ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY without microscope

- 2 branches of science that deals with Systemic Anatomy Structure of specific

body’s parts and functions systems
Regional Anatomy Structure of specific
ANATOMY regions
- comes from the greek word ana = up; Surface Anatomy Surface markings to
tome = cutting help understand
- Study of the structure of organisms and internal anatomy
their parts thru visualization or
- Ways: palpation
 Dissection - cutting up; cutting open Imaging Anatomy Internal body
 MRI (Magnetic Resonance structures that can
Imaging) – medical imaging be visualized with
technique that uses a magnetic field techniques
and computer-generated radio Pathological Structural changes
waves that create detailed images Anatomy assoc. with disease
of organs and tissues; diagnose a
variety of conditions from torn Branch of Physiology Study of
ligaments to tumors Molecular Functions of indiv.
 CT Scan (Computed Tomography) - Physiology molecules
combines a series of x-ray images in Neurophysiology Function of nerve
different angles and creates cross- cells
sectional images “slices” of the Endocrinology Hormones and how
bones, blood vessels and soft they control body
tissues; (e.g. complex bone functions
fractures, internal injuries and Cardiovascular Function of heart and
bleeding) Physiology blood vessels
 X-ray – a photographic or digital Immunology Body defenses
image of the internal composition. against disease
Mainly used to look at the bones causing agents
and joints but sometimes used to
Respiratory Function of lungs and
detect problems affecting soft
Physiology air passageways
tissue, such as internal organs; (e.g.
Renal Physiology Function of kidneys
bone fractures and breaks)
Exercise Physiology Changes in cell and
organ functions due
Branch of Anatomy Study of
to muscular activity
Embryology First 8 wks of
Pathophysiology Functional changes
development after
assoc. with disease
fertilization
and aging
Developmental Complete
Biology development from
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
fertilization to death
1. Chemical level - includes atoms and
Cell Biology Cell structures and
molecules; how atoms interact to
functions
combine into molecules.
Histology Microscopic  Atoms- building blocks of
structure of tissues matter / smallest unit of matter
Gross Anatomy Structures examined
 (e.g. CHONPCaS – essential for 4. Growth - increase in body size by
maintaining life) increase in no. of cells and/or increase
 Molecules – 2 or more atoms in cell size
joined together 5. Differentiation - developmental
(e.g. DNA and glucose) changes from an unspecialized to
2. Cellular level - molecules combine to specialized state; precursor cell is stem
form cells, basic structural and cell
functional units of life; kinds of cells in 6. Reproduction - formation of new cells
the body: muscle cells, nerve cells, for tissue growth, repair/ replacement
epithelial cells, etc. or production of new individual
3. Tissue level - group of cells that work
together to perform specific functions Any of these stop to work properly = death of
and materials surrounding them; four cells and tissues = death.
basic type of tissues: epithelial,
connective, muscular, nervous
4. Organ level - composed of two or more
tissue types (e.g. stomach is made of
several tissues such as serous
membrane, smooth muscle and
epithelial layers for digestion)
5. Organ System level - system that
consists of related organs with common
functions
6. Organismal level - any living individual;
all parts of the human body functioning
together constitute the total organism

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
1. Metabolism – sum of all chemical
processes; ability to use energy to
function
 Catabolism - breaking down of
complex chemical substances to
simpler components; cata =
crush
 Anabolism - building up of
complex chemical substances
from smaller components.
2. Responsiveness - ability to sense/detect
and respond to changes in the internal/
external environment thru nerve or
muscle cells
3. Movement - motion of the whole body,
organs, and cells; it may be external or
internal (e.g. digestive, blood cell repair,
secretory vesicles)

BODY POSITION / ANATOMICAL POSITION
- standard position of reference (BFPT)
 Subject upright/erect
 Facing the observer
 Head level
 Eyes forward
 Feet flat forward. (lower limbs parallel)
 Arms at the sides, palms facing forward
 Subject stand erect facing forward,
upper limbs at the side with palms
facing forward and the lower limbs
are parallel with the feet flat on the
floor.
ANATOMICAL POSITION WHEN RECLINING
 Prone – patalikod; as opposed to the
prone which faces down
 Supine – paharap; lying horizontally
with the face and torso facing up
REGIONAL NAMES (view fig. in book)
5 principal regions
1. Head
- skull: encloses and protects brain
- face: front portion of head (forehead,
eyes, nose mouth, cheeks, chin)
2. Neck – supports head and attaches to
trunk
3. Trunk – chest/thoracic, abdomen, pelvis
4. Upper Limbs – shoulder, armpit,
forearm (shoulder to elbow), arm
(elbow to wrist), wrist, hand
5. Lower Limbs – buttocks, thigh (buttock
to knee), leg (knee to ankle), ankle, foot
Groin – on front surface marked by
crease each side; where trunk attaches
to thigh
BASIC REFERENCE SYSTEMS
 Planes
 Directions
 Cavities
 Structural Units
BODY PLANES
- imaginary flat surfaces that pass
through the body parts
- divide into SECTION: a cut of
body/organ made along plane
- Important to know the plane of a
section to understand anatomical
relationship of one part to the other
PLANES AT RIGHT ANGLES TO ANOTHER
· Frontal/Coronal Plane - divides body into
front (anterior) and back (posterior) parts.
· Sagittal Plane – vertical pane that divides
left and right
 Midsagittal Plane/Median Plane -
vertical plane that passes through the
midline; divides the body into equal
left and right parts.
Midline – imaginary vertical line
dividing left and right equally
 Parasagittal Plane - divides the body
into unequal left and right sides.
 · Transverse Plane/Horizontal Plane/Cross-
sectional - divides the body into upper
(superior) and lower (inferior) portions.

PLANE AT ANY ANGLE OTHER THAN 90°

· Oblique Plane - passes through the body
at an oblique angle.

DIRECTIONAL TERMS
- describes the position of one body part
relative to another.

BODY CAVITIES
Anterior/Ventral Front - spaces that enclose internal organs
Posterior/ Dorsal Back - separated by bones, muscles, ligaments
Superior Above/ towards and other structures from another body
head/ upper cavity
structures of the - bones -> body cavity -> filled with S.M.
body -> enclose organs
Inferior Below/ away from
head/ lower 1. Dorsal Cavity
structures of the  Cranial Cavity – formed by cranial
body bones and contains brain
Proximal Closer to the point of  Vertebral (Spinal) Canal - formed
origin by vertebral column and contains
Distal Farther/away from spinal cord and beginnings of spinal
point of origin nerve
Medial Closer to midline - Continuous with one another and
Lateral Farther/away from surrounded by meninges (3 layers of
the midline of the protective tissue) and shock-absorbing
body fluid.
Intermediate Between two 2. Ventral Cavity – body cavities of trunk
structures  Thoracic Cavity/Chest Cavity –
Ipsilateral Structure is on the formed by ribs, chest muscle,
same side as the sternum and thoracic of vertebral
other column
Contralateral Structure is on the  Pericardial Cavity -
opposite site of the surrounds the heart
other  Pleural Cavity - surrounds
Superficial Toward/closer to the the lungs
surface of the body  Mediastinum - central
Deep Farther/away from portion of the thoracic cavity;
the surface of the between lungs extending
body from sternum to the
Cranial Towards the head vertebral column and from
the first rib to the diaphragm;
Caudal Towards the tail
contains all of thoracic
organs except lungs which
 are heart, thymus, trachea,
esophagus, large blood
vessels
Diaphragm – separates thoracic from
abdominopelvic cavity
 Abdominopelvic Cavity – extends
from diaphragm to groin; no wall
separates them
 Abdominal Cavity – encircled
by abdominal muscular wall;
contains stomach, spleen, liver,
gallbladder, small intestine and
most of the large intestine
 Pelvic Cavity – encircled by
pelvic muscles and wall;
contains urinary bladder,
portions of large intestine and
the internal organs of the
reproductive system
VISCERA
- organs inside the thoracic and
abdominopelvic
SEROUS MEMBRANE
- thin pliable tissue that covers, lines,
partitions or connect structures.
- slippery double layer membrane that
assoc. with body cavities that does not
open directly to exterior
- covers the viscera and lines the thoracic
and abdominal wall
- reduces friction so that no pain will be
felt during movements of organs
Parts of a Serous Membrane:
 Parietal Layer - thin epithelium that
lines the walls of the cavities
 Visceral Layer – thin epithelium that
covers and adheres to the
viscera/organs within the cavity; covers
surface of organ
Between these 2 layers is a potential space
that contains lubricating serous fluid w/c
allows viscera to slide during movements.
Serous Membrane per organ
 Pleura - serous membrane of the
pleural cavity; parietal covers chest wall
and superior of diaphragm
 Pericardium - serous membrane of the
pericardial cavity; parietal covers chest
wall
 Peritoneum - serous membrane of the
abdominal cavity; parietal lines
abdominal wall and inferior diaphragm;
surrounds most of the abdominal
organs
 Retroperitoneum – surrounds
retroperitoneal organs (some of
abdominal organs outside/
posterior to peritoneum); retro-
behind
 e.g. kidneys, adrenal cortex,
pancreas, duodenum of small
intestine, ascending and
descending colons of large
intestines, portions of
abdominal aorta and inferior
vena cava
 - Transtubercular line: pass across
superior of iliac crests of hip bone;
inferior horizontal line; taas ng balakang
- Midclavicular line: two vertical lines
(left and right); in midpoints of clavicle
medial to nipples

Other cavities: oral cavity (mouth), orbital cavity

(eyeballs), middle ear cavities (middle ears w/c
contains small bones), synovial cavities (joints)

ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS
- divides the abdominopelvic cavity into 4
quadrants
- more commonly used by clinicians for
describing site of abdominopelvic pain,
tumor, or other abnormality
- Midsagittal/Median line and
Transverse/Transumbilical line are
passed through umbilicus/belly button

ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS
HOMEOSTASIS
- divides the abdominopelvic cavity into
nine regions
- divide into larger middle section and
smaller left and right sections
- more widely used for anatomical
studies
- Subcostal line: sub-below and costal-
rib; pass across the lowest level of 10th
costal cartilage; superior horizontal line
- Maintenance of the stable condition
body’s internal environment thru
interplay (together or independently) of
regulatory systems (nervous -> fast thru
electrical signals/ nerve impulse/action
potential and endocrine - > slow thru
chemical messenger/hormones)
- Maintains balance
 - It is a dynamic condition. External
environment is dynamic but the internal
environment of our body must be
stable.
- In response to change, body’s
parameter shift to narrow range
compatible with maintaining life.
- From cellular to system, each
contributes to keep body within normal
limits.
- To survive, it is essential to respond to
needs in life.
- Aim/Important aspect of homeostasis is
maintaining the volume and
composition of BODY FLUIDS (diluted) –
dictate homeostasis; any shift in these =
illness; acceptable unlike Hippocrates’
 Intracellular Fluid /ICF - inside the cell
 Extracellular Fluid /ECF - outside the
cell; plasma (blood vessels), lymph
(lymphatic vessels), CSF (brain and
spinal cord), synovial (joints) Aqueous
humor and vitreous body (eye); internal
environment of the body which is temp. extremes, severe infection, major
protected by the integumentary system surgery) -> death
while external environment of body is
the space surrounding it FEEDBACK MECHANISMS / SYSTEM / LOOP
o Interstitial fluid – ECF that fills - regulates the internal environment
spaces between the cell - cycle of events in w/c body condition is
E.g. (gas/nutrients from its system when monitored, evaluated, changed,
metabolized for energy produces waste then remonitored and reevaluated (MEC)
cycle is vice versa) - has monitored/controlled variable or
Cardio (Blood – Blood Plasma – ECF) – controlled condition (e.g. blood glucose
interstitial fluid- blood capillaries – cells levels, body temp., BP)
Proper functioning of body cells depends on - stimulus disruption that changes
regulation of composition of surrounding fluid. controlled condition
CONTROL OF HOMEOSTASIS (stimuli- receptor- input - control center -
- Body is continually disturbed by the ff: output - effector – result)
 Internal environment (e.g. low 3 Basic Components:
in blood glucose) 1. Receptor
 External environment (e.g. - monitors changes in controlled
intense heat or lack of oxygen condition
from running) - sends input (nerve impulse or
 Psychological Stress (e.g. chemical signals) to C.C. thru
work/school demands) afferent pathway (toward C.C.)
Mostly, disruption is mild and temporary and 2. Control Center
balance can be quickly restored. Some, intense
and prolonged (e.g. poisoning, overexposure to
 - sets narrow range or set point
within w/c the controlled
condition should maintain
- evaluates the input
- generates output (nerve
impulse/hormones/other
chemical signals) thru efferent
pathway (away from C.C.)
3. Effector
- receives output and produce
response/effect that changes
the controlled condition
- nearly every organ/tissue can
be an effector
Both feedbacks have different output.
1. Negative feedback
- reverses/negates a change in
controlled condition
- if the body is in normal state
already, it will stop
- happens often
- regulate conditions that remain
stable over long periods
e.g. Blood Pressure -> force exerted
by blood as presses against wall of
BV; resistance of blood with the
blood vessel wall
Stimulus: disrupts by increasing
(e.g. heart beats fast/hard)
Controlled Condition: Blood
Pressure
Receptors: Baroreceptors - pressure
sensitive nerve cells located in
certain BV wall; detect higher
pressure
- Receptors send input (nerve
impulse) -> C.C. (brain)
interprets and responds by
sending output (nerve impulse)
-> effectors (heart and BV)
- HR decreases and BV dilates
causing BP to decrease
(response)
- quickly returns to controlled
condition to normal and
homeostasis is restored
- once stimulus is established or
normalized controlled
condition, it stops already then
the cycle continues
- the activity of effector caused
controlled condition (BP) to
drop, a result that negates
original stimulus (BP increase)
- follows a cycle
2. Positive feedback
- strengthen/reinforces change in
controlled condition
- difference from negative
feedback: effector produces
physiological response that
adds or reinforces initial change
in controlled condition;
continues until interrupted by
some mechanism
- some event outside the system
must shut it off; if not stopped
could be life-threatening
- does not happen often
1st e.g. normal childbirth/delivery
Stimulus: first contractions of
labor push fetus into cervix
(lowest part of uterus) opens to
vagina
Controlled Condition: stretching
of the cervix
Receptors: stretch sensitive
nerve cells
- As stretching increases,
receptor -> input (nerve
impulse) -> C.C. (brain) ->
 output (cause pituitary to
release oxytocin) -> effector
( cause uterus wall muscle to
contract more) -> more
contraction = push fetus down
uterus = stretch cervix more;
interrupted by birth of the baby
- hindi yung bata ang
nagstimulate magrelease ng
oxytocin but rather the stretch
reflex -> the attempt na ilabas
nabanat ng nabanat
- does not stop because of the
original stimulus itself (w/c
trigger stretch reflex by
oxytocin) but it was the body's
attempt to release; has other
outcome w/c causes to stop;
final output: delivery of baby
- not baby's release trigger it to
stop, rather it has to stop
because brain does not need to
stimulate anymore kasi wala na
paggamitan ng hormone
2nd e.g. low blood pressure
Stimulus: hemorrhage/severe
loss of blood (blood carries
nutrients and oxygen to
maintain homoeostasis)
Controlled Condition: Blood
Pressure
Severe blood loss, BP drops,
blood cells less oxygen, function
less -> continues cause weaker
heart and pumping decrease
and BP continue fall -> may lead
to death if no medical
intervention w/c is blood
transfusion
C.C. (brain) -> output (nerve impulse) -> heart
(effector) tells it to pump slowly because of low
blood volume = less supply of oxygen
heart follows body thinking it will be normal ->
overcompensate until it cannot anymore ->
death
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM
Negative: how to counteract this (may gagawin
yung katawan para ibalance)
Positive: more, more, more, more!!!; no
counteraction which stabilizes or puts it into
normal state (walang kailangan gawin body para
mabalance, nagiistop lang siya as is pag natapos
na yung event)
NOTE:
Body’s ability to maintain homeostasis gives it
healing power and resistance to abuse.
Factors affecting health: environment, own
behavior, genetic makeup, air u breathe, food u
eat and thoughts u think.
Moderate homeostatic balance – Disorder or
Disease may occur
Severe homeostatic imbalance – Death may
result
Medical Imaging – techniques and procedures
used to create images of human body; allows
visualization of structures inside our bodies and
helpful in precise diagnosis
Conventional Radiography/X-rays –
grandparent of all medical imaging techniques;
since late 1940s
New Imaging Techniques – contribute to
diagnosis and advance understanding of normal
anatomy and physiology