College of Engineering and Architecture

Civil Engineering Department

Brgy. Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

ENS244 B – Principles of Geology

MWF 10:00-11:00AM

Unit IV – Structural Geology

Topics:
A. Forms and Structure of Rocks
B. Bedding Plane and Outcrops
C. Dip and Strike
D. Elementary Ideas about Fold
E. Fault
F. Joint and Unconformity and Recognition on
Outcrops
G. Importance of Geological Structure in Civil
Engineering Projects

Engr. Christopher B. Patrimonio MBA, MEngCE

Instructor

25 May 2021
 Mir, Fatima J. Magsigay, David Samuel A.

Pagod, Louise Danica U. Zuniega, Jene C.

Oclarit, Faizah Anne S. Linihan, Mary Rose S.

Kua, Joan Mae Queenzie O.

 I. Introduction

Geologic structures are usually the result of the powerful tectonic forces that
occur within the earth. These forces fold and break rocks, form deep faults, and build
mountains. Repeated applications of force—the folding of already folded rocks or the
faulting and offsetting of already faulted rocks—can create a very complex geologic
picture that is difficult to interpret. Most of these forces are related to plate tectonic
activity. Some of the natural resources we depend on, such as metallic ores and
petroleum, often form along or near geologic structures. Thus, understanding the origin
of these structures is critical to discovering more reserves of our nonrenewable
resources.

Structural geology is the study of the study of factors such as origin, occurrence,
classification, type and effects of various secondary structures like folds, faults, joints,
rock cleavage and are different from different from those primary structures such as
bedding and vesicular structure, which develop in rocks at the time of their formation.

In this topic you will learn about the forms and structure of rocks, the bedding
place and outcrops, dip and strike, elementary ideas about fold, fault, joint and
unconformity and recognition on outcrops, and the importance of geological structure in
civil engineering projects, respectively.
 II. Discussion

A. Forms and Structure of Rocks

Rocks are something that we can easily see in our environment, there are certain
types of rocks that captivates our interest because of its different color or forms and
sometimes because that certain rock is different from all others, but if we tend to be
more attentive of these rocks, we would know that these are something which is
important and just something dull and common for there are certain things that rocks
can give us that we really didn’t know. One of these things are, rocks contain clues about
what are earth was like in the past, it can also provide shelter for other organisms and
these rocks also helps us develop new technologies and are used in our daily lives. Form
building materials, roads, appliances and many other things where in we benefit from
rocks. Which why rocks are really important and living life like we have now would be
lacking if there is no rocks around.

ROCKS

All rocks on Earth can be classified into three types of rocks. Each type of rock is
made in a different way and has distinctive features. Discover examples of igneous rocks,
metamorphic rocks, and sedimentary rocks to see what the different types of rocks and
how they look like.

There are three Types of Rocks:

 Igneous Rocks
 Sedimentary Rocks
 Metamorphic Rocks
 Igneous Rock

When molten rock, or melted rock, solidifies, igneous rocks are formed. Igneous
rocks form when magma (molten rock) cools and crystallizes, either at volcanoes on the
surface of the Earth or while the melted rock is still inside the crust. All magma develops
underground, in the lower crust or upper mantle, because of the intense heat there.
There are two types of igneous rocks: intrusive and extrusive.

Formation of Igneous Rocks

TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

 Intrusive Igneous Rock

 Extrusive Igneous Rock

Intrusive Igneous Rocks

The slow cooling of molten rock under the Earth’s surface creates the large
crystals in intrusive igneous rocks. Intrusive rocks are also called plutonic rocks.

Examples of Intrusive Igneous Rocks are:

Diorite Gabbro
 Granite Pegmatite

Peridotite

Extrusive Igneous Rocks

When molten rock breaks the Earth’s surface and cools quickly with small
crystals, it’s called an extrusive igneous rock.

Examples of Extrusive Igneous Rocks are:

Andesite Basalt
 Pumice Dacite

Obsidian Rhyolite

Scoria Tuff
 Properties of Igneous Rocks:

Different types of igneous rocks have different properties, but there are some
general properties that help identify all igneous rocks.

•They all contain minerals.

•The majority are made up of silicate materials.

•The process of igneous rock formation cannot be directly observed.

•They can be fine-grained or close-grained.

•Lava that cools quickly often has a glassy texture.

Sedimentary Rock

Are formed when sediment is deposited out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water
flows carrying the particles in suspension. This sediment is often formed when
weathering and erosion break down a rock into loose material in a source area. Layers of
silt, sand, dead plant matter, and dead animal matter press together on or near the
Earth’s surface to form sedimentary rocks. There are three basic types of sedimentary
rocks: clastic, chemical, and organic.

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
 Organic Sedimentary Rocks
 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Debris from mechanical weathering, or the process of rocks breaking down from
larger to smaller pieces, forms clastic sedimentary rocks. These rocks are also called
inorganic detrital rocks.

Examples of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks are:

Breccia Conglomerate

Sandstone Shale Siltstone

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

When dissolved minerals come out of water, they form chemical sedimentary
rocks.

Examples of Chemical Sedimentary Rocks are:

Castile evaporite Chalk Chert

Fint Gypsum Iron Ore

Limestone Rock Salt

Organic Sedimentary Rocks

The accumulation of animal and plant debris forms organic sedimentary rocks.
These rocks can also be called organic detrital rocks.

Examples of Organic Sedimentary Rocks are:

Coal Fossiliferous Limestone Coquina

Properties of Sedimentary Rocks

The properties of sedimentary rocks vary slightly from rock to rock.

 Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of rock and mineral grains you can
see with the naked eye or a microscope.

•The texture of igneous rocks is either fragmental or crystalline.

•Sedimentary rocks are found mostly on the Earth’s surface.

•These rocks contain the fossil record of ancient plants and animals.

Metamorphic Rocks

Rocks modified by heat, pressure, and chemical processes underground are called
metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed from other rocks that are changed
because of heat or pressure. They are not made from molten rock – rocks that do melt
form igneous rocks instead. Earth movements can cause rocks to be deeply buried or
squeezed. As a result, the rocks are heated and put under great pressure. There are two
main types of metamorphic rocks: foliated and non-foliated.

Formation of Metamorphic Rocks

 TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

 Foliated Metamorphic Rock

 Non-foliated Metamorphic Rock

Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

These rocks appear to be banded, or layered, which is caused by directed pressure

and heat.

Examples of Foliated Metamorphic Rocks are:

GNEISS PHYLLITE SCHIST

Slate

Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks that don’t appear banded are non-foliated.

Examples of Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks are:

 AMPHIBOLITE HORNFELS MARBLES

NOVACULITE QUARTZITE SOAPSTONE

Properties of Metamorphic Rocks

Since all metamorphic rocks start out as other types of rocks, the properties of
metamorphic rocks can vary.

•Metamorphic rocks are generally crystalline in texture.

•They often have a banded, or squashed look.

•They do not get hot enough to melt.

Mir, Fatima J.
 B. Bedding Plane and Outcrops

Observable geological structure includes the formation of bedding plane and

outcrops that can be found at specific places. It is crucial to study the bedding plane and
outcrops because it helps us know and understand the story behind these amazing
structures of how they were formed, causes of the formation and its origin.

Bedding (also
called stratification) is one of the
most prominent features of
sedimentary rocks, which are
usually made up of ‘piles’ of
layers (called ‘strata‘) of
sediments deposited one on top
of another.

Every stratum is
characterized by its own lithology (composition), sedimentary structures, grain
size and fossil content that make it unique and different from the strata that lie above
and below it. Every layer represents an event, a moment in the geological time when
chemical, biological, and physical conditions led to the deposition of a specific rock layer.

An event in the sedimentary record could have lasted thousands of years (e.g., the
slow settling of a clay layer on the seabed) to a few minutes (e.g., the fast deposition of
a turbidite). In any case, when looking at a sequence of strata, we are looking through
the sequence of events that occurred in a sedimentary basin over the geologic time.

In 1669, the Danish

scientist Niels Stensen
(latinized as Nicolaus Steno),
developed the principles that
describe how strata develop,
paving the foundations of
modern stratigraphy (the
branch of geology dealing with
Horizontal strata exposed in the Quebrada de Cafayate strata).
(Argentina). Photo © travelwayoflife (Flickr)
 The modern principles of stratigraphy represent a derivation of the original
principles defined by Steno. According to such principles, younger strata are found at
the top, while older strata occur at the base of sedimentary sequences (principle of
superposition), strata deposit as horizontal layers (principle of original horizontality),
and are laterally continuous throughout the sedimentary basin (principle of strata
continuity).

If strata are cut by something else (for example, by planes of secondary foliation),

the cross-cutting element must necessarily be younger than the strata (principle of
cross-cutting relationships).

These principles are useful when investigating rock strata that are involved in
orogens. Tilted layers (as in the photographs at the top of the page and below) are the
result of tectonic forces that fold, squeeze, and tilt, originally flat-lying beds (according
to the principle of original horizontality). It is also possible to find, in deformed areas,
overturned beds, horizontal strata that are upside-down. Fossil content and
sedimentary structures can tell the careful geologist that the youngest strata are on the
bottom and the oldest on top, and hence that the principle of superposition is not
respected.

Inclined bedding exposed on the south-west side of Monte Pelmetto (Dolomites, Italy).
These beds were originally lying horizontally and were tilted during the build up of the
Alps. Photo © Richard Jones (Flickr)
 The principle of strata continuity allows to correlate strata that are exposed in
different areas and are far away from each other. Famous examples of the application of
this principle are from the Grand Canyon area and Northern Arizona in general, where
originally continuous strata have been separated following millions of years of erosion.
The careful study of the sedimentary sequences exposed in different areas allowed to
reconstruct the whole stratigraphic succession of the Colorado Plateau, based on the
analysis of many outcrops in multiple areas.

The layers exposed in the West, East and Merrick Butte at the Monument Valley
(Arizona) were once connected and are now  separated, after millions of years of
erosion. Photo © Christoph Grützner (Imaggeo)

The last example shows the application of the principle of cross-cutting

relationships. The bedding on the photograph below is represented by the vertical (i.e.
tilted beds!) contact between quartzite (right) and slate (left). The planar surfaces
inclined to the left that are mostly developed in the slate and crosscut the bedding are
not strata. They are metamorphic foliation planes that, indeed, developed after the
deposition of these rocks.

Quartzite and slate contact in the Precambrian of Wisconsin, USA. The stratification is
vertical and the foliation, well-developed in the slate, dips to the left. Photo © James St. John
(Flickr)
 Outcrops
As we still know, earth’s solid part is
composed of rocks although the earth’s surface
observation is hindered by vegetation that covers it.
Consequently, it is necessary to look for places
where rock has no vegetation to study it.

These kinds of places where rock can be observed properly are called outcrops.

Outcrops can be natural, when they are formed as a consequence of river or sea
erosion so we can distinguish its materials and a cross section in the landscape.

However, outcrops more frequently seen are those who are artificial, as a result of
human action. These are cross sections formed when building roads, railroads or as a
consequence of mine
exploitations such as
stone quarries.
Aspects to study when observing an outcrop

 Studying outcrops is the key to analyse earth’s crust materials. This is a

part of geologists’ fieldwork.
 Outcrops are generally made up of some vegetation on the top and then a
layer of organic matter from plants degradation or mineral matter from rocks alteration.
The layer with vegetation is called soil. Generally, we call everything under the soil
subsoil, conformed by rocky formations.

A good analyse of outcrops contributes to obtain the indispensable information so

as subsoil information is interpreted. It must give us some information about:

 Different kinds of materials: present rocks and other components.

 Materials structuring in units divided or not in layers and its location in

space, joints, faults, etc.

 Relation between units of material, that is their age order.

Interpreting these characteristics allows us to obtain the succession of events that

have been taking place all over the years in order to create the materials studied and its
properties, which constitutes the geologic history of this area.

Studying outcrops will be our starting in fieldwork, which tries to take as most
information as possible from direct observation of the place that is being studied in
order to interpret it afterwards. As in all observation works, a guide that help us to get
information is essential. Because of that we propose you a guideline to study outcrops
that you should try out visiting some outcrops around you.
Outcrops general
parts

1. How does geology relate to the human experience?

Geology, by definition, is the study of the Earth, the materials of which it is made,
the structure of those materials, and the processes acting upon them. It includes the
study of organisms that have inhabited our planet and human existence. Geology relates
to human existence and experiences as it affects the livelihood of the people. The Earth
is constantly changing and it happens that humans should be flexible and adaptive to
change. If the vegetation planted by humans will be destroyed caused by volcanic
eruption, it will affect the people's daily needs. That is one example on how geology
relates to human experiences.

2. How does geology affect our everyday lives?

Life is unpredictable. But with the help of technological equipment, we are able to
avoid happenings that would barely affect people's lives. Although humans are able to
track events like earthquake, volcanic activities, rain and others, it is not guaranteed that
people's lives is safe from geological changes. People living near volcanoes could be in
the state of high risk because the volcano may erupt at any time caused by climate
change. That would be the same situation to those people living near the fault line that is
in high risk of earthquake.

3. What global geologic and environmental issues facing humankind?

Environmental geology may be defined as the interaction of humans with their –

fundamentally geological – environment. The environment can be considered to consist
of both the constituents of the Earth itself (rocks, sediments, and fluids) and its surface
and the processes that operate to change it through time.

Environmental geology is a subset of environmental science, which is the study of

the interaction of humans with all aspects of their environment – physical, atmospheric,
and biological – and is linked directly with engineering geology.

As human continuously consume the natural resources, earth materials are

depleting that is proportional to the increase of population. And because of human
activities, we are facing many geological and environmental issues. One example is the
mining activity leading to several serious environmental impacts related to quarrying
activities on and near the river, such as vibrations, land degradation, land subsidence
and landslides, water pollution, occupational noise pollution, and air pollution, will
affect to health-related problems and loss of biodiversity.
Magsigay, David Samuel A.
 C. Dip and Strike

One thing geologist try to do is map the surface of the earth in order to do so
they take measurements on the layers of rock to show which direction they are
tilted and how they are angled. Some of the common tools they use to explain and
show how beds of rock are bent are strike and dip.

Strike and dip refer to the direction or attitude of a geologic feature. The strike

line of a bed, fault, or other planar feature, is a line addressing the convergence of that
component with a horizontal plane. Strike is the direction of the line framed by the
crossing point of a rock surface with a horizontal plane. The dip gives the steepest point
of plunge of a shifted bed or feature comparative with a horizontal plane, and is given by
the number (0°-90°) just as a letter (N, S, E, W) with rough direction in which the bed is
plunging downwards.

To learn many of the concepts associated with structural geology, it is useful to

look at block diagrams and block models. Block diagrams are images based on three-
dimensional (3-D) block models, which are blocks of wood or paper with geological
structures marked on them. Block models and block diagrams help in visualizing how 3-
D geological structures in reality can be represented in two dimensions on a map or in a
geological cross-section.

As you look at the block diagrams in the figure below, there are different ways
that you can view them: from above, or from the sides. The top block in that figure is a
region seen in map view, which is the view from directly over the block. The lower block
is from a similar rock layers, and you are seeing it in cross-area or from the side. And
note that when you are viewing the rock in cross-section, you can perceive how the rock
layers are shifted.
 Sedimentary rocks, under the influence of gravity, will deposit in horizontal
layers based on principle of original horizontality. The oldest rocks will be on the
bottom because they had to be there first for the others to deposit on top of them,
and are numbered with the oldest being #1 according to the law of superposition.
The wooden block in the figure shown below which is a cross-section view of
sedimentary layers provides an example of the principle of original horizontality
and the law of superposition. Different rock types are given different colors. The
oldest rock, on the bottom, is labelled #1 and the youngest rock is labeled as #4.
Each of the boundaries between the colored rock units in the figure represents a
geological contact, which is the planar surface between two adjacent rock units.

To measure and portray the geometry of geological layers, geologists apply the
concepts of strike and dip. Strike refers to the line formed by the intersection of a
horizontal plane and an inclined surface. This line is known as a strike line, and the
bearing the line focuses in, either heading, as a line focuses in two inverse ways is
the strike point. Dip is the angle between that horizontal plane and the inclined
surface, such as a geological contact between tilted layers estimated opposite to the
strike line down to the slanted surface

The figure below which is a top of a house is a valuable method to consider

strike and dip. The sloping roof of a building is a useful analogy to illustrate strike
and dip. A house's roof has an edge along the top, and afterward sides that slope
away from the edge. The edge resembles a strike line, and the point that the rooftop
slants is the dip of the rooftop. The small image in the top right corner of the figure
shows the roof viewed from above or known as the map or plan view with the strike
and dip symbol superimposed on it.
 Now the figure below represents strike and dip for tilted flat sedimentary
layers. Water provides a horizontal surface; the line of strike is represented by the
water line when a lake intersects with the rock along the shoreline. The dip angle for
the beds is estimated from the flat surface to the highest dipping bed, perpendicular
to the strike line. The strike and dip symbol are a T with the long horizontal bar
representing the strike direction, and the small tick mark indicating the dip
direction. The dip angle is written next to the tick mark. To Identify the direction of
the dip, you just have to look at the surface you are working on and depending on
which way its dipping then you just draw it straight down going towards the surface
that is perpendicular to the horizontal strike line.

THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF DIP

 True Dip if the inclination is measured for a dip direction which is
perpendicular to the strike only, then it is called as true dip. And Apparent Dip when
the direction is not perpendicular to the strike line the dip angle so measure is
apparent dip. And the general rule is that true dip is the maximum angle you can
have, then apparent dip is all less than 90°

MEASURING DIP AND STRIKE

In measuring dip and strike geologist use the compass inclinometer, which is
an instrument for measuring angles of slope or tilt.

The first thing that should be done is to adjust your compass to the magnetic
declination. Magnetic declination is the distinction between geographic north and
magnetic north, regarding your position. To figure out what degree you need to set
your compass. To find the strike

To find the strike, stand so that the dip of the bed slopes to the right (this is
known as the Right-Hand Rule). Orient the long arm of the compass in the direction
you are facing, and place the side of the compass against the rock. Level it so that the
bubble in the flat level is in the center of its circle, then read the number that the
north end of the needle is pointing at. That number is your strike.
 Dip is measured at right angles to strike; the compass inclinometer measures
the angle from the horizontal. To find the dip, orient your compass perpendicular to
the strike. The easiest way to do this is to let water fall on the surface of the rock and
it tends to roll down the steepest angle. Place the compass against the rock, on the
side this time, with the long arm pointed down the dip of the bed.

If we had to designate one set of measurements that is fundamental to all

geology, it would have to be Dip and Strike. These simple measures characterize
interestingly the direction such as compass heading and points of a planar surface.
Pagod, Louise Danica U.
 D. Elementary Ideas about Fold

Structural geology studies the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with

respect to their deformational histories. Fold is one of the most common geological
structures found in rocks. As we go on to this topic, we will know the factors that causes
folding of rocks, its type, minor and major structure of fold.

Fold is a bend in strata rock that results from movement within the earth crust
and produces such structure.

When a set of horizontal layers are subjected to compressive forces, they bend
either upward or downward and formed different types of fold. Formation physical
effects produced in rocks due to folding are very important from the civil engineering
point of view, particularly in the location of dams, tunneling and railways, etc.
 As we know, folding of rock occurs due to the tectonic forces and as a result, the
affected rock gets deformed, distorted or disturbed. As the plate move the strata or the
layer of rock are put under immense pressure all through the plate not just at the
boundaries, deformation of rocks may occur that causes to fold and take note that fold is
caused by compressive forces.

There are elements of fold for us to easily determined what types of fold being
formed. These elements are the hinge point, hinge line, limb, axis of fold and axial plane.

 A hinge point is the point of maximum curvature of a folded layer located

in the center of the hinge zone. As you can see from the figure hinge point is the end
point of the fold axes.

 A hinge line is where the limbs of the fold meet, it is the line of maximum
curvature

 A limb is the inclined rock that lies on either side of the axis. The inclined
part of the rock was called limb, as you can see in the figure

 An axis of the fold was the line that connects the points of maximum
curvature of a fold at the surface of the earth. Axis of a fold is located between the curve

 An axial plane cut the hinge zone of a folded surface along the fold axis, it
is an imaginary plane or surface that divides the fold as symmetrically as possible
 There are many types fold, but from the sources I’ve got, the common types of fold
are anticline, syncline, monocline, chevron fold, recumbent fold, isoclinal fold, plunging
fold and ptygmatic fold.

Anticline is the rock layer in an anticlinal trap were originally laid down
horizontally and then earth movement caused it to fold into an arch-like shape, form an
“A” shape

Syncline are form when tectonic plates move toward each other, compressing the
crust and forcing it upward, form the bottom of an “S”.
 Monocline is a simple bend in the rock layers so that they are no longer horizontal,
it also a one-sided fold like structure in which layers of rock warp upwards or
downwards.

Chevron fold has a strong competency contrast between very weak and very hard
layers. When we say competency contrast, the hard layer are more resistant and rather
fracture as they bend, whereas the weak layer are responds to deformation without
fracturing, but we should take note that competency depends on the physical conditions
of deformation. For example, its temperature, when there is high temperature, the weak
layer can’t resist to the hard layer and has a possibility that the rock will break down.
You can identify chevron fold by its repeated sharp hinges and straight limbs.
 Recumbent fold is when one of the lateral forces is much greater, then the other
angle becomes greater too, basically has an essentially horizontal plane

Ptygmatic Fold an irregular, lobate fold, usually found where single competent
layers are enclosed in a matrix of low competence. When we say matrix, it is the finer
grained mass of materials in which layer grains or clasts are embedded. Ptygmatic fold
does not maintain orthogonal thickness or its intersecting at right angle that is why its
fold are chaotic. We can say that the fold is disconnected because their axial plane is not
parallel.

Isoclinal fold is when two limbs of a fold are essentially parallel to each other and thus
approximately parallel to the axial plane.
 Plunging fold is tilted downward in space, parallel to the fold hinge plane and have
been tipped by tectonic forces and have a hinge line not horizontal in the axial plane.

Folds are among the most strikingly beautiful structures we can observe in rocks.
Fold has its minor structure and major structure. Minor structure when the fold height
and fold width could be measured and calculated if they had to be, while Major structure
would include mountains, valleys and many miles of rock or a huge structure made by
the rock deformation.

The structure may include in minor structures are the tension gashes, boudinage,
fracture-cleavage, and slickensides:

Tension Gashes

- are small veins that open up when

rock get stretched, as you can say in
the image. Its stretches are oriented
in the same direction and they are
generally S or Z shaped.

Boudinage

- As you can see in the photo its

like forming a sausage-shaped, it
is because the competent bed
begins to break. Competent bed
is a rock formation that because
of massiveness or inherent
strength, is able to lift not only
its own weight but also the
Fracture- Cleavage

- If the crystal splits cleanly and

smoothly along a flat plane the
break called Cleavage. If the
break does not show flat

Slickensides

- are naturally polished rock surfaces that

occur when the rocks along a fault rub
against each other, making their surfaces
smoothed. As we know what is fault is
and when fault occur, the part of the rock
that break away and produces a smooth
surface of the rock, we can determine
that, that is a slickensides

The Major Structure are the following:

Pericline

- an elongate antiform or synform. This structure

can be a synforn where the fold convex
downward or antifrom where the fold convex
upward. It simply means that it is a large
structure of fold that can be an anticline or
syncline.
Nappe

- when the earth surface move, a large body of

rock has been moved for about a hundred
kilometers or more from its original position
by folding

Dome

- any large or elliptical structure formed by the

fracture-less upwarping of rock strata. A kind of
anticline fold where it formed a curved
structure

Basin

- are shaped like bowls, with sides higher

that the bottom. A kind of syncline fold
where it bend downward in a circular
structure.
 Engineering Consideration of Fold

For the safety of the structure to be build, as an engineer we must considered fold
as a factor if we continue to construct on that site where its highly folded. Based on data
gathered , folding are very important from the civil engineering particularly in the
location of dams, tunneling and railways, etc. For the location of the dams we have 3
cases.

For case 1, if the beds of limbs dip gently in the upstream direction it is more
favorable and advantageous because the weight of the dam acts vertically downwards
and there exist a great lateral thrust due to reservoir water, the resultant force of these
two will always inclined in the downstream direction, means the beds which have a
gentle upstream dip will perpendicular to this resultant force will able to offer their best
resistance to withstand the stressed or loads acting in the area.

If the dam is inclined slightly in the downstream direction is not perpendicular to the
bedding plane of strata, this geological setting is not ideal because reservoir which
under pressure shall attempt leak.
 If the dam is located over the limb of a fold which dips along the downstream
direction and the resultant force of dam will be parallel to the bedding plane, this simply
means that the sedimentary beds are less competent, such a geological condition is
unfavorable and not safe

Folding is a result of stress. These stresses are maximum in the axial zone which
are enough to break the rocks. Hence, axial regions are likely to be the areas of fractured
zones which are weak in strength and porous character. Such areas of folded rock
cannot be trusted as roofs and floors of tunnels or foundation site of dams. Tunneling
can be done along the limbs, along the troughs, rocks are highly compressed hence
trough, offer greater resistance to excavation for tunneling unlike in the crest of fold
where rocks are in tension, therefor its highly unstable.

Regarding laying roads or railway track along the slope of folded hills, the stability
of the ground depends on the mutual relation of the dip of beds and surface slope of the
region. If the surface slope and beds dip coincide, for example, occur in same direction,
the ground may be unstable and landslide are likely to occur in such place
Zuniega, Jene C.
 E. Fault

Fault is brittle type of deformation in which fracture or rupture will be

developed before the displacement of block. Deformation is the action or process of
changing in shape, size, position, or distorting the position of the bed due to the applied
forces. Due to the effect of different stresses we can observe verity of deformation
structures.

Faults are rupture along the opposites walls have move past each other.
The entire process of development of fractures and displacement the blocks against each
other is termed as faulting. The vital feature is differential movement parallel to the
surface fracture, caused by the brittle deformation. These are varying from a few
centimeters to many meters and this displacement may occur in any direction.

Categories of Faults

It happens when stress occurs and determines the fault’s types after the event.
There are three main categories of stress:

1. Compression Stress – the plates move and crash toward each other.
2. Tension Stress – the plates are drifting away from each other.
3. Shear Stress – the plates slide past each other horizontally in opposite
directions.

Features of Faults

The following features allow us to describe faults:

1. Direction – The angle between a horizontal lines contained in the fault

plane with the north-south axis.
2. Dip – The angle between the fault plane with the horizontal.
3. Escarp – Distance between surfaces of the two lips, taken vertically.
4. Mirror Fault – The flat surface although decline, which occurs along the
fault scarp.
5. Triangular Facets – Mirrors showing the cutting failures occurred in a
mountainous row when the failure occurs perpendicular to the direction of this
mountainous row. Both the sunken part as the mirror itself fault have triangular
appearance, hence the name.

Classification of Faults:

1. The relation of the fault attitude with the attitude of the displaced bed
2. The direction of the slip
3. Mode of Occurrences
4. The apparent movement of the rock blocks along the fault plane

Three fundamental types of faults based on apparent movement:

a. Normal Faults
 Such a fault in which hanging wall has apparently moved down with
respect to footwall is classified as a Normal Fault.
 In normal faults, the fault plane may be inclined at any angle between
horizontal and vertical, but most commonly, the fault angles are between 45 and
vertical.
 Further, due to the inclined nature of the fault plane and downward
displacement of a part of the strata, normal faults cause an extension in the crust
wherever they occur.
 b. Reverse Faults
 It is such a type of fault in which the hanging wall appears to have moved
up with respect to the footwall.
 In reverse faults, the fault plane is generally inclined between horizontal
and 45 degrees although reverse faults with steeply inclined fault surface have been also
encountered.
 By virtue of their inclination and direction of movement, reverse faulting
involves shortening of the crust of the Earth (compare with normal faults).

c. Strike-Slip Faults
 Strike-slip faults may be defined as faults in which faulted blocks have
been moved against each other in an essentially horizontal direction.
 There are some other terms used for strike slip faults such as lateral faults,
transverse faults, wrench faults and transform faults.
 Of these, the transform faults are very common and denote strike slip
faults specially developed in oceanic ridges.
Oclarit, Faizah Anne S.
 F. Joint and Unconformity and Recognition on Outcrops

In this report we are going to tackle about the following;

1. What is joint?

2. What are classifications of joints as well as their types.

3. How the joints were formed?

4. What is unconformity?

5. The recognition of outcrop and its examples.

6. What are the effects of geology in human lives?

7. What is the significance of studying geology?

8. Why is geology important?

Geology is a branch of science that studies the physical structures and substances
of the Earth. It incorporates the history of rocks, the form that acts on them and the
foremost financial way to utilize the world’s assets. Geology also includes the strategies
and information from science, chemistry, physics and mathematics. With particular
methods, based on these essential sciences, geography explores the underground world.
Topographical information not as it were is imperative since of the science in itself, but
includes a huge number of common sense approaches, the investigation of normal
assets, the understanding and forecast of common fiascos and so on.

Earth’s surface is the field for most life and all human activity, however what lies
underneath our feet is as strange because it is recognizable. Soil researchers or not, we
recognize slopes, mountains, icy masses, deserts, streams, wetlands, and shorelines. On
the off chance that a great bargain of rain falls, surges may happen; in case a storm
strikes the coast, the shoreline may disintegrate; in case we are careless with our soil,
we may harm or indeed lose it. These thoughts are well known, but with a fair number of
questions we arrive at the edge of our information and confront holes that matter to our
security, our nourishment and water security, the foundation of streets and stream
routes, and the survival and differences of biological systems and administrations they
give.
 Joint

To start with, we define joints as a fracture that is found in all types of rocks. They
are the cracks or openings formed due to different reasons. They are the cleavage in
minerals. The first thing that comes in our
mind is how joints are formed? So,
joints come about from fragile fracture of
a rock body as the result of tensile stresses
and compression stresses. It will happen
when the rock fractures in a plane parallel
to
the maximum central stress and perpendicu
lar to the minimum central stress.

Joint classified into three, which is the genesis, spatial relationship and the
geometry, and these three have their own types that include compression, tension and
shear that are under the genesis. Spatial relationship has two types which are systematic
and non-systematic, and lastly is the geometry which has three types, the dip, oblique
and the strike.

Under the genesis is the compression. Compression happens when a

physical drive presses internal on a protest, causing it to be compacted. In this process,
the relative positions of particles and atoms of the protest alter. This alter can
be brief or lasting depending on the sort of fabric getting the compressive drive. The
distinctive comes about depending on the course or position on the question that the
compressive constrain is connected. Rocks may be compressed to crushing and
numerous joints may
result due to the
compressive forces
in this case. In the
core regions of folds
where compressive
forces are dominant,
joints may be related to the compressive forces.
Rocks deforming plastically beneath compressive stresses falls into folds and
they don't return to their original shape. In this, case the rocks involvement pushes
more, they may experience more collapsing or indeed fracture.

The second type that underlies the genesis is the tension. Tension is the opposite
of compression. If the compression moves toward each other, tension pulls apart. Over
time, the rocks are disintegrated, and the weight of the overburden is lifted, so the rocks
cool and are beneath less pressure, which causes
the shake to alter shape, regularly forming breaks. As the compression is lifted from the
rocks, they can respond to the tension on them by shaping these breaks, or joints.

Those which have developed due to the tensile forces acting on the rocks. The
most common location of such joints in folded sequence is on the outer margins of crests
and troughs. They are also produced in igneous rocks during their cooling. Joints
produced in many rocks during the weathering of overlying strata and subsequent
release of stresses by expansion are also thought to be due to the tensile forces.

The last type is the shear, which are commonly observed in the vicinity of fault
planes and shear zones where the relationship with shearing forces is
clearly established. In folded rocks, these are located in axial regions. It is the response
of a rock to deformation usually by compressive stress and forms particular textures.
The process of shearing happens inside fragile, brittle-ductile,
and pliable rocks. Inside fragile rocks, compressive stretch comes
about in breaking and straightforward blaming.
 Spatial Relationship

Spatial relationship has two types that includes systematic and non-systematic.
Systematic are characterized by a generally planar geometry, they have long followed
and regularly frame sets of around parallel and nearly similarly divided joints. Non-
systematic are ordinarily brief, bended and sporadically dispersed.

Systematic shows a distinct regularity in their occurrence which can be measured

and mapped easily. Such joints occur in parallel or sub-parallel joint sets that are
repeated in the rocks at regular intervals. The columnar joints and the mural
joints described below are examples of regular or systematic jointing.

Based upon the angle at which joint sets of systematic joints intersect to form a
joint system, it can be subdivided into conjugate and orthogonal joint sets. The angles at
which joint sets within a joint system commonly intersect are called by structural
geologists as the dihedral angles. When the dihedral angles are nearly 90 degree within
a joint system, the joint sets are known orthogonal joint sets, and when the dihedral
angles are 30 to 60 degree within a joint system, the joint sets are known as conjugate
joint sets.
 The next type is the non-systematic joint, as the name implies, these do not
possess any regularity in their occurrence and distribution. They appear at random in
the rocks and may have incompletely defined surfaces. In many cases these are related
to the systematic joints in that these occur between them. At other times, the
non- systematic joints may show no relationship with the systematic joints and their
curved and rough surfaces may even cut across the former.

Geometry

Geometry or graphic examination is concerned with precisely portraying the

shapes of bodies of shake as they are at the show day. Geometry is fundamental in
investigation for hydrocarbons and mineral assets - we need to know where precisely
within the subsurface there are the geometries to form stores, or mineral stores.

Dip

In which the joint sets strike parallel to the dip direction of the rocks. It is the
point at which a planar include is inclined to the horizontal plane; it is measured in a
vertical plane perpendicular to the strike of the feature.

Oblique

Are those joints where the strike of the joints is at any angle between the dip and
the strike of the layers. These are also called diagonal joints when they occur
midway between the dip and strike of the layers.

Strike

In which the joint sets strike parallel to the strike of the rocks. The strike line of a
bed, fault, or other planar feature, is a line representing the intersection of that feature
with a horizontal plane. It is the direction of the line shaped by the crossing point of a
fault, bed, or other planar include and a horizontal plane. Strike shows the attitude or
position of straight structural highlights such as faults, beds, joints, and folds.

Basically, the basis of their origin, joints have been divided into several different
types. It is exceedingly difficult to attribute a particular type or group or system or
joints to an exact cause of origin. It should be kept in mind that different joints in the
same outcrop may have formed at different times and for different reasons. Some
predominant forces like compression or tension or shear have been responsible for the
development of joints. By the way joints are classified into the following genetic types.
Which have developed due to tensile forces. Common location-folded sequence is on the
outer margin of crests and troughs. Also produced in igneous rocks during their cooling.
Joints produced in many rocks during weathering of overlying strata and subsequent
release of stresses by expansion are also thought to be due to the tensile forces. These
are formed mainly due to shearing stress. They are originating in folding and faulting of
rock bodies. In the folded region they are located in the axial region. Rocks may be
compressed to crushing and numerous joints may result due to compressive forces in
this case. In the core region of folds where compressive forces are dominant. So, it may
be related to the compressive force.

As we study the importance of joints, we can discover that it is the source of

weakness and as pathways of leakage of water through rocks. The presence of joints
leads to leakage of water in dams and reservoirs, sometimes it even leads to collapse and
in open cast mining benches should be free from joints otherwise it leads to collapse and
leakage. In ground water investigation, particularly in hard rock terrains, jointed strata
regions are generally considered as probable sites for groundwater exploration.
 As engineering students, we must know the importance in quarrying operations of
building and dimension stones. Sandstone and limestone joints are widely spaced and
consequently yield large blocks of rocks required for buildings and masonry
construction. The presence of orthogonal joints in granite will help in economically
profitable quarrying. Huge block of rocks is quarried along the joint pattern. A well-
jointed rock mass is considered a weak rock.

The recognition of joint stated as follows.

o Flat or smooth surface, joint surface is developed.

o Gap between joints.

o Block has been displaced due to faulting the joint may be observed in the
field but it is necessary data in order to convey other end to make pertinent analysis.

Unconformity

Unconformities are the gaps in the geologic record that may indicate episodes of
crustal deformation, erosion, and sea level variations. They are a feature of stratified
rocks and usually found in sediments. They are surfaces between two rocks bodies that
constitute a substantial break in the geologic record. It represent times when
deposition stopped, an interval of erosion removed some of the previously deposited
rock and finally deposition was resumed. They are form due to relative changes in sea
level over time. Wave wear corrodes the materials exposed on the coastline and
smoothest surfaces. At thousands to million years of scale, the coastline can move in all
regions. Removes materials exposed to erosion, waves and current. New materials may
be deposited on the engraved surface. Shallow seas may flood in and then withdraw
repeatedly. Long-lasting transgressions can erode
away entire mountain ranges with enough time.

There are more than three types of

unconformity and these are the common ones. The
first in the list is the angular unconformity. Angular
unconformity is a type of unconformity where
horizontally parallel strata of sedimentary rock are deposited on tilted and eroded
layers, producing an angular discordance with the overlying horizontal layers. It is the
contact that separates a younger, gently dipping rock unit from older underlying rocks
that are tilted or deformed layered rock. The contact is more obvious than a
disconformity because the rock units are not parallel and at first appear cross‐cutting.
Angular unconformities generally represent a longer time hiatus than do
disconformities because the underlying rock had usually been metamorphosed, uplifted,
and eroded before the upper rock unit was deposited. These are the sequences on how
this unconformity forms.

● First: subsidence and sediment deposition occurs;

● Second: rocks are uplifted and tilted (deformation);

● Third: erosion removes the uplifted mountain range; 

● Fourth: subsidence occurs, the sea covers the land surface, and

new sediments deposition occurs on top the previous land surface.  Then the cycle
may repeat.
 The second type is the disconformity. Disconformities are usually erosional
contacts that are parallel to the bedding planes of the upper and lower rock units. Since
disconformities are hard to recognize
in a layered sedimentary rock
sequence, they are often discovered
when the fossils in the upper and lower
rock units are studied. A gap in the
fossil record indicates a gap in the
depositional record, and the length of
time the disconformity represents can
be calculated. Disconformities are
usually a result of erosion but can
occasionally represent periods of
nondeposition. Disconformities are also an erosion surface between two packages of
sediment, but the lower package of sediments was not tilted prior to deposition of the
upper sediment package. It exists where the layers above and below an erosional
boundary have the same orientation. This is how disconformity form:

● First: subsidence and sediment deposition. 

● Second: uplift and erosion; 

● Third: renewed subsidence  and  deposition.  Because the beds below and

above the disconformity are parallel, disconformities are more difficult to recognize in
the sedimentary record. In the diagram at left, the disconformity is indicated by an
irregular black line between the 3rd and 4th rock unit from the bottom.

The last type of unconformity is the non-conformity, defines as a contact that

separates a younger sedimentary rock unit from an igneous intrusive rock or
metamorphic rock unit. A nonconformity suggests that a period of long‐term uplift,
weathering, and erosion occurred to expose the older, deeper rock at the surface before
it was finally buried by the younger rocks above it. A nonconformity is the old erosional
surface on the underlying rock. This type of unconformities that separate igneous or
metamorphic rocks from overlying sedimentary rocks. They usually indicate that a long
period of erosion occurred prior to deposition of the sedimentsA nonconformity
suggests that a period of long‐term uplift, weathering, and erosion occurred to expose
the older, deeper rock at the surface before it was finally buried by the younger rocks
above it and it is the old erosional surface on the underlying rock.

Knowing what unconformity is gives us the

idea what we need to do in building infrastructures.
As we build a strong foundation we need to know
the strength of the land that holds it. We don’t
know the future, all we have is the knowledge of
today that might be key to have a greater impact on
tomorrow.

Recognition on Outcrops

Outcrop is a geological formation exposed on

the surface. They are formed as a consequence of
river or sea erosion so we can distinguish its
materials and a cross section in the landscape.
However, outcrops more frequently seen are those
who are artificial, as a result of human action.
Normally occurring outcrops are more likely to be a
portion of common biomes but man- made outcrops
are specifically pointed to building and mining
exercises. It is to some degree damaging additionally
dangerous in the event that it is not executed legitimately. Outcrops for the most part
highlights geographical ponders which others resist the laws of physics but within the
designing sense in case an outcrop isn't stabilized it needs security safety measures.

What are the effects of geology in human lives?

 Geology is all around us, either in the form of rocks or sand. It is imperative in
securing our universe's request for vitality, building framework, progressing science and
innovation, supporting the worldwide nourishment supply, anticipating and responding
to common catastrophes and everything in between. In any case of your major an
instruction but an essential one in, geology is basic to both your future and your
survival. As we are given basic knowledge about natural activity, we, the young adults
will be informed and we can spread the awareness, and we can find the safest place to
settle in. Rather than focusing on a specific area we need to gain a greater understanding
about the Earth system as it affects our lives as well as the future generation. As we
identify the ideal growing areas and conditions the impact is commonly forgotten within
the zones of development and foundation whether in thought of concrete and brick
work for streets or the gypsum that drywall is made of. Regardless of your interface
within the world it is a few ways or another related to geology.

What is the significance of studying geology?

As a student, as well as the steward of the Earth, we need to know what are the
geologic features that may change in our planet. In studying it we will know how stable
it is. If the place we step off is safe or may it affect the infrastructure. We need to have
knowledge in things that concern our lives. As the world continuously evolves, we, the
human, have a part in why the Earth suffers and slowly dies. Every day, new discoveries
and more information that concern us. It leads us to the anticipation of the Earth’s
future, and gives us the idea of the things that need to be made.

Why is geology important?

Geological information not as it were is vital since of the science in itself, but
contains a huge number of common-sense approaches: the investigation of
characteristic assets, the understanding and forecast of characteristic catastrophe such
as tsunami, earthquake and so on. Moreover, the understanding of our planet's climate
all through time falls beneath the scope of geology.
Linihan, Mary Rose S.
 G. Importance of Geological Structures in Civil Engineering Projects

Before we proceed to the discussion, let’s make some recap about…

 What is Geology?

Geology is the study of the earth, its origin, structure, composition, and history.
There are many forms of geology, including economic geology, planetary geology, and
engineering geology. Engineering geology is a very important topic for structural
engineers to understand as it helps them properly plan a project when considering the
design, location, and other important geological factors.

EXPLAIN: Civil engineering might not seem like the kind of field where it’s
important to have a background in geology. Civil engineers just design buildings and
oversee their engineer services to utilize. Keep reading to find out why.

NOTE: I will not have discussed anymore about the different types of Rocks and other materials
related to this topic para dili na taas kaayo since my groupmates already tackled those things, let us now
focus on the subtopic assigned to me.

Rocks are used in the formation of foundation or base of civil engineering projects,
because the rocks are more stable and having high strength.

Explain: Rocks actually plays a major role in our chosen field. So, here’s some
ideas….

1). The branch of geology that deals with application of geological knowledge to
civil engineering projects is known as geological engineering or engineering geology.

 Just like what Sir Pat had discussed on the introduction of this subject,
we’ll be able to learn much about Geology when we take BS in Geology since it belongs to
that field or course. What we need to do is to know why we need to also study this since
CE are actually responsible for the foundation of every project.

2). Engineering geologists are needed wherever an understanding of rock

properties and geological structures is required, i.e. road construction, building
foundations, dam construction etc.
  It is already understandable, right? Kay of course, knowing these things
can actually help us to improve our future projects to avoid failure and accidents.

3). The local geology of an area is important when planning a major construction.

 Still, understandable, they need to make a plan for the safety of the
projects and their clients.

4). The geology of an area represents the location and nature of any civil
engineering structures.

 Civil Engineers as what we knew, they are the one who look after the
safety and strength of every structures, building or anything that undergoes
construction that is why it is so important to study the exact location & its environment
for the project.

5). Natural hazards (earthquake, landslide, and tsunami) are originated and
produce the deformation on surface of earth.

 Just like what I’ve said, CE are the one who’s responsible for the safety, by
studying or observing/surveying the location, they tend to know if what possible natural
disaster is prone that certain location is most especially if prone ba sa landslide and
tsunami.

6). Natural hazards cannot be prevented, but its prediction is determining.

 So when the CE has surveyed the location, and once the clients push
through the project, there are adjustment might happen for their safety, like….

1. Making much stronger foundation or walls that can somehow resist

landslide after making some soil/site analysis

2. To make some renovation of the location

3. Additional materials, tendency mas mapagasto ang clients just to assure

their safety within the chosen location

4. Possible to plant trees to minimize accidents

5. Postponing the project

 6. The last choice may present is to relocate the project if dili makaya sa
client or place ang project

For us to understand more about these things, let us tackle the main point of this
report….

THE IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

PROJECTS.

Studying Geological Structure helps to

ensure a safe and cost-effective design for
construction projects.

 Gathering geological
information for a project site is important in
the planning, design, and construction phase
of an engineering project. Conducting a
detailed geological survey of an area before
commencing a project will reduce the overall
cost of the project. Common foundational problems in dams, bridges, and other
buildings are typically directly related to the geology of the area where they were
constructed.

The main object of geological investigation for any civil engineering project:

➢ · Investigation of geological structure of the related area.

➢ · Investigation of sub surface of earth.

 To see if the surface is still capable of holding the certain building for
longer period of time.

➢ · Ground water condition of that particular area.

 If nay katubigan ang lalom possible maconnect sa mga ilog, dagat and
other bodies of water
 ➢ · Seismic condition of that region and study the last 60 years’ seismic
detail.

 If naagian nag grabe nga linog, or ikapila na naagian ug linog ang place

➢ · Lithology of the area.

 It is to study deeper about the location and its physical appearance or the
characteristics of the rocks or ground

Occurrence of hazards and their

prevention:

Earthquake: Earthquake capable of

causing structural damage is expected to occur
somewhere in the province about once every
decade.

· Construction is earthquake proof.

· For large building, the raft type of foundation is

desirable.

· To prevent the sliding, the foundation

structure should be thoroughly tied up.

Landslide: Landslide is a general term for a wide variety of down slope

movements of earth materials that result in the perceptible downward and outward
movement of soil, rock, and vegetation under the influence of gravity.

The materials may move by falling, toppling, sliding, spreading, or flowing. Some
landslides are rapid, occurring in seconds, whereas others may take hours, weeks, or even
longer to develop. Many factors contribute to slides, including geology, gravity, weather,
groundwater, wave action, and human actions. Although landslides usually occur on steep
slopes; they also can occur in areas of low relief. Landslides can occur as ground failure of river
bluffs, cut and-fill failures that may accompany highway and building excavations, collapse of
mine waste. A landslide occurs when several of these factors converge.

· Gravity

· Geological factor

· Earth quake

· Forest fire

· Volcanoes

· Waves

· Heavy rainfall

NOTE: One of the important tasks of a civil engineer is to design and construct
retaining walls in the active slide regions this method depends upon the slope geometry.
Retaining walls protects the land slide movement and regulate the surface drainage
system. It is necessary to construct retaining walls taking in to consideration all the
safety factors.

Tsunami: Tsunamis can be associated with earthquakes. Sometimes a large

earthquake beneath the ocean floor will produce a tsunami, which is a series of large
waves. Damaging tsunamis are a rare, but serious event. The force of tsunami waves can
cause great destruction.

Explain: What people usually did to somehow protect their properties near the
ocean or seaside, they will construct thick walls that can fight with the tsunamis to avoid
vast damage to their land and properties.

So here are some of the usual questions that student or people may ask about the
subject relating to human life.

1. How does Geology Relate to the Human Experience?

Answer: Geology in everyday life is not restricted to resources. It is also about
Hazards and risk associated with rock falls, landslides, quick clay and even earthquake.
It somehow helps human to understand the climate change in the past, which may help
us predict future scenarios. With this also, it helps people to be prepare on the possible
events might happen on their places.
 2. How does geology affect our everyday lives?
Answer: Geological processes may affect human most of the time, but not all the
effects are actually noticeable unless it can cause loss of life and properties during
natural events like typhoon, earthquake and even tsunamis. But only geology actually
help people to be aware of the things might happen once earthquake and landslide to be
specific as it part of geology, and therefore they might need to do something to prevent
the possible incidents.

3. What global geologic and environmental issue facing humankind?

Answer: Climate change, Water shortage or Natural Resources shortage - are the
big environmental and geologic problem that humankind has facing for how many
decades. As population increase, the resource decreases just to satisfy the needs of every
individual. As people increase, the climate getting worst as people are being stubborn
when it comes to their waste.

The construction of large civil engineering projects requires knowledge of the

geology of the area concerned. The geology of an area dictates the location and nature of
each of the following structures: Dams, Building foundations, roads and railways.
Describe causes of slope failure and preventive measures that can be taken. Discuss the
role of a geologist in the feasibility study and site selection stages of a large civil
engineering project. There must be continuous efforts among the government and
various stakeholders on public awareness and preparedness. In short, the full
knowledge of geology increases the strength, stability and durability of civil engineer’s
projects.
Kua, Joan Mae Quenziee O.
III. Learning Activities
A. Forms and Structure of Rocks

1. What is the difference between intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks?

2. How do sedimentary rocks form?

3. What is the difference of the three types of rocks?

4. Are rocks important in an ecosystem?

5. Why do we need to know the classification of rocks?

B. Bedding Plane and Outcrops

1. What is structural geology?

2. What causes the geological features to form?

3. Give an example of a geological structure.

4. What is bedding plane?

5. What is an outcrop?

C. Dip and Strike

1. What are strike and dip symbols?

2. In what ways you can view a geological structure?

3. What is the difference between true dip and apparent dip?

4. What is dip?

5. What is the instrument to be used in order identify strike and dip?

 D. Elementary Ideas about Fold

1. A stratisfied rock in which the strata slope upward from the object?

2. A stratisfied rock in which the layers bend downward in opposite direction

from the crest?

3. Its stretches are oriented in the same direction and they are generally S or Z
shaped?

4. What causes of Fold?

5. How fold affect engineering projects?

E. Fault

1. What is Fault?

2. How Important to know Faults?

3. Give at least one Classification of Faults.

4-6. Give the Three fundamental types of faults based on apparent movement.
Explain each fault base on what you understand.

F. Joint and Unconformity and Recognition on Outcrops

1. Enumerate the classification of joints

2. What do we call the geological formation exposed on the surface?

3. What do you call the gaps in the geologic record that may indicate episodes of
crustal deformation, erosion, and sea level variations?

4. Enumerate the types of unconformities.

5. What is the relevance of this topic in your chosen field of expertise?

 G. Importance of Geological Structure in Civil Engineering Projects

1. Give at least 2 importance of Geological Structure and explain each.

2. It is a general term for a wide variety of down slope movements of earth

materials that result in the perceptible downward and outward movement of soil, rock,
and vegetation under the influence of gravity.

3. It is the shaking of the surface of earth due to the sudden release of energy in
the earth’s crust, as a result seismic waves are created.

4. It is the branch of science that deals with the earth’s physical structure and
substance, its history and the processes that act on it.

5. Why Civil Engineers/Engineering need to study geology?

IV. Answers to Learning Activities

A. Forms and Structure of Rocks

1. Intrusive igneous rock is the one that forms when magma cools within the earth
while extrusive igneous rock is the one that forms when lava cools on the earth’s
surface.

2. Sedimentary rock forms when minerals that are form from solutions or
sediments from older rocks get pressed, cemented or compacted together. These rocks
are also usually formed under water when grains of broken rocks are glued together.

3. Metamorphic rocks forms when pressure, temperature, or chemical processes

change existing rock like igneous or sedimentary rocks being exposed to pressure and
chemical processes change into metamorphic rock. Igneous rocks on the other hand
forms when melted rocks (magma or lava) cools and hardens to become solid while
sedimentary rocks forms when minerals that form from solutions or sediments from
older rocks get pressed, glued, cemented or compacted together.

4. Yes, rocks are important in the ecosystem for it provides shelter for
macroinvertebrates and other organisms in riffles and runs, which increases the
biodiversity of the area because more shelter means more habitats and more organisms.
 5. Geologist study rocks because they contain clues about what the earth was like
in the past. Different rocks form under only certain conditions and even the dullest gray
lump of a rock can tell us something important about the past that is why we need to
know that classification of rocks or why rocks is also important.

B. Bedding Plane and Outcrops

1. Structural geology is the study of the processes that result in the formation of
geologic structures and how these structures affect rocks.

2. Geologic structures are usually the result of the powerful tectonic forces that
occur within the earth like earthquakes and volcanic eruption.

3. Mountain. (Answers may vary)

4. Bedding (also called stratification) are ‘piles’ of layers (called ‘strata‘) of

sediments deposited one on top of another.

5. Outcrop is the solid part of the earth that is composed of rocks that has no
vegetation that surrounds it.

C. Dip and Strike

1. The strike and dip symbol is a T with the long horizontal bar representing
the strike direction, and the small tick mark indicating the dip direction.

2. From above or the map view and from the sides or the cross-section view.

3. True Dip if the direction of the inclination is measured perpendicular to the

strike only, while the apparent dip is when the direction is not perpendicular to the
strike line and it is always less than the degree angle of a true dip.

4. Dip is the angle between that horizontal plane and the inclined surface, such
as a geological contact between tilted layers estimated opposite to the strike line
down to the slanted surface.
 5. In measuring strike and dip geologist use the compass inclinometer, which
is an instrument for measuring angles of slope or tilt.

D. Elementary Ideas about Fold

1. Syncline

2. Anticline

3. Tension Gashes

4. Fold occur due to tectonic forces or earth movement where rock are deformed

5. Avoiding site which is highly folded because the engineer may have to face
much troubles sooner or later as fold are easily fractured even due a slight disturbance.

E. Fault

1. Fault is brittle type of deformation in which fracture or rupture will be

developed before the displacement of block.

2. It is essential to know Faults, knowing the active, categories, features, and the
fundamental faults help you to understand the risks and damages it might give and by
that knowledge you can somehow plan if signs are showing. We know there is a fault if it
left a recognizable mark in the earth’s surface and if there is an earthquake.

3. The relation of the fault attitude with the attitude of the displaced bed, The
direction of the slip, Mode of Occurrences, The apparent movement of the rock blocks
along the fault plane (either of these four)

4-6.

Normal Faults - Such a fault in which hanging wall has apparently moved down
with respect to footwall.
 Reverse Faults - It is such a type of fault in which the hanging wall appears to have
moved up with respect to the footwall.

Strike-Slip Faults - These may be defined as faults in which faulted blocks have
been moved against each other in an essentially horizontal direction.

F. Joint and Unconformity and Recognition on Outcrops

1. Genesis, spatial relationship and geometry

2. Outcrops

3. Unconformity

4. Angular unconformities, Disconformities and Nonconformities

5. It depends on the student's knowledge and the reporter's point of view about
this topic. As for the reporter, studying this topic plays a big role starting today and in
the future. It gives us the knowledge of how we are going to handle the materials that we
use, and gives us the idea of our safety and stability of the infrastructures in a certain
area.

G. Importance of Geological Structure in Civil Engineering Projects

1. To avoid risk and ensure safety of the individual. (Answer may vary)

2. Landslide

3. Earthquake

4. Geology

5. The full knowledge of geology increases the strength, stability and durability of
civil engineer’s projects.

V. References
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