ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Economic geology
A particular branch of geology which deals with the economic valuable minerals, formations and all those
process by which they formed. Here word economic refers for everything which is profitable for man, or we
extract any economic value.

Here I am giving some terms which are more important which are used in economic geology

 Deposit; accumulation place of particular mineral,

 Ore deposit; a concentration of usable minerals,
 Polymettalic; any ore deposit that is the source of more than one metal,
 Ore; naturally occurring mineral from which a valuable mineral can be extract,
 Gangue; valueless or non-economically minerals associated with economic minerals or metallic
minerals in any deposit,
 Syngenetic; ore deposit that forms at the same time as their host rock forms,
 Epigentic; ore deposit that form later than their host rocks,
 Hypogene; primary minerals in ore deposit that form from ascending hydrothermal solution,
 Supergene; mineralization caused by descending surface water,
 Mesozonal; hydrothermal ore deposits formed at depth of 5 to 10km and temperature of 300º to 475º,
 Hypozonal; hydrothermal ore deposits formed at greater than 10 km and temperature is 400ºto 600º,
 Epizonal; hydrothermal ore deposits formed at lesser than 6 km and temperature is about 150º to 300º.

In our earth’s outer core there is matalliferous or non-metallic material distributed. The elements of minerals
have been derived either from outer crust or deep down from molten material magma.

Matalliferous material
The desired metals are generally or chemically bound with other elements to form ore minerals, and the useless
material or non-metallic material bounded with ore minerals are termed as gangue minerals.

Ore minerals are that minerals from some metallic minerals may be extract. Most of ore minerals are metallic
such as galena is mined for its lead, and some ore minerals are non-metallic such as malachite mined for its
copper, bauxite for aluminum, and cerussite for lead. Ore minerals may also occur as native metals as gold or
platinum. But the most common is combination of ore minerals and metals is common such as metals with
sulphur, arsenic, oxygen silicon.

Combination is most common but it is not that any single metal from different ore minerals or different metals
from single ore minerals may not be extracted. A single metal may be extracted from different ore minerals such
as copper is mined from chalcocite, bornite, chalcopyrite, cuprite, native copper, and malachite. And also many
metals may obtained from single ore such as stannite for both copper and tin.

Gangue minerals are useless non-metallic rocky material which is associated with metallic minerals or ore
minerals.

Non-metallic material
Material of non-metallic deposits consists of solid, liquid and gases. The term ore is not generally applied to
such substances these are more generally called waste but gangue is often used. Since the non-metallic material
is common substances and their prices are very low as compared with metals, expect for a few rare substances
such as gemstones. These deposits consists entirely of useful material, there is little or no waste. Coal and
gypsum deposits consists entirely of desired material; the non-metallic material include fuels, rocks, earthy
material, sand, salt, gypsum, fluorspar, mica, barite, graphite, and sulphur.

Formation of mineral deposits

Minerals are formed from/in igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks,

1. Magmatic mineral deposits; minerals formed from or in both molten material, magma or lava,
2. Sedimentary mineral deposits; formed in sedimentary rock,
3. Metamorphic mineral deposits; minerals of metamorphic rocks;

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Magmatic mineral deposits

Magmatic mineral deposits results either from simple crystallization or from magmatic differentiation. A
concept given by Vogt was that the major magmatic ore deposits are formed from earliest period of magma
crystallization, later on it was learned that many ore deposits actually crystallized later than the rock minerals
crystallized.

It was realized that there are several modes of formation of magmatic ore deposits and they originate in different
period of magma crystallization.

Classification of magmatic mineral deposits

 Early magmatic ore deposits;

1. Dissemination,
2. Segregation,
3. Injection.
 Late magmatic ore deposits;
1. Residual liquid segregation,
2. Residual liquid injection,
3. Immiscible liquid segregation,
4. Immiscible liquid injection.

Early magmatic ore deposits;

In early magmatic ore deposits the ore minerals are crystallized early then the silicate rock minerals in early
period of magma crystallization. These deposits are formed by dissemination, segregation and injection;

 Dissemination; in this process the early formed crystals are disseminated throughout host rock. The
diamond pipes of South Africa is example. The diamonds are disseminated through the kimberlite rock.
The dissemination ore occurs in dike, pipes, or small stock like masses.
 Segregation; segregation ore deposits have taken place as result of gravitative crystallization
differentiation. Segregation ore deposits are formed by gravity force when early ore minerals
crystallized enough heavy to settle down by gravity attraction in the bottom of the magmatic chamber.
This process is same as crystal fractionation. The segregation of chromite in ultrabasic rock is an
example. The segregation ore deposits are generally lenticular in shape and small in size.
 Injection; in this process, the early formed minerals are injected into host rocks or surrounding rocks.
The injected minerals are in fragments, or as dike shapes. The example is titaniferous magnetite dike of
Cumberland.

Late magmatic ore deposits;

The deposits which formed in later stage of magma crystallization are called late magmatic ore deposits. Late
magmatic mineral are formed at the low temperature from the residual magma. The late magmatic mineral
deposits are classified into four groups; residual liquid segregation, residual liquid injection, immiscible liquid
segregation and immiscible liquid injection.

 Residual liquid segregation; according to the magmatic differentiation the residual magma
progressively become rich in silica, alkali and water. But in certain types of basic magmas, the residual
magma may become enriched in iron and titanium. That residual liquid may drain out or segregate and
crystallized within the parent igneous masses. The host rocks of such deposits are anorthosite, norite,
and gabbro. The mineral examples are titaniferous magnetite and platinum.
 Residual liquid injection; in this process, iron-rich residual liquid accumulates, it may be squirt out
toward the place of less pressure in the overlying consolidated portion of the mother rock or into the
surrounding/enclosing rocks. And if the liquid accumulation had not occurred, interstitial iron rich
residual liquid may filter pressed out to form residual liquid injection ore deposits. The shape of
residual liquid injection ore deposits are irregular and they are in the form of sills, and dikes and
generally intersect the primary structures of host rocks.
 Immiscible liquid segregation; although the metallic oxides cannot form immiscible liquid solution in
silicate magmas. Vogt has shown the iron-nickel-copper sulphides are soluble about 6 to 7 percent in

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basic magmas but when basic magma crystallized as the process of magmatic differentiation, the
sulphide rich solution separate out as immiscible drops and accumulates at the bottom of the magmatic
chamber. Sulphides remain liquid until the silicates are not crystallized. After the crystallization of
silicates, the sulphides penetrate and corrode the silicates and crystallized around them.
The example of this type deposits consists pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, pentlandite , nickel-copper ores
with accompanying gold, platinum, and silver.
 Immiscible liquid injection; sulphides rich residual liquid solution may squirt out toward the place of
less pressure such as sheared or fractured areas. There it will consolidate to form immiscible liquid
injection.

Sublimation;

This process involves directly transmission of solid state into volatiles or gaseous and from volatiles or gaseous
into solid state without passing through the liquid state. Sublimation is a very miner process in the formation of
minerals. In sublimation the volatilized compounds are redeposit from the vapor at low temperature or pressure.
This process is associated with the volcanism and fumroles. Examples are sulphur, sodium chloride, copper, and
zinc.

Hydrothermal ore deposits

Hydrothermal fluids produced from the last stage of magma crystallization when most rock forming minerals
are crystallized, the remaining solution with some metals that where originally present in magma, and hot water
left behind from the magma. The hydrothermal solution carry out the metals from the crystallizing magma and
as it moves away from the intrusive magma body through the fissures or cracks present in the rocks and deposits
the dissolved constituents to produce the wide range of epigenetic minerals.

Hydrothermal fluids are often, both subaerially and subaqueosly, parts of geothermal systems. A geothermal
system is one in which fluids circulate and these form where a combination of favorable structures and rocks
occur together in areas of high heat flow.

In hydrothermal systems there are 4 sources for the water:

1) Seawater

2) Connate water (water trapped in sediments and breccias at time of formation)

3) Metamorphic water-especially common at transition from greenschist to amphibolite grade due to

dehydration reactions

4) Magmatic

Source of metals in hydrothermal fluids have 3 origins:

1) Rocks or sediments through which fluids pass and interact

2) Magmas
3) Combination of 2-mixing in geothermal systems

Seawater:

Seawater is extensively circulated through the oceanic crust as part of large scale geothermal systems. It is
responsible for widespread alteration and metal redistribution with seawater losing Mg and Ca and gaining Fe
and metals. The drawdown of seawater into faults and fractures in the oceanic crust, particularly along mid-
ocean ridges, its heating up, and chemical interaction with basalts, gabbros, and diabase as it moves downward
and then its subsequent reemergence from exhalative vents was a major oceanographic discovery that helped,
and in some ways hindered, our understanding of VMS deposits. However, these discoveries confirmed the
viability of seawater as a hydrothermal, ore-forming fluid source. The degree to which metals become
concentrated and transported in seawater is very much dependent on 1) temperature which determines iron oxide
or iron sulfide accumulations versus accumulations of zinc, copper, lead, silver, and/or gold, 2) the degree of
mixing with magmatic hydrothermal fluids.

Meteoric Water

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This is rain, river, and/or lake water (groundwater) that has been able to penetrate to relatively deep levels in the
crust and to become involved in widespread circulation through the crustal regime. Meteoric water is
responsible for hydrothermal ore deposits, especially those with low temperatures of transport and precipitation
(uranium ores, native copper). The heated waters of Thermopolis in Wyoming represent deep seated circulating
meteoric water.

Connate water

This is water included within interstitial pore spaces of sediment as it is deposited, or within breccia deposits
(debris flows). Originally this water is either meteoric or seawater but it undergoes substantial modification as
the sediment or breccia is buried, compacted, and lithified. The stage of formation from water-rich sediment to
lithified rock produces aqueous solutions
24 that evolve with time and depth. Such fluids move upwards through the stratigraphic sequence and can be
involved in the formation of ore deposits. The progressive burial of sediment to depths of 300 meters or more
results in rapid reduction of pore space and initial formation of a substantial volume of water. The temperature
of these connate fluids increases with depth in the sedimentary sequence with the exact rate of increase being a
function of the geothermal gradient; pressure also increases with depth. Connate fluids also increase in salinity
and density with depth. The increase in salinity may be due to interaction with evaporate horizons, density
increase is due to increase in pressure. Connate brines are responsible for MVT and sedimentary-exhalative
deposits. It is now believed that mud volcanoes are their surface expression.

Metamorphic water:

As rocks are progressively buried and temperatures exceed 3000C the process of digenesis evolves into one of
metamorphism. The importance of metamorphism to ore forming processes is where hydrous silicate and
carbonate minerals break down to form anhydrous minerals exsolving water as they do so; this is at the
transition from greenscist to amphipolite grade. This begins at about 3000C (kaolinite to phyropyllite). Kaolinite
contains a lot more water than phyropyllite); so at 4000C chlorite changes to biotite and at even higher grades
hornblende to pyroxene. Carbonates also breakdown and it is not unusually for heated metamorphic waters to be
rich in CO2. Metamorphic reactions and waters are important in orogenic gold deposits.

 Classification of hydrothermal deposits

1. On the basis of mode of occurrence
Those deposits which are formed by the hydrothermal solution during the movement near the intrusive
body are high temperate hydrothermal deposits ( about 500°-300°) are called hypothermal deposits.
The products of hypothermal deposits are arsenopyrite, wolframite, native gold, and chalcopyrite.
Those minerals which are formed at some distance are intermediate in temperature (about 300°-200°)
are mesothermal deposits. Products are native gold, bornite, sphalerite, galena and argentite.
And those minerals which formed at high distance are low in temperature (about 200°-50°) are
epithermal deposits. Products are ruby silver, stibnite, and cinnabar.

2. On the basis of mode of formation

On the basis of mode of formation the hydrothermal deposits are of two types.

1) Cavity filling deposits

2) Replacement deposits

Cavity filling deposits;

The movement of hydrothermal solution from its source to site of deposition depends largely upon the opening
present in the rock. Opening must be interconnected for continuing supply of new material. Cavities in the rocks
are of two types. Original which are formed at the time of rock formation such as pore spaces, vesicles, cooling
cracks, bedding planes etc. and induced cavities which are formed later by any tectonic or volcanic action such
as fissures, shear zone cavities, volcanic pipes, rock alteration opening etc.

Movement of hydrothermal solution through the opening presents in the rocks occurs where the long continues
opening are present such as fissures or small interconnected opening such as shear zones, vesicular lava beds
produce cavity filling deposits by the deposition of dissolved material into the openings. It is noted that more

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types of minerals deposits are formed by cavity filling than by another process, and the fissure vein is the most
common and important type. The solution which moves through the cavities may be dilute or concentrated, hot
or cold and magmatic or meteoric derivation. Mostly they are hot dilute and magmatic.

When solution moves through the opening the high temperate minerals are deposits first on the walls of the
country rocks and their produced crystals grows inward the center of solution. If the crystals fills the space of
opening that structure is called comb structure and if the space is remained unfilled by crystals that space is
called the vugs. In some cases the mineral or minerals are deposits continuously on the walls of the rocks on
one another until the space is completely filled. They give rise massive ore and if the deposition is of a single
compositional mineral which is called homogenous ore. Crustification is formed when the large opening of
rocks is filled by continuously deposition of minerals on one another and if the opening is fissure, the crustified
vien is formed. Crustified veins may symmetrical; similar crystals on both wall rocks or may be asymmetrical
when the different crystals grows up on the walls of the veins. Ribbon structure is that in which the narrow
layers of quartz veins are separated by dark seams of smeared altered wall rock.

The deposits resulting from cavity filling may grouped as follow;

1. Fissure veins.
2. Shear-zone deposits.
3. Stockworks.
4. Saddle reefs.
5. Ladder veins.
6. Pitches and flats; folds and cracks.
7. Breccia filling deposits; volcanic, collapse, tectonic.
8. Solution cavity fillings; caves, channels, gash, veins.
9. Pore-space filling.
10. Vesicular filling.

1) Fissure veins

A fissure vein is tabular or body that occupies one or more fissures. The fissures are formed by two process,
1) they formed by itself which means stress operating within the earth’s crust and may or may not be
accompanied by faults; and 2) they may formed at the time of mineralization by the intrusive force of
mineralizing solution which acts as wedge form below and separates the rocks apart along the plane of
weakness or along some cracks. It has been contended/noted that growing crystals may wedge apart the
walls of cracks and produce it wider fissure but they exert a definite pressure in limit. It seems that they
produce fissure only under the light load near the surface

There are many varieties of fissure veins, these are simple, composite, linked, sheeted, dilated, and
chambered veins.

In simple veins the walls of the fissure are straight and parallel but if these walls are brecciated irregular
and not parallel to each other particularly the hanging wall it is often called chambered vein.

Dilation or lenticular veins are connected fat lenses in schist. They occur several in a rock and may be
disconnected are called echelon. Dilation or lenticular veins are formed by the bulging or dilation
(expanding outward) of schistose rocks due to pressure transmitted by mineralizing solution. Some of
caused by pulling apart of preexisting vein during later metamorphism of the enclosing rock. In width they
may range from few inches to tens of feet.

Sheeted veins are group of parallel fractured. Each fracture is filled with mineral matter and is separated by
thin layer of barren rock. It is mined whole as single deposit lode and may range in width from feet to
several tens of feet. If the individual parallel fractures are linked diagonally the linked, a linked veins are
formed.

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A composite vein or lode vein is large fracture zone up to many tens of feet in width, consisting of several
approximately parallel ore filled fissures and connecting diagonals, whose walls and intervening country
rocks have under some replacement.

Deposits caused by fissure veins are gold, silver, silver-lead, copper, lead, zinc, tin, antimony, cobalt,
mercury, molybdenum, radium, uranium, tungsten, fluorspar, barite and gems.

2) Shear-zone deposits

Shear-zone deposits are sheet like connected thin plates of minerals deposits. The open space is minute but
large specific surface is favorable for replacement and the deposition large valuable ore deposits. Gold and
silver are common.

3) Stock works

Stockwork is a network of small irregular ore bearing connected veins of rock mass. The entire rock mass is
mined for purpose of ore exploration. Stockwork may occur as individual or may be in association of other
deposits. Common products of stockwork are tin, gold, silver, copper, asbestos etc. stockworks opening
may be formed by 1) crackling upon cooling of the upper and marginal parts of intrusive igneous rocks and
2) irregular fissures produced by tensional force.

4) Saddle reefs

When the bed of competent and incompetent rocks such as quartzite and slate is folded the opening between
beds at the crest of fold is formed and filled by ore solution. The result product of ore deposits is called
saddle reefs deposit.

The saddles may be vertical or inclined and may be repeated. The saddles are 20 to 50 feet across and have
irregular crests and the leg depth is mostly less than 100 feet.

5) Ladder veins

Ladder veins are not numerous and important but the examples are quartz gold ladder vein of morning star
waverly, Victoria, Australia, and the copper ladders veins of telemarken, Norway.

Ladder veins are more or less regularly spaced parallel short transverse fractures in dikes. Such openings
may become commercial deposit by filling mineral matter such as gold ladder veins of morning star.

They are formed by tangential movement of weak wall rocks.

6) Pitches and Flats -fold cracks

Folding of a beds of any rock gives rise to the series of tension cracks at the crest of fold. These connected
or unconnected series of cracks are collectively called the pitches and flats. Pitches and flats are occur in
galena dolomitic limestone and are encrusted or filled by lead and zinc ores.

Anticlinal cracks may have small vertical extent but may extend along the axis of the fold as series of
disconnected fractures for considerable distance. They are generally wedge shaped. Such anticlinal cracks
contain gold and zinc ores.

7) Breccia-filling deposits

Haphazard, Irregularly or randomly arrangement of breccias gives rise to numerous openings that permit, or
allow the entry of solutions and mineral depositions, forming breccia-filling deposits. Breccia filling
deposits are grouped into volcanic, collapse, and tectonic breccia filling deposits;

Explosive volcanic eruption produce breccia bedded and breccia pipes. The pipes are vertical or inclined
roughly oval-shaped and are filled by breccia. They are always favorable to flow mineralizing solution and
ore deposition. The commercial ore deposits of volcanic breccia deposits are copper, lead and zinc.

When the roof of opening of the rock or ore block suddenly falls or collapse down and opening extends
upward. Such process may continue to hundreds of feet and leave behind the space filled by brecciated rock

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fragments. Now the product formed by deposition from ore solution in this condition is termed as collapse
breccia deposits. Examples are cactus in Utah, southwest pipe at Bisbee, Ariz, the south ibex and cresson in
Colorado.

Breccia’s produced by folding, faulting, intrusion, are called crush, rubble, crackles, and shatter breccias.
These all types are dominantly controlled by tectonic activity so they may be included in single category
which is termed as tectonic breccia deposits.

8) Solution cavity fillings

Most soluble rocks offer cavity or openings for primary or secondary mineral deposits. The most common
rocks are limestone, and at shallow depth, and those which were dissolved above the water table by surface
waters charged with carbon dioxide. Much cavities are modified from fissure, joints, or bedding planes into
caves, galleries and gash veins

Caves are of many size and shapes produced by erosion. They are commonly sinkholes; results from roof
collapse or from surface solution and by solution intersection in joints and fissures. Solution intersection
produce funnel-shaped while collapsed caves are large irregular in shape and the floor is strewn with broken
pieces of rocks and mud.

Small caves may be completely filled by ore minerals but large caves may be contains crusts of ore
minerals with crystals. Most products of caves are zinc and lead with in minor amount copper, silver-lead,
vanadium and other metals

Galleries are horizontal or gentle inclined small caves which results from solution intrusion in fissures. The
products are same as caves.

Gash veins are vertical wedge shaped fissures in limestone filled by crustified vugs, and large crystal of
lead, lead-silver, zinc, copper, fluorspar, and barite.

9) Pore space filling

Pores in rocks not only contain oil, gas and water but these are also filled by ore minerals. When copper
deposited in sandstone pores, termed as red bad ore. Other product are uranium, vanadium, with radium.

10) Vesicular fillings

Vesicles are presents at top of lava flow and they may be connected to allow to flow the ore solution. The
product of vesicular filling deposit is native copper in Lake Superior.

Replacement mineral deposits

Replacement or metasomatic replacement is the most important process in the formation of epigenetic
mineral deposits and also dominates in the formation of supergene mineral deposits such as sulphides. It is
dominating process of mineral deposition in hypothermal, mesothermal and is important for epithermal. All
minerals of contact-metasomatic mineral deposits are formed by this process.

Replacement may be described as a process by which the old minerals are replaced by new carried minerals
of deposited solution. The replacing minerals are carried in solution and replaced minerals are carried away
in solution, it is open circuit.

Replacement deposits are produced by both liquid and gaseous solution and in both them water is
dominantly controlling factor. The liquid solutions occupy the major. It have been considered that most
hypogene deposits are caused by deposition of hot alkaline solution of igneous origin.

Products of replacement deposits are grouped into massive replacement deposits, replacement lode deposits,
and replacement disseminated deposits.

1) Massive replacement deposits

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Massive deposits are generally large irregular bodies of ore deposits. Their dimension may be measured in
thousands of feet. These bodies are results from completely replacement of the host rock and massive ore
deposits against the country rock. Common occurs in limestone.

2) Replacement lode deposits

Lode deposits are found along thin beds or fissures of country rocks whose walls have been replaced. They
resembles fissure veins in form. Thus many so called the fissure veins are actually called replaced lodes.
But generally lodes are wider than fissures and width varies greatly from inches to several feet. The
products are gold and coppers.

3) Disseminated replacement deposits

The ore minerals of disseminated into country rocks in the form of grains, blebs and specks generally
accompanied by small veinlets and represents multiple center type replacement. The amount of intruded
minerals is small and ore consists of altered host rock and the disseminated ore rains.

Disseminated ore deposits are generally huge which permits large-scale mining.

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