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ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Singh et al./VIII [2] 2017/17 – 28
Volume VIII [2] 2017 [17 – 28] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]

Integrated pest management: conservation practices for agriculture and

environment

Singh, Jitendra Kumar1; Yadav, Krishna Kumar2 and Kumar, Vinit2

Received: March 30, 2017  Accepted: June 30, 2017  Online: December 31, 2017

Introduction
action has led to widespread resistance to
India’s population has been growing at an
herbicides (Busi et al. 2013). In 1962, Rachel
annual rate of 1.2 percent (during 1950-2016),
Carson published her book "Silent Spring"
and is expected to touch 1.6 billion marks by
where she high lighting the misuse and
2022. According to the United Nations, India
overuse of pesticides on the environment and
is set to replace China as the world most
the related environmental concern. Then the
populated country by 2022, thereby
concept of Integrated Pest management (IPM)
necessitating the need for more food
emerged. After the introduction of IPM, DDT
production (Dhaliwal and Arora, 2001;
was banned in early 1970s, by defaulting to
Nwilene et al., 2008). At this rate of
secure environment. Integrated pest
population growth, the country would require
management has been used in commercial
an additional food grain of about 2 million
agriculture since the 1970s. Many of the
tons a year (Paroda, 1999). The use of
principles that guide farmers in making pest
pesticides and chemical fertilizers has played
management decisions can be used by
a positive role in increasing agricultural
gardeners as well. According to the noted
productivity and in making India self-
agricultural scientist, M.S. Swaminathan
sufficient in food grain production. In weed
(1999), agriculture production systems in the
management, over-simplification of cropping
21st century need to be based on the
systems coupled with over-reliance on
appropriate use of biotechnology, information
chemical weed control exacerbated by the
technology and eco technology. Integrated
continuous and extensive use of few modes of
Pest Management (IPM) is such a technology.
For Correspondence: Integrated Pest Management are safer and
School of Environment and Sustainable Development
environmental friendly pest and disease
Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, India management methods become popular in food
Institute of Environment and Development Studies,
Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, U.P., India
crop production around the world
E-mail: envirokrishna@gmail.com (Jayasooriya and Aheeyar, 2016).

17 
 Singh et al./VIII [2] 2017/17 – 28
‘Integrated pest management’ means careful
consideration of all available plant protection
methods and subsequent integration of
appropriate measures that discourage the
development of populations of harmful
organisms and keep the use of plant protection
products and other forms of intervention to
levels that are economically and ecologically
justified and reduce or minimise risks to
human health and the environment.
‘Integrated pest management’ emphasises the
growth of a healthy crop with the least
possible disruption to agro-ecosystems and
encourages natural pest control mechanisms.
IPM is a systematic approach to pest
management that focuses first on preventing
problems. It involves monitoring pest
populations, identifying pests and choosing a
combination of tactics to keep pest
populations at an acceptable level. Tactics
may include cultural, mechanical, biological
and chemical methods of pest management
(Fig. 1). IPM stresses trying the least toxic
methods first. The term “Integrated Pest
Management” was firstly used by Smith and
Van den Bosch in 1967 and this term was
acknowledged and accepted by US National
Academy of Sciences in 1969. The various
definitions of Integrated Pest management
(IPM) are as follows:
 Integrated Pest management (IPM) is
defined as a pest management system that
utilizes suitable techniques and methods
against the pests in as compatible manner
with the environment as possible and thus,
maintaining the pest population levels
below those causing economic injury.
 IPM has come a long way since the
introduction of “integrated control”
defined as “applied pest control which
combines and integrates biological and
chemical control” (Stern et al. 1959).
 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a
strategy to prevent and suppress pests with
minimum impact on human health, the
environment and non-target organisms.
 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an
ecologically based strategy that focuses on
long-term solution of the pests through a
combination of techniques such as
biological control, habitat manipulation,
modification of agronomic practices, and
use of resistant varieties.
 Integrated pest management is 'the use of
multiple control measures which are
compatible, economical, environmentally
sound and culturally feasible for managing
pest populations at an acceptable level
(Tweedy 1979).
 Integrated pest management, defined as an
approach in comprehensive meaning by the
selection, integration and implementation
of sustainable pest control tools to keep
pest status to endurable levels while
maintaining a quality environment and
mankind health (Ahmed et al., 2016).
 According to US EPA (2012) Integrated
pest management (IPM) is typically
viewed as a multi-step process of setting
thresholds, monitoring pest activity, taking
prevent active measures to reduce pest
problems before they begin, and
controlling pests in the event that the
previous steps indicate a pest problem.
 A pest management system that, in the
context of the associated environment and
the population dynamics of the pest
species, utilizes all suitable techniques and
methods in as compatible a manner as
18 
 Singh et al./VIII [2] 2017/17 – 28

possible, and maintains the pest population nature by the help of pest controlling methods.
sat levels below those causing Many case studies concluded that Benefit
economically unacceptable damage or loss Cost Ratio (BC Ratio) was more for IPM
(FAO1967). farm, compared to Non-IPM farms. Research
is obviously needed to develop and evaluate
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has been
IPM concepts and practices in developing
developed as a way to control pests without
countries, but it is useless without companion
relying solely on pesticides. It is a systematic
efforts in extension and training.
plan which brings together different pest
control tactics into one program. With IPM, a IPM programs are functioning in more than 60
farmer uses pesticides as one tool in an overall developing and developed countries (FAO
pest control program. Integrated Pest 2011). In India, the first IPM programme was
Management (IPM) is a systematic plan which the Operational Research Project (ORP)
brings together different pest control tactics during 1974–75 (Swaminathan, 1975) in
into one program. The term management cotton and rice. Since then, many IPM
means finding tactics that are both effective programmes have been initiated by different
and economical and that keep environmental public-sector extension agencies such as
damage to a minimum. It reduces the Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine
emphasis on pesticides by including cultural, and Storage, Faridabad, India; state
biological, and mechanical controls. The agricultural departments; state agricultural
purpose of IPM is to help you make decisions universities; Central Integrated Pest
based on careful consideration of costs, risks, Management Centers (CIPMCs) and
and benefits. nongovernmental organizations with national
and international funding. The important
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
initiatives related to IPM in India are shown in
technology can provide green and eco-
Table 1.
friendly alternatives for environment and
agricultural management without harming the
PERIOD LANDMARK
1974–1975 Research on IPM started on rice and cotton, under ORP
1980 India becomes a member country of the FAO initiated Inter-Country Programme
MID-1980s Government of India re-orients its plant protection strategy
1990s ONWARDS Central Integrated Pest Management Centers (CIPMCs) set up in 26 states to promote
the concept of IPM in cotton and rice
MID-1990s Various state departments of agriculture implement IPM
1994 The Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage, Government of India, the
nodal agency for implementing IPM programmes
2000 National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) for IPM
2000 ONWARDS FAO/EU launch an IPM programme for cotton in India for 5 years
2002 Insecticide resistance management-based IPM programme by the Central Institute for
Cotton Research (CICR), Nagpur
2008 India is the world’s fifth largest grower of GM crops with an estimated 6.9 million ha
(Bt cotton) sown in 2008
2008–2012 Strengthening and modernizing of pest management approaches in India
Table 1. History of IPM in India

19 
 Singh et al./VIII [2] 2017/17 – 28

Actual Approx. estimated loss in Hypothetical Value of loss

Crop production* yield production in million Rs.
(Million (MT)
% Total (MT)
Tonnes)
Cotton 44.03 30 18.9 62.9 339660
Rice 96.7 25 32.2 128.9 240138
Maize 19 20 4.8 23.8 29450
Sugarcane 348.2 20 87.1 435.3 70667
Rapeseed- mustard 5.8 20 1.5 7.3 26100
Groundnut 9.2 15 1.6 10.8 25165
Other oilseeds 14.7 15 2.6 17.3 35851
Pulses 14.8 15 2.6 17.4 43551
Coarse cereals 17.9 10 2.0 19.9 11933
Wheat 78.9 5 4.1 82.7 41368
Total/average 17.5 863884
*
Production and minimum support price (MSP) fixed Table 2: Estimation of losses caused by insect
by GOI for 2007-08, are adopted from anonymous pests to major agricultural crops in India
(2010)

Crop Pre-green revolution Post-green revolution Changes in loss

(early 1960s) (early 2000s)
Cotton 18.0 50.0 +32.0
Groundnut 5.0 15.0 +10.0
Other oilseeds 5.0 25.0 +20.0
Pulses 5.0 15.0 +10.0
Rice 10.0 25.0 +15.0
Maize 5.0 25.0 +20.0
Sorghum and millets 3.5 30.0 +26.5
Wheat 3.0 5.0 +2.0
Sugarcane 10.0 20.0 +10.0
Average 7.2 23.3 +16.1
Source: Dhaliwal et al., (2007) Table 3: Crop losses (%) due to insect pests during pre
and post-green revolution in India

Crop Pests Weeds Pathogens Viruses Total

Cotton 12.3 8.6 7.2 0.7 28.8
Maize 9.6 10.5 8.5 2.7 31.3
Rice 15.1 10.2 10.8 1.4 37.5
Potato 10.9 8.3 14.5 6.6 40.3
Soybean 8.8 7.5 8.9 1.2 26.4
Wheat 7.9 7.7 10.2 2.4 28.2
Average 10.8 8.8 10.0 2.5 32.1
Source: Oerke (2006) Table 4: Global losses (%) due to various
categories of pests in major crops

Pest problems and crop losses
Food plants of the world are damaged by more
than 10, 000 species of insects, 30,000 species
of weeds 100,000 diseases (caused by fungi,
viruses, bacteria and other microorganisms)
and 1000 species of nematodes (Hall, 1995;
Dhaliwal et al., 2007).However, less than
10per cent of the total identified pest species
are generally considered as major pests. The
severity of pest problems has been changing
with the developments in agricultural
20 
 Singh et al./VIII [2] 2017/17 – 28
technology and modifications of farming
practices. Although crop protection aims to
avoid or prevent crop losses or to reduce them
to economically acceptable losses, the
availability of quantitative data on the effect
of different categories of pests is very limited.
Losses due to insect pests in Indian agriculture
have been estimated from time to time. Over
all, the losses increased from 7.2 per cent in
early 1960s to 23.3 per cent in early 2000s.
The maximum increase in loss occurred in
cotton followed by other crops like sorghum
and millets, maize and oilseeds (other than
groundnut) in India. As a result of these
developments, losses due to insect pests in
several agricultural crops have shown a
declining trend (Table 2). Overall, the crop
losses increased from 7.2 per cent in early
1960s to 23.3 percent in early 2000s (Table 3).
Objective of IPM
1. Reduced Crop loss.
2. Minimize environmental pollution.
3. Reduced chemical contamination of
food and the environment.
4. Maintain ecological balance with
minimum disturbance to ecosystem.
5. Reduce management cost.
6. Reducing Pesticide Use.
7. Maximum crop production.
Component and principles of IPM
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) system is
designed around six basic components and
Four Basic Principles. They are as follows:
1. Acceptable pest levels - IPM
programmes first work to establish
acceptable pest levels, called action
thresholds, and apply controls if those
thresholds are crossed.
2. Preventive cultural practices
3. Monitoring
4. Physical and Mechanical controls
5. Biological controls
6. Responsible Pesticide Use (Chemical
controls)
Four Basic Principles of IPM
1. Thorough understanding of the crop,
pest, and the environment and their
interrelationships
2. Requires advanced planning
3. Balances cost/benefits of all control
practices
4. Requires routine monitoring of crop
and pest conditions
Tools of IPM
Monitoring
Crop monitoring, that keeps track of the pests
and their potential damage, is the foundation
of IPM. This provides knowledge about the
current pests and crop situation and is helpful
in selecting the best possible combinations of
the pest management methods. Pheromone
traps have got advantage over other
monitoring tools such as light and sticky traps.
Being selective to specific pest, they have
proven their usefulness in large scale IPM
validations in cotton, basmati rice, chickpea
and pigeonpea.
Pest resistant varieties
Breeding for pest resistance is a continuous
process. At the same time the pests also,
particularly the plant pathogens, co-evolve
with their hosts. Thus, gene transfer
technology is useful in developing cultivars
resistant to insects, plant pathogens and
herbicides. An example of this is the
21 
 Singh et al./VIII [2] 2017/17 – 28

incorporation of genetic material from  Plant Population

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a naturally  Row width
occurring bacterium, in cotton, corn, and  Fertility
 Planting Date
potatoes, which makes the plant tissues toxic  Habitat Stability
to the insect pests. Scientific community is  Crop Rotation
impressed by its huge potential in managing  Surface Residue
the pests, but is also concerned about the  Mixed Cropping
 Trap Cropping
possibility of increased selection pressure for
 Intercropping
resistance against it and its effects on non-  Scarecrows
target natural fauna. However, due to ethical,  Drainage
scientific and social considerations, this  Smother Techniques
potential technology has been surrounded by  Burial of Garbage
 Sanitation
controversies.
Physical or mechanical controls
Cultural pest control
These are based on the knowledge of pest
It includes crop production practices that behaviour. Placing plastic-lined trenches in
make crop environment less susceptible to potato fields to trap migrating Colorado potato
pests. Crop rotation, fallowing, manipulation beetles is one example of the physical control.
of planting and harvesting dates, manipulation Shaking of the pigeonpea plant to remove
of plant and row spacing, and destruction of Helicoverpa larvae is a common practice in
old crop debris are a few examples of cultural pigeonpea growing areas. Hand picking of
methods that are used to manage the pests. insect pests is perhaps the simplest pest
Planting of cover crops, nectar producing control method. Installation of dead as well as
plants and inter-planting of different crops to live bird perches in cotton and chickpea fields
provide habitat diversity to beneficial insects has proved effective in checking the bollworm
are important management techniques. Cover infestation. Using mulches to smother weeds
crops, often legume or grass species, prevent and providing row covers to protect plants
soil erosion and suppress weeds. A cover crop from insects are other examples.
can also be used as a green manure, which is
• Tillage
incorporated in the soil to provide nitrogen
 Rotary Hoe
and organic matter to the subsequent crop.  Cultivator
When incorporated in the soil, some cover  Disc
crops of the Brassica family have the ability • Slash & Burn
• Hand Weeding
to suppress nematode pests and wilt diseases. • Remove or destroy diseased plant or plant
Left in the field as residues, rye and wheat parts and pests
provide more than 90 percent weed • Traps such as rat traps and sticky insect traps
suppression. Cultural controls are selected Biological controls
based on knowledge of pest biology and
These include augmentation and conservation
development. Cultural control methods are as
of natural enemies of pests such as insect
follows
predators, parasitoids, parasitic nematodes,
22 
 Singh et al./VIII [2] 2017/17 – 28

fungi and bacteria (Table 5). In IPM biological control agents. Biological control
programmes, native natural enemy methods are as follows:
populations are conserved, and non-native
 Beneficial Insects
agents may be released with utmost caution.  Parasites
Trichogramma species are the most popular  Predators
parasitoids being applied on a number of host  Sex Attractants
crops. A number of microorganisms such as  Irradiation of males
 Fungal Control
Trichoderma spp., Verticillium spp.,
 Selective Breeding
Aspergillus spp., Bacillus spp. and  Pest-specific diseases
Pseudomonas spp. that attack and suppress the  Release or augment predators
plant pathogens have been exploited as  Release or augment parasites/parasitoids
 Release or augment microbial pesticides

Predators Pests controlled

Big-eyed bugs Aphids, leafhoppers, lygus bugs (nymphs), spider mites
Green lacewings Aphids, leafhoppers, plant bugs (immature), spider mites, thrips
Hover flies (syrphid flies) Aphids
Lady beetles Aphids, scales, spider mites
Minute pirate bugs Aphids, spider mites, thrips,
Parasitoids Pests controlled
Hymenoptera parasites (e.g., Aphids (larvae), cutworms, loopers
Ichneumonids, braconids and
chalcids)
Tachinids Codling moths, cutworms, grasshoppers, hornworms, plant bugs,
others
Table 5: Beneficial insects and pests controlled

Chemical controls • Pheromones (very effective, but not

currently easily accessible or economical)
Pesticides are used to keep the pest
populations below economically damaging • Homemade botanical pesticides
levels when the pests cannot be controlled by
• Repellents
other means. Pesticides include both the
synthetic pesticides and plant-derived • Bio pesticide such as Bacillus
pesticides. Synthetic pesticides include a wide thuringiensis (Bt), Neem based
range of man-made chemicals. These are easy insecticides etc.
to use, fast-acting and relatively inexpensive. Control methods used in IPM
Ideally, pesticides should be used as a last
IPM combines different techniques to prevent
resort in IPM programmes because of their
pest damage without harming the
potential negative effect on the environment.
environment.IPM can be applied wherever
• Herbicides, Insecticides, Fungicides pests are found: on and in farms, schools,
• Miticides, Nematicides, Rodenticides, homes, hospitals, restaurants, golf courses and
Avicides (black birds) home gardens. It also saves money.
23 
 Singh et al./VIII [2] 2017/17 – 28

Natural enemies and nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPV) of

Heliothis and Spodoptera.
 Avoiding pesticides protects natural
enemies in home gardens.
 Natural enemies include predators,
parasites and diseases of pests.
 Farming practices that protect natural
enemies are used.
 Predators, such as ladybird beetles, are
released in greenhouses.
 Bacteria-based pesticides are used on
vegetable and other crops. Fig. 1: Pyramids of different tactics used in an IPM approach

Habitat modification
 All pests need food, shelter and water.
 Practices that keep pests from these basic
needs will reduce pest problems.
Strategies for IPM implementation
An integrated strategy for the management of
major pests and diseases is possible by (i)
breeding new varieties with built-in
resistance, (ii) evolving efficient methods of
pest control through pest surveys and
monitoring, and (iii) biological control of
pests with the help of conservation and
augmentation of natural enemies like
parasites, predators and insect pathogens.
Economically viable integrated pest
management strategies have been developed
for the control of major pests in rice, cotton,
pulses, sugarcane, etc. Control of Pyrilla and
top borer of sugarcane, mealy bug of coffee,
lepidopterous pests affecting cotton, tobacco,
coconut, sugarcane, etc. area few examples
where success has been achieved through the
release ofbiocontrol agents. A major
achievement has been the development of
mass rearing technology for bio control agents
such as Trichogramma spp., Chrysoperla spp.
Essentials for implementation
 Availability of location-specific IPM
modules, which are ecologically
sound, economically viable and
socially acceptable
 High level of target group
participation
 Area-wide dissemination strategy
 Removal of obstacles in dissemination
of IPM
 Measuring, evaluating and publicizing
the impacts of IPM.
Conservation of natural enemies of pests and
their augmentation is of prime importance.
Besides, the intrinsic property of renewability,
reversibility and resilience of botanicals and
bio pesticides make them most dependable
tools for sustainable IPM. Hence, to maintain
ecological balance and to manage the pests,
the use of bio-agents and bio
pesticides/botanicals must receive priority
attention. Sustainable farming practices
commonly include:
• Crop rotations that mitigate weeds, disease,
insect and other pest problems; provide
alternative sources of soil nitrogen; reduce

24 
 Singh et al./VIII [2] 2017/17 – 28

soil erosion; and reduce risk of water Benefits/Advantage of integrated pest

contamination by agricultural chemicals. management
• Pest control strategies include integrated
i. Slower development of resistance to
pest management techniques that reduce
pesticides
the need for pesticides by practices such as
ii. Reduced health risk to spray operators
scouting/ monitoring, use of resistant
iii. Reduced chemical contamination of food
cultivars, timing of planting, and biological
and the environment
pest controls.
iv. Reduced dependence on chemicals; hence
• Increased mechanical/biological weed
IPM is a step towards sustainable
control; more soil and water conservation
agriculture
practices; and strategic use of green
v. Better plant health giving improved quality
manures.
and production.
• Use of natural or synthetic inputs in a way
vi. Reduced Crop loss.
that poses no significant hazard to humans
vii. Decreased use of chemical application will
or the environment.
reduce risks to the health of staff members.
Strategies for effective pest management viii. Decreased use of chemical application will
reduce the risk of deterioration and
To make IPM work, the constraints need to be
disfigurement of holdings
addressed properly and thegaps in knowledge
ix. Decreased use of chemical application may
need to be bridged through R&D. Following
result in a financial savings.
strategies could help improve adoption of
x. The environmental improvements made to
IPM:
the facility to implement an IPM program
• Training of the farmers and extension will enhance the long-term stability of the
personnel in IPM methodology holdings over and above protection against
• Aggressive demonstration campaigns by pests
R&D institutions in collaboration with xi. IPM may be the only solution to some
state functionaries and non-governmental long-term pest problems where chemical
organizations (NGOs). application has not worked
• Improved availability of critical inputs xii. IPM ultimately allows the institution to
biopesticides, bioagents and resistant have greater control over and knowledge of
varieties pest activity in their facility
• Development of monitoring tools and xiii. IPM is the pest management technique of
forewarning systems choice for major institutions
• Advocate use of safer pesticides and
Disadvantages to IPM
appropriate application methods
• Research on multiple disease and pest  IPM will require more staff time than
resistant varieties, and traditional pest management, even if
• Holistic integration of all information to implementation is contracted to a pest
develop bio-intensive and cost effective management company.
practices.
25 
 Singh et al./VIII [2] 2017/17 – 28
 IPM will require the coordinated effort of
all staff members to properly implement.
 IPM may initially be more expensive than
traditional pest management.
Future IPM research
Biotechnological approaches for pest
management
 Marker-assisted selection
 Exploitation of wild relatives for resistance
to insect pests and diseases
 Genetic engineering of crop plants for
resistance
Characterization and diagnosis of plant
pathogens and insect pests, and
environmental biosafety of transgenic
crops
 Assessing biosafety of transgenic crops to
non-target organisms in the environment
 Characterization and diagnosis of
groundnut viruses and sterility mosaic
disease in pigeonpea
 Characterization of downy mildew,
fusarium, ascochyta, botrytis, stem borer,
sorghum midge and Helicoverpa
Host plant resistance and integrated pest
management
 Introgression of resistance genes into high
yielding varieties and hybrid parents
 Strategic research to improve the
efficiency of genetic enhancement
 Integrate IPM components and validate
their effectiveness for insect pest and
disease management
Integrated pest management is an ecologically
based pest controlling strategy that provides
long-term management of pest problems with
minimum impact on human health, non-target
organisms and the environment. Conservation
practices is a concept for resource-saving
agricultural crop production that strives to
achieve acceptable profits together with high
and sustained production levels while
concurrently conserving the environment.
Many conservation practices present a
promising prospect for sustainable
agricultural development and
environmentally friendly strategies for
increasing agricultural yields and raising
profits for farmers, especially those in
developing countries. The increased adoption
of these practices may provide greater hope
for the future and for food security around the
world.
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