Classical Mechanics

Topic 11: Mechanical Waves

Periodic Transverse Waves
Energy Transfer in Wave
Superposition Principle
Standing Waves
Doppler Effect

Based from Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics

with Modern Physics 13th ed
Mechanical Waves
Mechanical waves – disturbances that only propagates through some medium.
ex. sound waves – sound cannot propagate in outer space due to the lack of
atmosphere (air)

Transverse waves –the displacement of the medium is perpendicular to the

propagation.
Longitudinal waves – particles of the medium move back and forth, i.e. parallel to the
direction of wave propagation.

Other classification of waves:

Pulse – single traveling disturbance
Periodic waves – the disturbance is repeatedly applied, generating a train of pulses.
Sinusoidal wave – the particle of the medium moves in a SHM.
 Periodic Transverse Waves
Whenever a sinusoidal wave passes through a medium, every particle in the medium undergoes
simple harmonic motion with the same frequency.
Crest – highest point in the wave

Trough – lowest point in the wave

• Wavelength is the distance between two particles in a medium that are moving in-phase. It is
the length of one wave.
• in-phase – same angular displacement from their respective equilibrium positions and same
velocity.

• The speed of the wave's propagation is given by: 𝑣 = λ𝑓 = λΤ𝑇

• v is the wave speed, f is the frequency and λ is the wavelength.
 Periodic Transverse Waves
A person fishing from a pier observes that four wave crests pass by in 7.0 [s] and
estimates the distance between two successive crests to be 4.0 [m]. The timing starts
with the first crest and ends with the fourth. What is the speed of the wave?
● We should know the frequency of the oscillation.
3𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑓= = 0.4286 𝐻𝑧
7.0 𝑠

● The wavelength is given. λ = 4.0 𝑚

E1. What is the speed of the wave? 𝑣 = 1.7 𝑚Τ𝑠

Mathematical Description of Waves

Transverse sinusoidal wave:

During wave motion, a particle at some point x in the medium is displaced by y from
the equilibrium position.

• Wave moving to the

2π 𝑥 𝑡
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴cos 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 = 𝐴cos 2π − positive x-direction
λ λ 𝑇
= 𝐴cos 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 ;
• k = 2π/λ is called the wave number.
ω
= 𝐴cos 𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡 ; 𝑣=
𝑘

𝑥 𝑡 Wave moving to the negative x -direction

𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴cos 2π +
λ 𝑇
= 𝐴cos 𝑘 𝑥 + 𝑣𝑡 Note: The arguments in the
trigonometric function are set to
= 𝐴cos 𝑘𝑥 + ω𝑡
radians.
 Mathematical Description of Waves
A certain wave is described by:
𝑥 𝑡
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 6.50 𝑚𝑚 cos2π − .
28.0 𝑐𝑚 0.0360 𝑠
Determine the (a) Amplitude, (b) wavelength, (c) frequency, (d) wave speed and (e) the
direction of propagation

Just compare the above wave function with the general form: 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴cos 𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡 .
By inspection, you get
(d) 𝑣 = λ𝑓
(a) (c) What is the frequency f?
𝐴 = 6.50 𝑚𝑚
𝑣 = 7.78 𝑚Τ𝑠
(b) 2π 2π
𝑘= ω=
28.0 𝑐𝑚 0.0360 𝑠
2π
2π 2π 2π𝑓 =
= 0.0360 𝑠
λ 28.0 𝑐𝑚
(e) toward the +x-
λ = 28.0 𝑐𝑚 𝑓 = 27.8 𝐻𝑧 direction

λ = 0.280 𝑚
Mathematical Description of Waves
A water wave traveling in a straight line on a lake is described by the equation
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 3.75 𝑐𝑚 cos 0.450 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑐𝑚 𝑥 + 5.40 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑠 𝑡 .
where y is the displacement perpendicular to the undisturbed surface of the lake. (a) How
much time does it take for one complete wave pattern to go past a fisherman in a boat at
anchor, and what horizontal distance does the wave crest travel in that time? (b) What are the
wave number and the number of waves per second that pass the fisherman? (c) How fast
does a wave crest travel past the fisherman, and what is the maximum speed of his cork floater
as the wave causes it to bob up and down?

(a) That time is just the The horizontal distance is (b) E2. What is the wave number?
period. From the wave just the wavelength
function y(x,t): 𝑘 = 0.450 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑐𝑚
𝑘 = 0.450 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑐𝑚
ω = 5.40 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑠 The number of wave per second is
2π 2π
= 5.40 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑠 = 0.450 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑐𝑚 just the frequency:
𝑇 λ
2π 2π ω = 5.40 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑠
𝑇= λ=
5.40 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑠 0.450 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑐𝑚
2π𝑓 = 5.40 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑠
λ = 14.0 𝑐𝑚
𝑇 = 1.16 𝑠 5.40 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑠
𝑓= 𝑓 = 0.862 𝑠 −1 .
2π
Mathematical Description of Waves
A water wave traveling in a straight line on a lake is described by the equation
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 3.75 𝑐𝑚 cos 0.450 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑐𝑚 𝑥 + 5.40 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑠 𝑡 .
where y is the displacement perpendicular to the undisturbed surface of the lake. (a) How
much time does it take for one complete wave pattern to go past a fisherman in a boat at
anchor, and what horizontal distance does the wave crest travel in that time? (b) What are the
wave number and the number of waves per second that pass the fisherman? (c) How fast
does a wave crest travel past the fisherman, and what is the maximum speed of his cork floater
as the wave causes it to bob up and down?

(c) What is the first speed in the question? The maximum speed of the cork is the
maximum transverse speed:
ω 5.40 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑠
𝑣= = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ω𝐴
𝑘 0.450 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑐𝑚
𝑣 = 0.120 𝑚Τ𝑠
= 5.40 𝑠 −1 3.75 𝑐𝑚

= 20.25 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠

= 0.2025 𝑚Τ𝑠
Wave Speed on a String
μ is linear mass density: (μ= m/L)

𝐹𝑦 𝑣𝑦 𝑡 𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑦
= 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 𝑚 = 𝐹 μ ⋅ 𝑣𝑡 = 𝐹
𝐹 𝑣𝑡 𝑣 𝑡 𝑣 𝑡 𝑣
𝐹 𝐹 The speed of a wave on a string depends on the tension
𝑣2 = 𝑣=
μ μ on the string and the linear mass density.
Wave Speed on a String
With what tension must a rope with length 2.50 [m] and mass 0.120 [kg] be stretched
for transverse waves of frequency 40.0 [Hz] to have a wavelength of 0.750 [m]?

• Solve for v first using the wavelength and

frequency 𝑣 = λ𝑓

• Then use the equation of v in terms of 𝐹

tension and linear mass density 𝑣= F= 43.2 [N]
μ

The upper end of a 3.80-m-long steel wire is fastened to the ceiling, and a 54.0-kg object
is suspended from the lower end of the wire. You observe that it takes a transverse pulse
0.0492 [s] to travel from the bottom to the top of the wire. What is the mass of the wire?

• Solve for v first using the total distance • The mass of the string can be solved
and the time that a pulse traveled: by solving the linear mass density first:
𝐿 3.80 𝑚 𝐹 𝐹 𝑚 𝐹
𝑣= = 𝑣= μ= 2 =
𝑡 0.0492 𝑠 μ 𝑣 𝐿 𝑣2
𝐹 𝑀𝑔 =0.337 [kg]
= 77.2 𝑚Τ𝑠 𝑚= 2
𝐿 = 2
𝐿
𝑣 𝑣
Energy Transfer in Waves
• A wave can transport energy from one region of space to another.

1 2 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑈 = μω 𝐴cos 𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡
2
1 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐾 = μ ω𝐴sin 𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡
2
1 2 2
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑𝐾 + 𝑑𝑈= μω 𝐴 𝑑𝑥
2
1 2 2
𝐸λ = μω 𝐴 λ
2
• The average rate at which this is energy is transported after one period is:
𝐸𝑦 1 2 2 λ 1 2 2 • The average rate at which this is
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = μω 𝐴 ⋅ = μω 𝐴 ⋅ 𝑣 energy is transported is
𝑇 2 𝑇 2
1 proportional to ω2 and A2.
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = μ𝑣 ⋅ ω2 𝐴2
2
Energy Transfer in Waves
A piano wire with mass 3.00 [g] and length 80.0 [cm] is stretched with a tension of 25.0
[N]. A wave with frequency 120.0 [Hz] and amplitude 1.60 [mm] travels along the wire.
(a) Calculate the average power carried by the wave.
(b) What happens to the average power if we double the amplitude?

(a) Use the formula for the average power

1 2 2 μ = 𝑀Τ𝐿 = 3.00 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔 Τ 80.0 × 10−2 𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = μ𝑣 ⋅ ω 𝐴
2 = 3.75 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚
E3. Perform the substitution and give the numerical value.

𝐹 = 25.0 𝑁

𝐴 = 1.60 × 10−3 𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.223 𝑊

(b) The average power will ω = 2π𝑓 = 2π 𝑟𝑎𝑑 120.0 1Τ𝑠

quadruple.
= 753.98 𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑠
Interference
Superposition principle – If two or more traveling waves are moving through a
medium, the resultant value of the wave function at any point is the algebraic
sum of the values of the wave functions of the individual waves.
Constructive interference – the resultant
pulse gives an amplitude that is greater
than that of either individual pulse.
Interference
Superposition principle – If two or more traveling waves are moving through a
medium, the resultant value of the wave function at any point is the algebraic
sum of the values of the wave functions of the individual waves.
Destructive interference – the resultant pulse
gives an amplitude that is smaller than that of
either individual pulse.
Reflection and Transmission (Boundary Condition)
When a pulse encounters the fixed When a pulse encounters the free
end of the string, the reflected pulse end of the string, the reflected pulse
is inverted. is not inverted.
Reflection and Transmission (Boundary Condition)
• A pulse will travel with different speed in different strings with different linear mass
density.
When a pulse traveling on the less When a pulse traveling on the denser string
dense string reaches the boundary reaches the boundary between the two
between the two strings, part of the strings, part of the pulse is reflected and
pulse is reflected and inverted, and inverted, and part is transmitted to the less
part is transmitted to the denser string. dense string.
Standing Waves
𝑦1 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴cos 𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡 Incident wave moving to the +x-axis.

𝑦2 𝑥, 𝑡 = −𝐴cos 𝑘𝑥 + ω𝑡 Reflected wave moving to the –x -axis.

• Using the superposition principle:

𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑦1 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝑦2 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡 − cos 𝑘𝑥 + ω𝑡 = 2𝐴sin 𝑘𝑥 sin ω𝑡
● Each point on the string still moves in a SHM.
● The amplitude of oscillations vary from point to point along the string.
Standing Waves
• Consider a string of definite length L,
held rigidly at both ends.
• The equation of the standing
wave with fixed end at x=0
and x=L is:
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴sin 𝑘𝑥 sin ω𝑡 𝑥=0 𝑥=𝐿
The resulting standing wave must have a node at both ends
2π
sin 𝑘𝐿 = 0 𝑘𝐿 = 𝑛π 𝐿 = 𝑛π
λ
• Allowed wavelengths on the standing wave: 2𝐿 where 𝑛 = 1,2,3, ⋯
λ𝑛 = ;
𝑛
• Largest possible wavelength is: λ1 = 2𝐿 𝑣
𝑓1 =
2𝐿
• Using the wavespeed relation: 𝑣 = λ𝑓 • This is the smallest possible
𝑣
= 2𝐿 frequency of oscillations in the
𝑓1 string. → fundamental frequency
Standing Waves
A standing wave
pattern with
fundamental
frequency:
λ1 = 2𝐿
𝑣
𝑓1 =
2𝐿
● Only half wavelength fits in the length of the string.
● There are two nodes (at the end) and one antinode.
● Each point on the string moves in a SHM with the same fundamental frequency.
A wire is stretched so that its ends are tied down at points 80.0 [cm] apart. The wire
vibrates in its fundamental mode with frequency 60.0 [Hz] and with an amplitude at
the antinode of 0.300 [cm]. What are the speed of wave propagation in the wire and
the maximum transverse speed of particles in the wire?
𝑣 • The particle at the antinode will have the
𝑓1 = maximum transverse speed since:
2𝐿
𝑣 = 𝑓1 ⋅ 2𝐿 = 60.0 𝐻𝑧 ⋅ 2 0.800 𝑚 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ω𝐴𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 2π𝑓1 𝐴𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒
= 96.0 𝑚Τ𝑠 = 2π 60.0 𝐻𝑧 3.00 × 10−3 𝑚 = 1.13 𝑚Τ𝑠
Standing Waves
normal mode – motion where all particles of the system moves in a SHM with
the same frequency.
• Frequency of the nth harmonic:
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛 ⋅ 𝑓1
𝑣
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛 ⋅
2𝐿

• If the tension (F) and linear mass

density (μ) of the wire are given is
given:

1 𝐹 𝑛 𝐹
𝑓1 = ; 𝑓𝑛 =
2𝐿 μ 2𝐿 μ
 Standing Waves
The drawing shows two strings that have the same length and linear density. The left end of
each string is attached to a wall, while the right end passes over a pulley and is connected
to objects of different weights (WA and WB). Different standing waves are set up on each
string, but their frequencies are the same. If WA=44 [N], what is WB?
● Set up A is vibrating with
fundamental frequency.
● Set up B is vibrating with
second harmonic frequency.
● Highlighted sentence → The
fundamental frequency of A is
equal to the second harmonic Divide fA with fB and take the square of the resulting
frequency of B. equation:
2
𝑓𝐴 1 𝑊𝐴 𝑓𝐴 1 𝑊𝐴
• The frequency of set-up A is = =
𝑓𝐵 2 𝑊𝐵 𝑓𝐵 4 𝑊𝐵
1 𝑊𝐴
𝑓𝐴 = 𝑊𝐴
2𝐿 μ 𝑊𝐵 =
4
E4. What is the frequency of set-up B (fB) in
𝑊𝐵 = 11 𝑁
terms of L, μ and WB?
Doppler Effect
• The apparent change in the frequency of sound due to the relative motion of
the source and the listener.
𝑣 + 𝑣𝐿 𝑣𝐿 : Velocity of the listener (L)
𝑓𝐿 = 𝑓
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑆 𝑆 𝑣𝑆 : Velocity of the source (S)
𝑣: Speed of sound
𝑓𝐿 𝑓𝑆 𝑓𝐿 : Frequency heard by the listener (L)
=
𝑣 + 𝑣𝐿 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑆
𝑓𝑆 : Frequency emitted by the source (S)
● This will hold for all cases.
● Note: The sign of vL and vS depends on our positive sense of direction
● The sign of v (speed of sound) is always positive.
● We will set the “from listener (L) to source (S)” as our positive direction.
Stationary source, moving listener
Doppler Effect
Moving (S), stationary (L)
λ: Wavelength if the source is stationary.

𝑣𝑆 𝑇𝑆 : Distance traveled by the next wave crest after

one period TS.
λ𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 : Wavelength in front of a moving source

From the figure:

λ = 𝑣𝑆 𝑇𝑆 + λ𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡

λ𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = λ − 𝑣𝑆 𝑇𝑆
𝑣 𝑣𝑆
λ𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = −
𝑓𝑆 𝑓𝑆

𝑣 − 𝑣𝑆
λ𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 =
𝑓𝑆
Doppler Effect
Moving (S), stationary (L)

From the figure:

λ𝑏𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑑 = λ + 𝑣𝑆 𝑇𝑆 λ: Wavelength if the source is stationary.

λ𝑏𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑣 𝑣𝑆
= + 𝑣𝑆 𝑇𝑆 : Distance traveled by the next
𝑓𝑆 𝑓𝑆 wave crest after one period TS.
λ𝑏𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑑 : Wavelength behind a moving source
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑆
λ𝑏𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑑 =
𝑓𝑆

𝑣 + 𝑣𝐿 𝑣 + 𝑣𝐿 𝑣 + 𝑣𝐿
𝑓𝐿 = 𝑓𝐿 = 𝑓𝐿 = 𝑓
λ𝑏𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑆 Τ𝑓𝑆 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑆 𝑆
Suppose the listener moves from behind:
Speed of sound relative to the listener
𝑓𝐿 =
Wavelength of the incoming wave fronts
Doppler Effect
A police car’s siren emits a sinusoidal wave with fs = 300 [Hz] frequency. The
speed of sound is 340 [m/s] and the air is still. If a listener L is at rest and the
siren is moving away from L at 30 [m/s], what frequency does the listener hear?

𝑓𝐿 𝑓𝑆 𝑓𝐿 300 𝐻𝑧
= =
𝑣 + 𝑣𝐿 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑆 340 𝑚Τ𝑠 + 0 340 𝑚Τ𝑠 + +30 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝑓𝐿 = 276 𝐻𝑧
● The sign of v is always positive (sound wave spreads out in all direction)
● Always take note of the “listener to source” direction.
● Velocity pointing to the “listener to source” direction will be given a positive
sign.
Doppler Effect
A police car’s siren emits a sinusoidal wave with fs = 300 [Hz] frequency. The
speed of sound is 340 [m/s] and the air is still. If the siren is at rest and the
listener is moving away from it at 30 [m/s], what frequency does the listener
hear?

𝑓𝐿 𝑓𝑆 𝑓𝐿 300 𝐻𝑧
= =
𝑣 + 𝑣𝐿 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑆 340 𝑚Τ𝑠 + −30 𝑚Τ𝑠 340 𝑚Τ𝑠 + 0
𝑓𝐿 = 274 𝐻𝑧
Doppler Effect
A police car’s siren emits a sinusoidal wave with fs = 300 [Hz] frequency. The
speed of sound is 340 [m/s] and the air is still. The siren is moving away from
the listener with a speed of 45 [m/s] relative to still air, and the listener is
moving toward the siren with a speed of 15 [m/s] relative to air. What
frequency does the listener hear?

𝑓𝐿 𝑓𝑆 𝑓𝐿 300 𝐻𝑧
= =
𝑣 + 𝑣𝐿 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑆 340 𝑚Τ𝑠 + +15 𝑚Τ𝑠 340 𝑚Τ𝑠 + +45 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝑓𝐿 = 277 𝐻𝑧
E5. What is the frequency heard by the listener if the police car moves
toward the listener?
Doppler Effect
A police car’s siren emits a sinusoidal wave with fs = 300 [Hz] frequency. The speed of
sound is 340 [m/s] and the air is still. The police car is moving toward a warehouse at 30
[m/s]. What frequency does the driver hear reflected from the warehouse?
● Get first the frequency of the sound that will be reflected by the warehouse.
● Treat the warehouse as the source of the reflected sound.
𝑓𝑊 𝑓𝐶
=
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑊 𝑣 + 𝑣𝐶
340 𝑚Τ𝑠 + 0
𝑓𝑊 = 300 𝐻𝑧
340 𝑚Τ𝑠 + −30 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝑓𝑊 = 329 𝐻𝑧

𝑓𝑊 = 329 𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝐶 𝑓𝑊
=
𝑣 + 𝑣𝐶 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑊
340 𝑚Τ𝑠 + +30 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝑓𝐿 = 𝑓𝑐 = 329 𝐻𝑧 = 358 𝐻𝑧
340 𝑚Τ𝑠 + 0
E6. Redo the problem but this time let the
police car moves away from the warehouse.
Doppler Effect
A car alarm is emitting sound waves of frequency 520 [Hz]. You are on a
motorcycle, traveling directly away from the stationary car. How fast must you
be traveling if you detect a frequency of 490 [Hz]? The speed of sound in air is
344 [m/s].

𝑓𝑆 = 520 𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝐿 = 490 𝐻𝑧

𝑓𝐿 𝑓𝑆 𝑓𝐿
= 𝑣𝐿 = −1 𝑣 𝑣𝐿 = −19.8 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝑣 + 𝑣𝐿 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑆 𝑓𝑆

E7. Show the details of how vL is isolated.

Doppler Effect
A railroad train is traveling at 30.0 [m/s] in still air. The frequency of the note
emitted by the train whistle is 262 [Hz]. What frequency is heard by a passenger
on a train moving in the opposite direction to the first at 18.0 [m/s] and (a)
approaching the first; and (b) receding from the first? The speed of sound in air is
340 [m/s]
E8. Make a similar sketch for
(a) 𝑣𝑆 = −30.0 𝑚Τ𝑠 𝑣𝐿 = +18.0 𝑚Τ𝑠 part (b). Specify the positive
(L) direction.
(S)

E9. Show the correct

𝑓𝐿 𝑓𝑆 substitution and solve for fL.
=
𝑣 + 𝑣𝐿 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑆 𝑓𝐿 = 228 𝐻𝑧

𝑓𝐿 = 302 𝐻𝑧