- Modal perfect infinitive:

+ should have done, ought to have done (in the past): (đang lẽ phải làm nhưng đã
khong làm) (objective)
You should have come here yesterday.
+ Could have done: (lẽ ra, có thể làm được) (subjective)
He could have worked hard.
+ Can’t/couldn’t have done: (chắc chắn là ai do không làm ) (negative):
He failed he couldn’t have worked hard.
+ Must have done (hẳn là, chắc chắn là) (positive – deductive):
You must have come here yesterday.
+ Needn’t have done: (lẽ ra không còn)
You needn’t have done all these exercises,
- Past subjunctive:
It’s time + Past subjunctive
It’s time we stopped here (It’s time for us to stop here – real condition)
SEQUENCES OF TENSES
I, Object clauses
- If the main verb is present, the subordinate verb is any tense:
Main clause subclause
V-s (that) V - any tense
He says he (go) to the beach.
- If the main verb is past, the subordinate verb is past tenses:
V-ed (that) V – past tenses
He said he (go) to Hanoi.
Exceptionally, the subordinate verb may be present when denoting something which is
true all the time or is still true at present:
Right at that time, they believed that the earth is round.
Yesterday, he told me that he is living in a hotel.
II, Adverbial clauses:
4 1 6
di
d7

8
• 1 + 2 (past continuous): When I got home, my mother was cooking dinner.
• 1 + 3 (past simple):
When I saw her, I said “Hello” to her.
• 1 + 4 (past perfect):
When I got home, my mother had cooked dinner.
• 1 + 5 (past perfect continuous):
When I got home, my mother had been cooking dinner for half an hour.
• 1 + 6 (future in the past):
When I got home, my mother was going to cook dinner.
• 1 + 7 (present perfect):
Since I left school, I haven’t seen my old school friends.
• 1 + 8 (present perfect continuous):
Since I left school, I have been learning English here.

• a + b (future continuous):
Tomorrow, when he comes back, I shall be typing the letter.
• a + c (future simple):
Tomorrow, when he comes back, I shall speak to him.
• a + d (future perfect):
Tomorrow, by the time he comes back, I shall have typed the letter.
• a + e (future perfect continuous):
 Tomorrow, by the time he comes back, I shall have been typing the letter for 2 hours.

Grammar
Morphology Syntax
Open class items Phrases

Nouns NP, AdjP, AdvP, PreP, VP

Adjectives Clauses

Adverbs Main clause – subclause

Verbs Finite - nonfinite - verbless

Closed system items Sentences

Articles Elements: S, V, C, O, A

Demonstratives Kinds: 2 kinds

Pronouns - Simple

Prepositions - Complex:
+ by using Coordinators
Conjunctions
Interjections + by using Subordinators

Open class items Closed system items

 Content words (lexical words).  Conveys function words.
 Cannot count them  Can count them
 Do not exclude each other.  Exclude each other.
 Create new members.  Never create new members.
Phrases
1. Structure:
(Pre-modification) + Head + (Post-modification)
2.Kinds of phrase: 5

Noun phrase (NP): a noun as a head

Adjective phrase (Adj.P): an adjective as a head

Adverb phrase (Adv.P): an adverb as a head

Preposition phrase (Pr.P): a noun phrase dominated by a preposition

  Verb phrase (VP): a verb as a head.
Structurally:
Finite VP
VP Bare Inf.NFVP
Nonfinite VP Infinitive NFVP ‘To’ Inf.NFVP
Ing participle NFVP
Ed participle NFVP
Nouns

Kinds of nouns Syntactic function of Noun

 Common Subject
 Count Direct Object
 Mass Indirect Object
 Collective Subject Complement
 Proper Object complement
Adverbials
Attribute
In pocessive
In direct address

In apposition
As modifier of other noun
Basic Noun Phrase

Structure: (Premodification) + Head

Functions: S, O, C
Elements of basic noun phrase
A common noun Pronouns
One word
Proper noun Numerous
Pre-determiners
Inclusives Fractions

Premodification Multipliers
Determiners
Articles Interrogative demterminers
Demonstratives Indefinite determiners
Pronouns Quantifiers
Post-determiners
- Numerals - Quantifiers
- Cardinal - Closed system items

- Ordinal - Open class items

* The function of the determiners in the noun phrase:
 The determiner in the noun phrase is used to limit the referent (or meaning) of the head
noun. It can be:
+ Article + Demonstrative + Interrogative
+ Quantifier + Indefinite determiner + possessive pro.
pre-determiner: all, half, double, both, twice
post-determiner: numerous and quantifiers
 The difference between restrictive and non-restrictive modification:
- Restrictive modification is necessary for the clear understanding to the antecedent
whereas non-restrictive modification merely gives some more information to the
antecedent and often separates from the main clause by commas.
- In non-restrictive modification, the relative pronoun can not be left out event as an
object and the relative pronoun “that” can not be used instead of “which”, “who”
whereas in restrictive modification the relative pronoun can be left out while functioning
as an object and the relative pronoun that can be used instead of “which”, “who”:``
Complex Noun Phrases
- Structure: Premod. + Head + Postmodif.
- Functions: S, O, C

Complex N.P
Premodification

Close system item

- Preditierminer: Inclusive, multiplier, fraction
- Determiner: Article, demonstrative, pronoun, indefinite determiner, interogative
determiner, quantifier
- Post: Numnerral, quantifier Open class items

Adjective
Participle
Noun
Hea
d
Post modification
Adver/preposition
Non finite Clause
Relative clause
 Basic Noun phrase Complex noun phrase

- N.P
- Functions: S, O, C
- Premodification + Head
- Premodification: Closed system items
- Permanent features
- Can be only one word -Premod. + head + postmod.
- Premodification + head - -Premodification:
Premodification : closed system items + opened class items (chiefly)
- Only permanent features + closed system items (optional)
-Premod. (perm.) + Head + Postmod (temp)
-Permanent and temporary features
Complex noun phrase includes the elements of the Basic noun phrases
• Multiple premodification:
Predeter. + Deter. + Postdeter. + Adj. + Participles + N + Nhead
• Multiple postmodification:
Nhead + Adv/ Pre.P + NFCL + Rel.Cl.
The difference between the premodification and the post-modification in a CNP:
- Syntactically, the premodification comprises the premodifiers that come before the head
whereas the postmodifiers in the postmodification occur after the head:
e.g: the visible star (premodification) the star visible (postmodification)
- Semantically, the premodification denotes a permanent referent of the head whereas
the post-modification denotes a temporary referent of the head.
e.g: “the visible stars” refers to category of stars that can be seen
“the stars visible” refer to stars are visible at the time specified or implies
- Permanence & temporariness – passive and non passive
Pre-modifiers: Temporary & Permanent; passive and non passive
Post-modifiers: Temporary; passive only

DISTINGUISH WH-INTERR. CLAUSE AND WH-NOMINAL REl. CLAUSES

1. Similarities
a. Form: Both are finite Nominal clause introduced by Wh-word
+ as Pronouns: What, who, which
+ as Adverbs: how, where, when, why
b. Functions: S, Od, Cs, App, Cprep
2. Differences

Clauses Wh-interrogative clause Wh-nominal relative clause

Forms Wh-word Wh-word + ever

Function Cadj Ø
s Ø Oi
Ø Co

Meaning Wh-interrogative clause Nominal relative clause correspond to a nominal

s correspond to wh – question:
I don’t know who he is.
- Who is he?
- I don’t know.
Why she didn’t come has
not been answered.
- Why didn’t she come?
- The question has been
answered.
element + relative clause:
What caused the fired was a cigarette end.
- The thing that caused the fire was a cigarette end.
Nom.element Nom. Re.clause
Whoever went there was given a small book.
- Anyone who went there was given a small book.

Adjectives
Kinds Syntactic features
Simple adjs (root) Attributive position freely
Derived adjectives Predicative position freely
Compound adjs Modified by intensifiers
Adj phrases Comparative and superlative
NS as adj  
Participle as adjs  
Advs as Adjs  

Adverbs
Kinds Syntactic function of Adverb
Time As adverbials
 Place Adjuncts
Frequency Disjuncts
Duration Conjuncts
Manner As modifiers
Distance of adjective
Direction of Adverb
Degree of prepositional phrase
Means and instruments of determiner
  of noun phrase
  As complement of preposition

Prepositional phrases
Structure: Preposition + Prepositional complement.
Prepositional complements: NP, - Ing part NFCl., Wh- cl.,
Yes/no clause or nominal relative clause
Syntactic functions
Adverbials: adjuncts, disjuncts, conjuncts
Postmodifier in a NP
Complementation of a verb
Complementation of an adjective

Verb phrases
The form of the verbs:

Base form -s form -Ing form -ed form (P1) -ed/-en part. Form (P2)

- Imperative form 3th person - Progressive Simple past - Perfect aspect

singular aspect tense
- After modal auxiliary verb - Passive voice
- In subjunctive sentence tense -Ing participle -Ed participle clause
clauses
- All the present personal
pronoun except 3rd
- Co

Finite VPs Non-finite VPs

• Finite VPs (V, V-s & V-ed1, etc.)
• Have tense and mood of a certain
type.
• Finite VPs often have their own
subject.
• Finite VPs often appear in the simple,
compound or complex sentence
Categories of verbs
1. Abilities to be used in the progressive form (aspect):
Stative: 6 groups
- Feeling and emotion - Want and preference
-Thinking and believing - Perception and senses
Dynamic
• Do not have tense and mood.
• Non-finite VPs may have but more
often do not have their S.
• Non-finite VPs: function as S, O, C or
A
• Making up the complete complex
sentence.
- Being, seeming, having, owning
- State and condition;

2. The relationship between V element and other elements in the clause:

INTENSIVE (BE & BECOME group)
V intransitive
EXTENSIVE mono-transitive
transitive di-transitive
complex transitive

Intensive: Cs, Aob.

Stative Extensive: Transitive: O
V
Intensive: Cs, Aob.
Dynamic intransitive
Extensive monotransitive
 transitive ditransitive
complextransitive

Complementation of verbs
Cs Aob. Od Oi - Od Od - Co Od-A

- NP - Adv.Ph - NP - Od: NP - Od = Np - Od: NP

- Adj.P - Pre.Phr - FCl. Oi: NP Co = NP A: Adv
- FCl - FCl. - NFCl - Od: NP - Od = NP - Od: NP
- NFCl - NFCl. Oi: FCl. Co = Adj.P/Cl. A: Pre.P
- Od: FCl. - Od = NP - Od: NP
Oi: NP Co = NFC. A: FCl.
- Oi: FCl.
- Od = NP - Od: FCl
Od: FCl.
Co = FCl. A: Pre.P
- Oi: NP
Od: NFCl
- Oi: FCl
Od: NFCl

State different kinds of mood

Mood is our concept of relation between the verbal action to condition such as certainty,
necessity, obligation or possibility. There are 3 moods:
- Indicative mood: the form of the verb that is used in interrogative or declarative sentence
(positive/ negative declarative sentence)
- Imperative mood: The verb form that is used to give an order or to make a request
Positive imperative
Negative imperative
- Subjunctive mood: the verb form that is used to express a wish. It can be classified into 3
categories: Mandative; Formulaic subjunctive; Hypothetical subjunctive

2. Chart of clause classification

C la u s e c la s s ific a tio n

Usage

In d e p e n d e n t c la u s e : W h e n T o m s a w M a r r y , h e r a n a w a y
D e p e n t d e n t c la u s e : W h e n T o m s a w M a r r y , h e r a n a w a y
C la u s e e le m e n t & v e r b c o m p le m e n t a tio n

S + V ( in t r a n s it iv e ) : H e h a s a r r iv e d
S + V ( in t e n s iv e ) + A : H e is in t h e g a d e r n
S + V ( in t e n s iv e ) + C s : H e lo o k s t ir e d
S + V ( m o n o t r a n s i t i v e ) + O d : I lo v e y o u
S + V ( c o m p le x t r a n s it iv e ) + O + A : T h e y p u t h im in a g o o d p o s it io n
S + V ( C o m p le x t r a n s it iv e ) + O d + C o : T h e y m a d e m e h a p p y
S + V ( d it r a n s it iv e ) + O i + O d : H e g a v e m e h is b o o k
V e rb p h ra s e s tru c tu re

F in it e c la u s e : H e is a s t u d e n t
N o n - f in it e c la u s e

I n f in it iv e n o n - f in it e c la u s e

" T o " in f in it iv e n o n - f in it e c la u s e : M y d u t y is t o r e m in d h im o f h is t a s k
" B a r e " in f in it iv e n o n - f in it e c la u s e : A ll I d id w a s h it h im o n h is h e a d
- I n g p a r t i c i p l e n o n - f i n i t e c l a u s e : G o i n g h o m e , I d id s o m e s h o p p i n g
- E d p a r t i c ip l e n o n - f i n i t e c l a s u e : H i s j o b f i n i s h e d , h e w e n t h o m e
V e r b le s s c la u s e : W h e n a lit t le g ir l, I u s e d t o g o t o s c h o o l o n f o o t
S y n ta x t ic fu n c tio n

In d e p e n d e n t c la u s e
D e p e n d e n t c la u s e

N o m in a l : I b e liv e y o u a r e r ig h t
R e la t iv e : T h e m a n w h o is s t a n d in g a t t h e d o o r is m y b r o t h e r
C o m m e n t : G e n e r a l s p e a k in g h e is h o n e s t
A d v e r b : A f t e r h a v in g b r e a k f a s t , h e w e n t t o s c h o o l

Compare finite with non-finite clauses

Similarities Differences

- They are parts Finite Non-finite

of sentence
elements. - at least, can be a simple sentence - Part of sentence S, C, O, A
- Functions as - predicative in clause or sent. - More often without S than with S
S, O, C, A structure (V).
- Don’t have tense, mood
- often goes with their own S distinction.
- Tense and mood distinction

Syntactic functions of –ing participle clause and to infinitive clause

a, ‘To’ infinitive clause: may have their own S or without S + e.g
- Nominal functions: S, Od, Cs, Cadj, App,
- Adverbial functions: Apurpose, Aresult (too.. for... to do sth);
- Other functions: Disjucts, Postmodifiers
b, -Ing participle clause: may have their own S or without S + e.g
- Nominal functions: S, Od, Cs, Co, Cadj, App, Cpre.
- Adverbial functions: Atime, Areason, Aconcession, Amanner

- Other functions: Disjuncts, Post-modifiers, Pre-modifiers.

3. Sentences
 Classification

Communicative function (purpose of Cl.elements & Structures

utterances) Vcompl

1. Statements (Declaratives): S - V S+ V Traditional classification:

Simple
Affirmative S+V+A
Compound
Negative S+V+C
Complex
2. Questions: V – S? S+V+O
Mixed
- S-operator inversion S+V+O+A
Modern English grammar
- The initial positioning of WH-qs. S+V+O+C
Simple
- Rising intonation S+V+O+O
Complex (coordinate and
3. Commands (imperative): 3 kinds
subordinate)
- Without S: V/ Don’t + V
- With S
- Command with “let”
4. Exclamation: 2 kinds
How + adj./ adv + S + V!
What + NP + S +V!

Cf: Phrases – Clauses – Sentences

Items Structure Semantic

Phrases - Word group - Conceptual meaning
- Head: equivalent to a part of speech  

Clauses - Dependent or independent language - Complete or incomplete

unit meaning
- Sentence/ part of    
setence - S V; S/O/C/A
Sentences - Independent language unit - Complete meaning

Concord
There are 4 types of concord:
1, S – V concord:
+ Grammatical concord: agreement between a verb and a subject that consists of 2 or more
noun phrase coordinated by “and”.
+ Notional concord: an agreement of verb with S according to the ideal
+ Proximity: Agreement of verb whatever noun or pronoun closely precedes it;
2. S – O concord: if the O is a reflexive pronoun, it agrees with the S in person, number,
gender:
3. S – C concord: the agreement between S and C in number and gender
4. Pronoun concord: the agreement between personal pronoun and their antecedents in
numbers and gender:

Inversion
1, In questions: Aux + S + V
2, In statements (emphasis)
a, A-V-S (Aplace, direction, frequency)
b, C-V-S/ C-S-V
c, O-S-V
d, V-S (agreement, addition)

Realization of sentence elements/ syntactic functions of sentence

elements/ grammatical features
S O C A

Simple NP: BNP & CNP NP: BNP & - NP: BNP & CNP - Adv.
sentence CNP
- Adj.P: Adj.P & Cl. - Prep. P
- Adj. + Prep.P

Complex NCL: NCL: NCl. - FCl.

sentence
- NFCl: (toV,Ving) - NFCl: - NFCl: (toV,Ving) - NFCl.-
(toV,Ving) Verbless
- FCl: that, wh- - FCl: that, wh- if/whether
if/whether - FCl: that, wh-
- Adj. Cl.: Adj. + NFCl.
if/whether
Adj. + FCl.

Semantic roles of sentence elements

S O C
 -Agentive Od Cs
-Instrumental - Affected - current attribute
-Affected - Effected - resulting attribute
-Recipient - Locative Co
-Locative Oi - current attribute
-Temporal - Recipient - resulting attribute
-Eventive - Affected
-Empty “IT”

Cf: simple sentence and complex sentence

Similarities Differences

- Communicative Simple Complex

classification in
statements, commands, - contains only one - more than 1 clause
questions, exclamations. clause
- at least one element realised
- Structurally - all elements are by a clause.
classification: analysis phrases
- 2 kinds:
into S, V, O, C, A
- V element: finite
Vsuper: finite;
- 7 kinds: patterns
Vsub: finite and nonfinite
(to, -ing, -ed)
- Nominal function: S, O, C
S, O, C: Nominal clause
- Nominal function: S, O, C (finite/ nonfinite)
S, O, C: NP
C: Adj.Clause
C: Adj.P
A: FCl, NFC, verbless
A: Adv, Pre.P
 Nominal clause syntactic functions

Clauses Functions
S Od Oi Cs Co App C adj C pre
Finite That "clause" + + + + +
"Wh.." clause + + + + + +
Norminal relative + + + + + + +
Yes/no clause + + + + + +
Non finite To infinitive + + + + + +
Bare infinitve + + +
Ing participle + + + + + + +

Adverbial clauses
 Adverbial of time : when,...
 Adverbial of place: where.....
 Adverbial of condition: if ....
 Adverbial of concession: although
 Clause of reason/cause: since/because
 Clause of circumstance: in that
 Clause of purpose: so that
 Clause of result: so...that
 Clause of manner:as, in the way , the way
 Clause of proportion:
 Clause of preference
 Clause of comparison