ACTIVITY 9.

1
The Origin of Life

a. What were the contributions of Oparin and Haldane and of Miller and Urey to models of the
origin of life on Earth?

According to Khan Academy (n.d.), Haldane and Oparin independently proposed the Oparin-
Haldane hypothesis in the 1920s, which suggests that life on Earth could have arisen gradually
from non-living matter through a process called “gradual chemical evolution.” Additionally,
Oparin and Haldane thought that the early Earth had a reducing atmosphere, meaning an
oxygen-poor atmosphere in which molecules tend to donate electrons (Khan Academy, n.d.).

Meanwhile, Miller and Urey tested the process proposed by Haldane and Oparin by
investigating the formation of organic molecules from inorganic compounds (Biological
Principles, n.d.). Then, they were able to provide the first evidence that organic molecules
needed for life could be formed from inorganic components, under reducing conditions (Khan
Academy, n.d.).

In their 1950s experiment, Miller and Urey built a closed system or setup that recreates what
environmental conditions were believed to be like on early Earth, similar to the environment
described in the theory. The closed system was contained with a heated pool of water and a
mixture of gases that were thought to be abundant in the early atmosphere such as methane,
ammonia, and hydrogen. To simulate lightning, they used electrical sparks to provide energy.
The results of the experiment showed that this simple apparatus caused chemical reactions
that produced a variety of organic molecules, some of which are the basic building blocks of
life, such as amino acids (Biological Principles, n.d.).

b. What are protobionts and microspheres, and what does their existence imply about how
cellular life began?

According to Embibe (n.d.), protobionts are defined as the precursors to early life and
resemble very simple cells. Additionally, protobionts are microspheres that are composed of
inorganic and organic molecules trapped inside of a lipid bilayer membrane (Embibe, n.d.).
Meanwhile, in the module, it was stated that protobionts are aggregates of organic molecules
 that display some characteristics of life. Protobionts presumably gave rise to single-celled
organisms lacking a distinct nucleus and other organelles (prokaryotes) because of the absence
of internal membranes. It was also stated in Module 9 that prokaryotes are capable of
metabolism and self-replication and susceptible to natural selection. On the other hand,
microspheres are a type of protobiont that form spontaneously when liquid water is added to
abiotically produced polypeptides. Microspheres can grow, divide, and maintain internal
chemistry different from their surroundings.

Given their photosynthetic abilities, the mentioned organisms are important in understanding
the origin of life. Essentially, their existence implies that spontaneous production is possible
and that cellular life began through growth and division in order to replicate, which is similar to
the characteristics of microspheres.

c. What early life form was responsible for the generation of oxygen through photosynthesis?

About 3.5 billion years ago, organic molecules organized into cells which eventually became the
first bacteria and thus the first life forms on Earth. These life forms are called cyanobacteria.
According to Biello (2009), cyanobacteria used the sun’s energy and the abundant carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere in order to create carbohydrates, which served as their food. This
process is called photosynthesis. Additionally, the waste byproduct of photosynthesis is oxygen.
In this regard, cyanobacteria generate oxygen through photosynthesis (Biello, 2009).

Specifically, as stated in Module 9, the first photosynthetic organisms were the purple and
green sulfur bacteria. This type of cyanobacteria uses hydrogen sulfide (H2S) as a hydrogen
donor, releasing oxygen gas (O2) into the environment.

d. What were the consequences of an “oxygenated” Earth to life and to the atmosphere itself?

As stated in Module 9, one of the basic conditions for life to begin during primitive time is the
absence of molecular oxygen (O2) or oxygen gas in a reducing atmosphere. This is because
oxygen would have combined with organic molecules and destroy these molecules quickly,
they would not have had a chance to interact and form more complex structures. In this
regard, there were consequences that were experienced as the Earth became oxygenated.
 One of the consequences of an oxygenated Earth is mass extinction. According to the
University of Zurich (2013), the increased production of oxygen set the early atmosphere off
balance. As oxygen started to accumulate in the atmosphere, it changed from a reducing
atmosphere to an oxidizing atmosphere. Additionally, given that oxygen was considered toxic
for many anaerobic organisms and thus these organisms were eliminated. Meanwhile,
according to Lumen (n.d.), some organisms that were able to detoxify reactive oxygen species
harnessed the high electronegativity of oxygen to produce free energy for their metabolism
and thrived in the new environment.

Furthermore, in an article by McSweeney (2015), he stated that reducing oxygen levels thins
the atmosphere, allowing more sunlight to reach Earth’s surface. So, as the planet was
oxygenated (rise of oxygen levels), it limited the entry of UV light which helped in expanding
life to more areas.

e. What model for WHERE life began (not HOW life began) seems to be highly unlikely, and
which model is the most probable? Explain your answer briefly.

The model that seems to be highly unlikely is exogenesis. In module 9, it stated that exogenesis
explains that life on Earth came from an extraterrestrial source. Panspermia is referred to as
the idea that the seeds of life are everywhere. It also holds that microbial life on Earth traveled
from another planet or from another solar system which eventually evolved into multitudes of
species. However, it is important to note that the unit of length used to measure distances
between planets and between solar systems are in light-years. Along with this, it would be
impossible for life to travel and survive the very long-distanced travel and the exposure to
radiation in space. Lastly, I think that this model is highly unlikely because we have not yet
discovered any reliable evidence that confirms the existence of other life forms aside from life
on Earth.

On the other hand, the model that is the most probable is the deep-sea vent theory. Based on
the module, the deep-sea vent theory explains that life began at submarine hydrothermal
vents. It was mentioned in the module that even until the present time, these vents are
considered as main sources of chemical and thermal energy that sustain vibrant ecosystems in
deeper parts of the oceans.
 Additionally, in an article by WHOI (2014), it was stated that the deepsea vent theory was
proposed after scientists discovered biological communities unexpectedly living around
seafloor hydrothermal vents that are far from sunlight. These biological communities thrived
on a chemical soup rich in hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and sulfur, spewing from the geysers.
Meanwhile, an article by the University College London (2019), stated that in deep underwater
vents, seawater comes into contact with minerals from the planet's crust then a reaction takes
place thus creating a warm, alkaline environment containing hydrogen which also results in
mineral-rich chimneys that can be a source of energy that facilitates the formation of complex
organic compounds (University College London, 2019). Moreover, a UCL-led team discovered
that some of the world's oldest fossils originated in such underwater vents. Therefore, I would
say that it is probable that microbial life can emerge from hydrothermal vents.

Which of the models can be tested in the laboratory? Is there any proof/evidence that life is
indeed present in this area?

The following models for where life began on Earth: Miller-Urey model; Cairns-Smith model; deep-
sea vent theory; and the one that suggested that thick layer of ice protected fragile organic
compounds in the water, can be tested in the laboratory. Firstly, the Miller-Urey model was tested in
a closed environment and the scientists found the first evidence that can prove that organic
molecules form from inorganic compounds, under reducing conditions. Secondly, the Cairns-Smith
model was tested through an experiment similar to Miller and Urey. Some articles say that there is
no hard evidence for Cairns-Smith's ideas. However, Ball (2005) stated that complex organic
molecules can be formed in clay because it has the ability to form and protect delicate molecules.
Thirdly, there is evidence that can support the deep-sea vent theory which can be read in my answer
to the previous question. Lastly, Fox (2008) stated that the thick layer of ice theory was tested in a
lab, and slices of sea ice were examined under the microscope. There is also proof that verifies that
life can survive well below freezing, even in the present time (Fox, 2008).

Moreover, exogenesis, which suggests that the Earth was seeded with life from an extraterrestrial
source, is the only model that cannot be tested in a laboratory. As stated in my answer to the
previous question, we still haven’t verified the presence of other life forms outside Earth. To support
my answer, Kaufman (n.d.) stated in his article on NASA’s website, “No life beyond Earth has ever
been found; there is no evidence that alien life has ever visited our planet.”