is 2.00 m/s2, forward.

2) A child drops a rock off of a cliff. The rock falls for 15.0 s before hitting the ground. The
acceleration due to gravity is g = 9.80 m/s2. What was the velocity of the rock the instant
before it hit the ground?
Answer: The rock was released from rest, so the initial velocity is vi = 0.00 m/s. The time in
which the change occurred is 15.0 s. The acceleration is 9.80 m/s2. The final velocity must be
found, so rearrange the equation:

vf = vi + at
vf = 0.00 m/s +(9.80 m/s2)(15.0 s)
vf = 147 m/s
The rock is falling, so the direction of the velocity is down.

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Average Acceleration Formula:

Acceleration is the rate of change for velocity, that is, change in velocity over a
specified period of time. Average acceleration is the final velocity minus the initial velocity
per time taken.
Aavg = Δv / Δt
Aavg = Average acceleration, m/s2
Δv = vf - vi, m/s
Δt = tf - ti, s

Motion and constant acceleration:

The simplest type of accelerated motion is motion in a straight line and constant
acceleration. The velocity changes at the same rate as the motion progresses. There are three
basic equations of motion that will get you through most homework problems that deal with
motion in a straight line at constant acceleration.
(1) x = x0 + v0t + ½at2
(2) v = v0 + at
(3) v2 = v02 + 2a(x – x0)
where
x is the distance travelled
x0 is the initial starting point
v is the velocity
v0 is the initial velocity
a is the acceleration
t is the time
This worked constant acceleration example problem will show how to use these three
equations of motion to find details about the position, velocity and acceleration of a breaking
vehicle.
Example Problem:
A motorist is speeding along at 120 km/hr when he sees a squirrel on the road 200 meters in
front of him. He tries to stop, but it takes 12 seconds for his car to stop.
(a) What is the acceleration of the car? (Assume acceleration was constant)
(b) Does the squirrel survive?
(c) How fast was the car moving at 100 meters?
Solution:
This shows the conditions of the vehicle at the beginning (t = 0 s) and when the car has come
to a stop (v = 0 km/hr)

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Force and Newton's Law of Motion:

We know from experience that an object at rest never start to move by itself. A push
or pull exerted on it by some other body. The physical change in the body: either change the
magnitude or change the direction of the velocity. Thus, in each case, the body is accelerated
and an external force must act on it to produce the acceleration.

Newton’s first law: states that a body continues at rest or in uniform motion (constant
velocity) along a straight line unless affected by force which change its state or its
magnitude. Like a tennis ball struck by a racket experiences a sudden change in its motion
attributable to a force exerted by the racket.

∑𝐹 = 0

Newton’s second law: The relationship between an object's mass m, its acceleration a,
and the applied force F. Acceleration and force are vectors in this law the direction of the
force vector is the same as the direction of the acceleration vector.

𝑑𝑃⃗ 𝑑(𝑚𝑣)
𝐹= = ,
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

where 𝑃⃗ is the momentum ( ‫ )الزخم‬and m the mass (its constant) then

𝑑𝑣
𝐹=𝑚
𝑑𝑡

So the force (F) is defined as the product of the mass of the body and its acceleration
(a)

Force = mass × acceleration

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

Which has the unit of kg m/s2, which is equal to Newton (N).

Exp.: which of these units belong the force?

A) Kg m2/s B) kg m2/s2 C)N D)kg m/s2

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 While the third law states that for any action there is a reaction equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction

∑ 𝐹12 = − ∑ 𝐹21

1N=105 dyne (dyn) dyn=10-5 N

Exp: find the force exerted on a body weighted 800g and made it to move with acceleration
of 3 m/s2
Answer:
F=ma =800g ×3 m/s2
=800×10-3 kg×3 m/s2=2.4 N

Viscosity:
The viscosity of a fluid is the measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear
stress ‫ القص‬or tensile ‫ الشد‬stress. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of
"thickness": for example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water.
Viscosity is the property of a fluid which opposes the relative motion between two surfaces
of the fluid that are moving at different velocities. In simple terms, viscosity means friction
between the molecules of fluid. When the fluid is forced through a tube, the particles which
compose the fluid generally move more quickly near the tube's axis and more slowly near its
walls; therefore some stress (such as a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube)
is needed to overcome the friction between particle layers to keep the fluid moving. For a
given velocity pattern, the stress required is proportional to the fluid's viscosity.
Viscosity has the SI units Pascal seconds (Pa s) which is called the Poiseuille. More
commonly used is the dyne sec/cm2 which is called Poise. One Pa s is 10 Poise. The Poise is
used in the table because of its more common usage. Data from Gustafson. These viscosities
are at 20°C except for the blood and blood plasma which are at body temperature, 37°C, and
for steam which is at 100°C.
Formally, viscosity (represented by the symbol η "eta") is the ratio of the shearing
stress (F/A) to the velocity gradient (Δvx/Δz or dvx/dz) in a fluid.

32
 F⁄
η= A
∆νχ /Δ𝑧
or
F⁄
η= A
dνχ /d𝑧
The more usual form of this relationship, called Newton's equation, states that the resulting
shear of a fluid is directly proportional to the force applied and inversely proportional to its
viscosity. The similarity to Newton's second law of motion (F = ma) should be apparent.

𝐹 ∆𝜈𝜒 ∆𝛎
=η ⇔ F̅ = m
𝐴 ∆𝑧 ∆𝐭

Or if you prefer calculus symbols (and who doesn't)…

𝐹 𝑑𝜈𝜒
=η 𝐝𝛎
𝐴 𝑑𝑧 ⇔ F̅ = m
𝐝𝐭

Dynamic and kinematic viscosity:

In fluid dynamics, it is common to work in terms of the kinematic viscosity (also called
"momentum diffusivity"), defined as the ratio of the viscosity η to the density of the fluid ρ.
It is usually denoted by the (ν) and has units:
η
𝜈=
𝜌
Consistent with this nomenclature, the viscosity η is frequently called the dynamic
viscosity.
To more understanding viscosity it have to understand some concepts:

Density:
The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass per
unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ. though the Latin letter D can also
be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume:
𝑚
ρ=
𝑉

33
Where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. In some cases (for instance, in
the United States oil and gas industry), density is loosely defined as its weight per unit
volume
Viscosity of Whole Blood:
Blood viscosity is a measurement of the thickness and stickiness of an individual's blood.
It is a direct measure of the ability of blood to flow through the blood vessels.
Blood measurement determines how much friction the blood causes against the vessels, how
hard the heart has to work to pump the blood through the body, and how much oxygen is
delivered to organs and tissues.
Blood viscosity is correlated with all known risk factors for cardiovascular disease.
Elevated blood viscosity is a strong independent predictor of cardiovascular events.
In fact, blood viscosity is the only biological parameter that has been linked with all of the
other major cardiovascular risk factors, including high blood pressure, elevated LDL
cholesterol, low HDL, type-II diabetes, metabolic syndrome, obesity, smoking, age, and
male gender.
Polycythemia vera (pol-e-sy-THEE-me-uh VEER-uh) is a slow-growing blood cancer in
which your bone marrow makes too many red blood cells. These excess cells thicken your
blood, slowing its flow. They also cause complications, such as blood clots, which can lead
to a heart attack or stroke.
Polycythemia vera isn't common. It usually develops slowly, and you might have it for years
without knowing. Often the condition is found during a blood test done for another reason.
Without treatment, polycythemia vera can be life-threatening. But proper medical care can
help ease signs, symptoms and complications of this disease. Over time, in some cases
there's a risk of progressing to more-serious blood cancers, such as myelofibrosis or acute

34