SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Lucban, Quezon

A study guide and module for

Third Year BSME Students
of SLSU
First Semester
AY 2020-2021

MCE 13
AC/DC ENGR. MAURINO N. ABUEL
Instructor

MACHINERIES
PREFACE
MCE13 covers the discussion of direct current and alternating current machines such as generators and
motors. This module intends to give students simple and concise yet informative and educational learning
tool for their growth in engineering profession. This module will help you understand the energy conversion
process that provides power to the industry, commercial establishments, and even at your home.

This module is designed as a core text for you majoring in mechanical engineering and it begins with a basic
introduction to electromechanical energy conversion. The presentation starts with the generator action, parts
of generator, and the different types of generator. The efficiency and calculation of losses are also presented
to apply the different mathematical and electrical equations.

Motor behavior, characteristics and applications are also provided to make students analyze the distinction
between two important dc machines, generator and motor.

A brief introduction to single phase transformer is added as an advance study.

The text is written in large font that enables the student to read and understand each topic and discussion
clearly.

My goal for this module is to provide an effective and efficient environment for you, students, to obtain a
sufficient understanding of the analysis of electrical machines. And to enable students to understand and
apply the fundamentals as quickly as possible.

OBJECTIVES

For each discussion presented, the student must be able to:

1. Apply theoretically the principles and laws of electrical and mechanical engineering to the ideas and
concepts of power and efficiency presented for motors and generators.

2. Apply mathematically the formulas and the l equations to analyze and

critically solve problems involving the power losses and efficiency of electromechanical
generators and motors.

3. Appreciate the importance and benefit of electromechanical machines particularly in the

industry and in the society as well.

4. Develop competence in electrical analysis and problem solving techniques.

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 Discussion PRELIMINARY TERM
We all know that development in electricity has guided man towards the achievement of
useful technology. Thomas Alva Edison developed and invented the electric light and he
immediately foresaw that widespread and effective use of his light would require a practical
source and distribution of large amounts of electric power. His development work on steam-
engine-driven direct current (dc) generators enabled the commercial expansion of electric
lighting. With the popular use of electric lighting, there was the need for a more practical use
and application of direct current. Sprague and others developed dc motorFigure
and1. motor
Lightning strikes on the
speed
controls to further help the industry. ground. (Picture from Bling. Com,
ctto)
Electromechanical Energy Conversion
Some Energy Conversion Processes
Energy Conversion Phenomena
1. Mechanical Energy to Electrical Energy
Some of the phenomena that are
2. Electrical Energy to Mechanical Energy useful in instrumentation,
communication, and control are
3. Chemical Energy to Electrical Energy
as follows:
4.Thermal Energy to Electrical Energy

5. Electrical Energy to Light Energy 1. Piezoelectric transducer effects

by which a crystal is deformed and
6. Nuclear Energy to Electrical Energy voltages are produced.
2. Electrostatic forces between the
plates of a capacitor, which require
very high voltages for comparatively
When a certain energy is converted into another form that is called energy conversion.
small forces.
How about you? What for you is energy conversion? 3. Magnetostrictive effects by
which certain magnetic materials
TIP: change their dimensions minutely
under the influence of a magnetic
When you are going to define a certain word, idea, or concept, you must use simple words field. and simple sentence
construction that conveys the thought of its definition. If it is a concept, method ,or process you also include how
it can affect the environment and its use/s to mankind.

Energy Conversion is defined as the transformation of one energy into another

form that is useful to mankind and has a little or no impact to the environment.

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 Generally, there are two kinds of
FARADAY’S LAW OF INDUCTION
machines according to their source of
The voltage induced in a turn or coil of a conductor is proportional to the energy, the direct current (dc)
rate of change of lines of force that pass through the coil.
machines and the alternating current
RELATED FUNDAMENTAL LAWS (ac) machine.
All rotating electric machines as well as the related special transducers
operate on the same principles and obey the same few fundamental laws. We But can you, my students in
will isolate and identify these key relationships and credit them to their
Electrical Machines 1, know what
discoverers:
really a machine is?
(1) Faraday’s Law Of Induction was given quantity relation by Neumann and
space relation by Flemming. Lenz further clarified transient relationships in
magnetic induction It is a device that has a rotating part
as one of the components.
(2) Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws relating to electric circuits. These
enable us to understand and predict relationships in series and parallel Therefore, any devices that has no
arrangements of machine coils and load circuits. rotating part involved cannot be
(3) Amperes circuital law of the magnetic field, which enables us to directly called a machine. They
understand and design the magnetic portion of machines. simply can be referred to as a
(4) Ohms great fundamental law relating voltage, current, and resistance, mechanism.
which enables motor and generator coils to be proportioned.

(5) Biot-Savart’s law of force on a conductor in a magnetic field, which Part of a Machine
determines output forces produce by a motor and input driving forces
required by a generator.
Basically there are two parts of a
(6) Watt’s determination of the relation between force, work, time, and machine. The stationary part and
power, which quantified the horsepower term. Even though James Watt did
not work electrically, his concepts were recognized when the electrical unit of the rotating part. There are different
power was named the watt. names given to them. For a dc
machine, the rotating part is widely
called the armature and the stationary part is known as the field, While in ac description, the rotating part is called the
rotor and the stationary part is the stator.

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 Figure 2. Parts of a machine. Left side part is the rotating part
and the right side part

is the stationary part.

3 Naturally Occurring Phenomena

1. Gravitation
2. Electricity
3. Magnetism Figure 3. One of the first
electromechanical energy
conversion machine built during
From the different phenomena presented above, can you describe each Industrial Revolution. ((Credit to
phenomenon from the other? Wikipedia) )

If you can, then you are really ready to go ahead of our discussion.

WHAT DO YOU NOTICE ABOUT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM?

Are you really ready?

HOW the Generator Works

From the stated Faraday’s Law of Electromagneric Induction, it clearly states that the voltage generated
( produced or induced ) is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux ( lines of force ) and the number of
conductors.

Figure 4.
Simply
shows the
parts of a
generator.

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The N and S indicate the poles which are the stationary part or the field. The single coil or conductor represents the
rotating part.

Figure 5. As the coil rotates, it cuts the magnetic lines of force or flux to make it somehow distorted (not shown
in the figure). This distortion is also called “cutting” of magnetic flux.

Figure 6. The motion or movement of the coil through the magnetic lines of force creates electromotive force or
voltage which is proportional to the number of coils and the speed of rotation. (Photo credited to Bing.com)

Value of the Induced Voltage

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The voltage induced in a dc generator as stated by Faraday was formulated by another great inventor Neumann and he
presented this as:

Equation ( 1 ) Eave = NΦ / t (volts)

Where: Eave = the average voltage produced

N = the number of coils or conductors

Φ = the number of flux per pole in weber

t = time of rotation in second

The unit for magnetic lines of force or flux is weber (Wb) in SI units.

The English unit is lines of force. And the conversion standard is

1 weber = 1 x 10⁸ lines

1 line of force = 1 maxwell

The unit of magnetic flux density is tesla ( T ) in SI units and is given as weber/ square meter.

1 T = 1 Wb/m²

Example 1. Calculate the voltage generated in a moving conductor that has 2.5 x 10^6 maxwell

in 1/20 seconds.

Solution. Since the coil is 1 and the flux is English unit, we therefore must convert it to SI unit.

2.5 x 10^6 maxwell / 1 x 10^8 maxwell/weber = 0.025 weber

Then substitute the given information to the equation.

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 E = ( 1 )( 0.025 )/ (1/20 )

=0.5 volts Answer

Equation ( 2 ) Eave = BLv ( volts )

Where Eave = the average voltage generated

B = the magnetic flux density in tesla ( T )

L = the effective length of the conductor immersed in the magnetic field

in meter

v = translational or peripheral velocity of the moving conductor with respect to

the motion of the flux in meter per second

Example 2. A conductor of length 15 inches is immersed in a pool of flux density 305,600 gauss.

Determine the generated voltage if the said conductor moves 50 cm for every second.

Solution. Here we encounter new unit such as gauss. Gauss is not an SI unit but a cgs unit. Gauss is a

unit in electrical engineering that pertains to magnetic flux density. 1 gauss is equal to

1 line of force per unit square centimeter.

305,600 gauss = 30.56 tesla

15 in = 0.381 m

E = 30.56 x .381 x 0.5 = 5.82 V Answer

Generated Voltage Equation of a Generator

The voltage generated is affected by the number of conductors, number of poles, magnetic lines of force, speed
of rotation, and the number of parallel paths where current flows.

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 Eg = (ZPΦN) / 60 a volts
Where: Eg = the generated voltage in a generator in volts (V)

Z = the total number of conductors

P = the number of poles in the armature

Φ= flux per pole in weber (Wb)

N = speed of rotation in revolutions per minute (rpm)

a = the number of armature parallel paths

60 = the conversion constant from seconds to a minute

And also,

Eg = Voltage at the load + Voltage losses at the field and at the armature

This important equation shows that for a given voltage in a generator the induced voltage is proportional to the
number of conductors, the number of poles, the flux per pole, and the speed of rotation.

DC GENERATOR
It is a machine that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.

It is driven by:

1. Steam turbine
2. Hydraulic turbine
3. Gas/diesel turbine
4. Wind turbine
5. Electric motor
6. Manually driven hand-cranks (small generators used in experiment)

2 Parts of A DC Generator

A. Field – it is the stationary part of the machine and composes mainly of the field poles, field winding, yoke or
frame, compensating windings, interpoles, etc.

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 The magnetic field producing component of an electrical machine. The magnetic field of the dynamo or
alternator can be provided by either wire windings called field coils or permanent magnets. Electrically-excited
generators include an excitation system to produce the field flux. A generator using permanent magnets (PMs) is
sometimes called a magneto, or permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSMs). (Wikipedia)

B. Armature – is the “ heart “ of every dynamo. It is the part where the voltage is produced and current flows. It
comprises several components such as armature poles, armature winding, brushes, commutator, and others.

Figure shows armature construction. Courtesy of https://www.watelectrical.com/wp-

content/uploads/components_of_armature_core-300x206.jpg

 The armature core is made of silicon steel laminations to reduce eddy current and hysteresis
losses. It holds the armature winding I,e it provides mechanical support to the winding. It
consists of teeth and slots in which the winding is housed. It provides a low reluctance path for
the main field flux. The armature winding is responsible for the production of armature flux.
 A commutator consists of some segments that collect the current from the armature. It is
responsible for the conversion of alternating to direct current.
 Brushes are attached to the commutator with some adjustable springs. These are responsible
for the collection of the current from the commutator.

Function of Armature

It produces a flux that is used for the development of power inside the machine such that the motor is
able to rotate. The winding wound on the core is given current through a DC supply. This current-
carrying winding as under the influence of the magnetic field develops a force that develops a
rotational torque. This torque enables the machine to rotate. Similarly, in AC machines a stationary
type is used that is given initially a three-phase supply. This current-carrying stationary winding
develops a rotating magnetic field (RMF). This RMF interacts with the stationary field winding flux and
develops a torque to rotate the rotor.

It produces flux that opposes the field produced by the main fielding. Due to this opposition, some
effects will be produced. Those are the cross-magnetizing and de-magnetizing effects. One distorts

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the magnetic field and the other weakens the magnetic field. These oppositions can be overcome by
means of using either compensating winding or interpoles.

The power-producing component of an electrical machine. In a generator, alternator, or dynamo, the armature
windings generate the electric current, which provides power to an external circuit. The armature can be on either
the rotor or the stator, depending on the design, with the field coil or magnet on the other part. (Wikipedia).

Do your task!

1. Search and define briefly what is commutation process and armature reaction in a dc generator.

2. What is “building-up” of generator?

3. How does the generator action work?

4. In a coal-fired power plant like Team Energy and Quezon Power Ltd., is it possible that the conversion of
energy directly straight from mechanical energy to electrical energy?

5. List down at least ten (10) Power Plants in the Philippines.

Figure shows an offshore wind farm that generates power. (Photo credit to Bing.com)

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 Figure shows the first electric generator. The Faraday disk was the first electric generator. The horseshoe-
shaped magnet (A) created a magnetic field through the disk (D). When the disk was turned, this induced an electric
current radially outward from the center toward the rim. The current flowed out through the sliding spring contact m,
through the external circuit, and back into the center of the disk through the axle. (Photo and caption credit to
Wikipedia).

EXCITATION
Generator is considered to be separately-excited and self-excited. It is said to be separately-excited if the source
of excitation comes from external source. Self-excited generator has its own way of exciting or producing its own
energy to start its operation. It is the field that has to be excited to produce magnetic lines of force or magnetic flux.

Generator Specifications

The nameplate of a generator indicates the power, voltage, speed , and other details about the machine.
These ratings, or nominal characteristics, are the values provided and guaranteed by the manufacturers. For
example, the following information is punched in the nameplate of a 100 kW generator:

Power 100 kW Speed 1200 rpm

Voltage 250 V Type Compound

Exciting Current 20 A Class B

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 Temperature Rise 50°C

These specifications tell us the machine can deliver, continuously, a power of 100 kW at a voltage of 250 V,
without exceeding a temperature rise of 50°C. It can therefore supply a load current of 100,000/250 = 400 A. It
possesses a series winding and the current in the shunt field is 20 A. We may draw any amount of power from the
generator as long as it does not exceed 100 kW and the current is less than 400A. The class B designation refers to
the class of insulation used in the machine.

The Principle of Generator Action requires 1) the presence of magnetic lines of force, and

2) the motion of conductors cutting the flux, before 3) voltage is produced.

a. SEPARATELY-EXCITED GENERATOR

This kind of generator gets its excitation from external battery or source of voltage to energize the field
in order to produce exciting current.

Figure shows the circuit diagram of a separately-excited generator.

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 Can you give a brief description of a separately-excited generator from the given figure?

B. SELF-EXCITED GENERATOR

There are three types of self-excited generators. These are dc series generator, dc shunt generator, and dc compound
generator. They have two parts, the field and the armature, that have different connection to differentiate one from the
other.

1. SERIES GENERATOR – it is a generator where the field is connected in series with the armature. The
current that flows in the armature is the same as the current flowing through the field and the load. It is represented in
circuit diagram of figure “a” below. In this generator, the excitation originates in a field winding connected in series
with the armature, so that the flux depends upon the current delivered to the load.

In a series generator, the current is produced in the armature known as the armature current Ia. The generated
voltage or emf Eg is the voltage induced in the armature and Ra is known as the armature resistance. Rse is the resistance
of the series field and IL is the current delivered to the load.

It is also evident that the armature current is the same current that flows through the series field and the load.

Thus, Ia = Ise = IL and

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 Eg = VL + IaRa + IseRse + Vbr

2. SHUNT GENERATOR – it is a dc generator where the field is connected in parallel with the armature. In this
generator the load voltage is also the voltage seen by the shunt field. And it is equated by VL = Vsh. The current
produced in the armature will be divided into the one flowing in the load and the other will flow through the shunt
field.

When a generator is in operation, whether or not it is delivering a load current, the shunt field is always excited ; while
in the series generator the series field is excited only when a load current is being supplied.

Thus, Ia = IL + Ish , Ish = Vsh / Rsh

Eg = VL + IaRa + Vbr

3. COMPOUND GENERATOR – it is a dc generator composing of an armature and two fields, the series field and the
shunt field. If the excitation is produced by two field windings, one connected to the line(load) voltage and the other
excited by the armature, the machine is a compound generator. It is actually a shunt generator with an additional series
field winding.

Two Connections of a Compound Generator

1. Short Shunt Compound Generator – in this connection, the series field winding is connected in series with the
load as represented in figure (a). The current flowing in the load is also the current flowing in the series field winding.
The voltage at the shunt field winding is the sum of the voltage from the series field and the load.

Thus, Ia = Ise + Ish but Ise = IL so, Ia = IL + Ish

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 Vsh = VL + Vse

And Eg = VL + Vse + Va

Therefore, Eg = VL + IseRse + IaRa + Vbr

2. Long Shunt Compound Generator – in this connection, the series field is connected in series with the armature
circuit as seen on figure (b). The current flowing in the series field winding is the armature current.

Thus, Ia = IL + Ish but Ise = Ia so, Ise = IL + Ish

Vsh = VL

And Eg = VL + Vse + Va + Vbr

Therefore, Eg = VL + IseRse + IaRa + Vbr

NOTE:

In all generators and motors, the use of compensating windings together with properly designed interpole windings
will provide sparkles commutation and eliminate any possibility of flashover.

 It is pointed out that the commutator and its accompanying brushes are very important parts of the dc generator. It is
here that two essential actions take place, namely, the commutation process and the passage of current from a
moving armature to a stationary load.

 The commutation process involves the change from a generated alternating current to an externally applied direct
current. A part of the generator that is very important for conversion of ac to dc.

 Strange as this may seem to you (students), it is nevertheless true that the current in the armature windings of all
generators and motors, whether of direct or alternating current, is always alternating.

CALCULATIONS:

Sample 1. A shunt generator supplies a load of 5kW and 100V. The armature and shunt field resistance are
0.2 and 60 ohms respectively. Determine the generated voltage of the generator.

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 Po = PL = ILVL

Po 5000W Vsh
VL 100V Rsh
= 50A 108V
60Ω
= 1.8 A

IA = IL + ISH
= 50A + 1.8A
= 51.8 A

EG = VT +IARA
=100 + (51.8)(0.2)
=110.36 V answer

Sample 2. A 2 pole dc generator has a total of 50 conductors connected in two parallel paths. The flux per
pole is 7.21x108 maxwells and the speed of the prime mover is 25 rpm. The armature resistance is 0.5 ohms
and the armature current is 15A. Calculate the terminal voltage of the generator.

ZPФN
60a
(50)(2)(7.21)(25)
60(2)

=150.2083 V

V T = EG - IARA
= 150.2083 V - (15A)(0.5Ω)
= 142.7083 V answer

NOTE:

 The number of parallel paths can also be known if the kind of armature winding is given. There are two general
types of armature winding, the lap winding and the wave winding. There are also other kinds or types of armature
winding aside from the lap and wave winding such as
frog-leg winding.

 Armature winding possesses degree of multiplicity. They can be duplex, triplex, quadruplex ,etc.

 For simplex lap winding, the number of parallel paths is equal to the number of poles. Hence,
a=P
 For simplex wave winding, the number of parallel paths is always equal to two (2). Hence, a = 2

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Sample 3. A short shunt compound generator has an armature, shunt field and series field resistance of 0.03,
90 and 0.04 ohms respectively. The generator induced voltage is 550V when the terminal voltage is 500V.
Determine the load current delivered under this condition.

Eg = VL + IARA + ILRSE
550V = 500V + 0.03IA + 0.04IL
0.03IA = 50 – 0.04IL

50 – 0.04IL
0.03 equation 1

and

IA = IL + ISH since short shunt generator Vsh = VL + Vse = 500 + 0.04IL but Ise = IL

VL +ILRSE
RSH

90.04IL + 500
90 equation 2
Equate eqn1 and eqn2

90.04IL + 500 50 – 0.04IL

90 0.03

4500 – 3.6IL = 2.70125IL +15

4485 = 6.3012IL
IL = 711.769A answer

Sample 4. A 6 pole, 600rpm wave wound* generator has 90 slots. Each coil has 4 turns and the flux per pole
is 0.04Wb. The armature resistance is 0.6 ohms and the armature current is 10A. Calculate the value of the
generated voltage.

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Note:
* In generator armature, the number of turns is equal to two (2) conductors.
* Number of slots = Number of conductors

So, Z = (2 conductors / turn)( 4 turns )( 90 ) = 720

ZPФN
60a
(720)(6)(0.04)(600)
60(2)
= 846V

VT = EG - IARA
= 846V - (10A)(0.6Ω)
= 840 V answer

Review Questions ( Self-assessment Questions SAQ )

1. In Faraday’s Law of Induction, the induced voltage is proportional to ________________.

2. The unit of magnetic lines of force is ________________________.
3. _______________ is the name of the first designed electric generator.
4. A rotating electrical machine that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy is
called a ________________.
5. The three naturally occurring phenomena are ________, ___________, and ____________.
6. It is the part of generator where the voltage is produced. _____________________.
7. to provide a spark-less commutation and eliminate flash over, a __________________ is
added to the stationary part of the generator.
8. When the series field winding is connected in series with the armature, the compound
generator is said to be _________________.
9. In a shunt generator the voltage across the shunt field voltage is equal to the voltage
of the ________________.
10. For duplex lap winding in the armature the number of parallel paths is equivalent to
___________________.

*The word wound is pronounced as wawnd not wund.

Problems ( Answer this problems for your exercises )

1. A 100kW 240V long shunt compound generator has a shunt field resistance of 120

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 ohms. Calculate the armature current of the generator.
Answer: 418.6667 A

2. A 4 pole shunt generator has lap windings on the armature and generates 240V at
speed of 1200rpm. The armature has 150 slots, with 10 conductors per slot. If the
armature is rewound at wave connected. Determine the induced voltage at the
same flux per pole and speed.
Answer: 480 V

3. A 4 pole dc generator with duplex lap winding has 48 slots and 4 elements per slot.
The flux per pole is 2.5 x 10⁸ maxwells and it runs at 1500 rpm. What is the output
voltage?
Answer: 60 V

4. A four-pole shunt connected generator has lap connected armature with728

conductors. The flux per pole is 25 mWb. If the generator supplies two hundred fifty
110 V, 75 W incandescent lamp, determine the speed in rpm of the generator. The
field and armature resistances are 110 ohms and 0.025 ohm, respectively.
Answer: 376.7683 rpm

MIDTERM
DISCUSSION

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 At the end of the discussion, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish electrical losses from core losses and mechanical losses.

2. Apply theoretically the principles and laws of electrical engineering to the ideas and
concepts of power and efficiency presented for motors and generators.

3. Apply mathematically the formulas and the electrical equations to analyze and
critically solve problems involving the power losses and efficiency of electrical
generators and motors.

4. Appreciate the importance and benefit of electrical machines particularly in the

industry and in the society as well.

Losses and Efficiency of Electrical Machines

A dynamo is a machine that converts energy from one form to another. In the generator, it is from
mechanical energy to electrical energy; in motor, it is from electrical energy to mechanical energy. When
this conversion takes place then it is proper to say that a dynamo converts power from one form to
another.

The power received by a dynamo is called input and in a generator it is mechanical power. The power
input to a dynamo is always more than its power output. A generator or motor cannot convert all the
power it receives into useful output. The difference between power input to a machine and its power
output is called the power loss. This power loss always produces heating in the dynamo; therefore, the
greater the power loss, as a percentage of power input, the hotter will the machine tend to become.

There are three classifications of losses in a generator.

1. Electrical losses – it is also known as the Copper Losses. These losses are affected by the current
values through the various electrical elements such as the armature winding, the field windings, and the
brush contacts. It means that these losses are produced in a copper-related part of the generator especially
the windings in the field and in the armature. These losses are:

a. Armature copper loss or simply called armature loss

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 Pcua = Ia²Ra W

Where Pcua = power loss in the armature due to armature windings

Ia = the armature current
Ra = the armature resistance

b. Field copper loss or field loss – is the losses dissipated at the field windings that
is shunt field winding and series field winding. Other field copper loss that
may be present are the interpole field and the compensating-winding
field.

Pse = VseIse = Ise²Rse W

Psh = VshIsh = Ish²Rsh W

c. Brush contact loss – is the loss due to the contact of brushes in the commutator
which is a part of the armature.

Pbr = VbrIa W

Where Pbr = power loss at the brush or brush contact loss

Vbr = voltage drop at the brushes
Ia = armature current ( it is the armature current that flows in the
brushes )

Copper losses always occur when there is a current flow through the various copper circuits. In low
voltage machines (115 to 230 V) the brush voltage drop Vbr varies between 1 and 3 volts, while in the
higher-voltage machines (550 to 1,100 V) Vbr may be as much as 6 V.

From this it may be seen that the armature copper loss is approximately proportional to the
square of the load, while the brush contact loss is nearly directly proportional to the load.

2. Magnetic Losses – it also known as the core losses or the iron losses. These losses are due to
the effect of magnetism in the core of the generator and the rotation of the machine. Two of the core
losses are hysteresis loss and the eddy current loss.

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 a. Hysteresis loss – It takes place in the revolving armature core caused by a sort of magnetic
particle friction and produces heating. The magnetic friction in the core produces heat which
causes power dissipation. Thus, this is attributed to rotational losses and the material used for
core construction. The hysteresis loss is unaffected by whether or not the core is laminated.

b. Eddy current loss – It resulted from current that circles in the core when the voltage is
generated. The generated voltage in the iron or core near the outside surface are greater than the
those closer to the center of the shaft where the armature is placed. It is also affected by the
rotation of the machine. So, it is also a rotational loss.
Its value depends upon the core flux density, the speed of rotation, and the thickness of
laminations. That is why in order to lessen or eliminate eddy current loss, the core is laminated.

3. Mechanical losses – These losses occur when the mechanical assembly of the different parts of the
generator is subjected to mechanical rotation like bearing friction, brush friction, and winding friction.
Mechanical losses are also affected by the rotation of the machine and can be identified as rotational
losses.

NOTE: The power losses can be divided into two categories a) Copper Losses which is the Electrical
Losses and b) Rotational Losses which comprises Magnetic Losses and Mechanical Losses. Further, losses
can also be categorized as a) Variable Loss and

b) Constant losses. Variable loss is the armature copper loss because it is where the current is produced
and the rest of the losses is termed as constant losses.

Power Stages and Efficiency

The efficiency of a dc generator is the ratio of electrical power output to the mechanical power input,
converted to watts. The two methods for determining the efficiency of a generator are:

1. By directly measuring the total power output and the total power input

2. by determining power losses from the power stages of generator

Stage A Stage B Stage C

Rotational Copper
Losses or Losses
Power Input Power Generated Power Output

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 ( output of the Stray Losses ( generated power at ( power rating of the
mechanical power the armature ) generator )
that drives the Pstray Pcu
machine )

Pin Pg = EgIa
Po

From the given tabular representation of the power stages, several equations can be derived from this:

Pin = Po + Pstray + Pcu Pin = Pg + Pstray Pin = Po + Ploss Pg = Po + Pcu

This clearly means that a generator must be mechanically driven in order to start in operation. Once there is a
power input to the machine (stage A), the generator uses this power to induce voltage and generates power
(stage B). Moving from stage A to stage B , rotational losses or stray losses are being dissipated. To
effectively used the power delivered to the load, another loss which is the copper loss that must be shed from
the power generated of the machine.

Generator’s Efficiencies

1. Electrical Efficiency –this is the ratio of power output to power generated in percent. From the power
stages it is ηelec’l = Stage C / Stage B x 100%

2. Mechanical Efficiency – It is the ratio of power generated to power input. From the power stages, ηmech’l
= Stage B / Stage A x 100%

3. Commercial or Over-all Efficiency – this is the efficiency rating of generator which is the ratio of power
output to power input. From the power stages, η = Stage C / Stage A x 100%

Over-all or commercial efficiency is the product of electrical efficiency and mechanical efficiency.

Example 1. The armature resistance of a shunt generator is 0.04 ohms. And the brush has a resistance of 0.02
ohms and the terminal voltage is 100V while the current is 35A. Determine the electrical efficiency of the
generator.

P O = V L IL PG = EGIL
= (100V)(35A) = (102.1V)(35A)
= 3500 W = 3573.5W

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 EG=VT + IA RA + IARB PO 3500W
=100+ (35)(0.04) + (35)(0.02) PG 3573.5W

= 102.1V = 97.943% Answer

Example 2. A 20kW 240V shunt generator has an armature and field resistance of 0.06 and 120 ohms
respectively. Calculate the power generated of the generator.

Po=ILVL
Po 20kW VSH
VT 240V RSH
= 83.3333 A 240V
120Ω
=2A

IA=IL+ISH
=83.3333A + 2A
=85.3333A

EG = VT +IARA Pg = EgIa
= 240 + (85.3333)(0.06) = (245.12)(85.3333)
= 245.12V = 20,916.9067 W
= 20.9169 kW Answer

Example 3. If the generator in Example1 has a total stray losses of 400 W, calculate the commercial
efficiency of the machine.

Pin = Pg + Pstray
= 3573.5 W + 400 W
= 3973.5 W

η = Po/Pin x 1oo%
= 3500/3973.5 x 100%
= 88.0835 % Answer

Example 4. A 240V shunt generator has a full load current of 200A. The armature resistance is 0.02 ohms
and the shunt field resistance is 120 ohms. The stray power loss is 3500W. Calculate the maximum
efficiency* of the generator.

VSH
RSH

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 240V
120Ω
= 2A

Po= ILVL
= (200)(240)
= 48 kW

Pcons=Pf + Pstray

= (ISH)2(RSH) + Pstray

= (2)2(120)+ 3500

= 3980 W

Po _
Po + 2Pcons

48kW _
48kW+(2)(3.98kW)

= 85.7756% Answer

*Maximum efficiency occurs when the variable loss is equal to the constant loss.

At maximum efficiency, Pvar = Pcons Ploss total = Pvar + Pcons

= 2Pcons

Exercices

1. A 8kW 120V shunt generator has an armature and field resistance of 0.1 and 40 ohms
respectively. Calculate the generated power of the generator. Answer: 8.845 kW

2. Determine the efficiency of an 80kW 220V shunt generator with a field current of 4A

Page 25 of 59
 when delivering power at rated terminal voltage and rated load current. The
combined brush and armature resistance is 0.01 ohms. Answer: 97.28%

3. A 10 kW, 220 V compound generator is operated at no load at the proper armature

voltage and speed, from which the stray power loss calculations are determined to
be 705 W. The shunt field resistance is 110 ohms, the armature resistance is 0.265 ohm,
and the series field resistance is 0.035 ohm. Assume a 2-V brush drop and calculate
the full-load efficiency. Answer: 83.8%

4. A 30 kW series generator has an efficiency of 88% when operating at rated load. If the
stray power loss is 15% of the full load losses, calculate the maximum efficiency of the
generator. Assume that the stray power loss is constant and other losses vary as the
square of the load. Answer: 91.12%

5. The hysteresis and eddy current losses of a dc machine running at 1000 rpm are 250 W
and !00 W, respectively. If the flux remains constant, at what speed will the total iron
loss be halved? Answer: 570 rpm

DC MOTORS
Motors are machine that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.

When an electric generator is in operation, it is driven mechanically and develops a voltage, which in turn
can send a current through a load resistance. When an electric motor is in operation, it develops torque,
which in turn, can produce mechanical rotation. Thus the motor converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy.

Before a motor can develop torque, which is a tendency to produce rotation, it is first necessary that a force,
or more correctly, forces – be created. This force is given by the equation: F = BIL newton
Where F = force created in the motor to produce rotation in newton

B = magnetic flux density in tesla

L = length of the conductors immersed or lying in the magnetic flux in meter

Example 1. A conductor is 20 cm long and carries a current of 120 A when placed perpendicularly to a
magnetic field of which is 2.5 tesla. Determine the force exerted by the conductor.

Solution: F = (2.5T)(120A)(20cm/100) = 60 N

Page 26 of 59
As the example illustrates, the turning moment or the tendency to rotate, which is torque, of a motor is
created by the combined action of many current-carrying conductors in a strong magnetic field. Importantly,
only conductors that are directly influenced by the magnetic field contribute to the tendency of the armature
to rotate

The principle of motor action requires 1.) the presence of magnetic lines of force, and 2.) current through
conductors lying in the magnetic field before 3.) force, and therefore torque, is produced.

The generated voltage equation of the generator is the same in dc motor except it is called counter emf or
back emf. This voltage are in directions opposite to the flow of current that is why it is called counter emf.
Clearly, this counter emf or back emf can never be equal to, and must always be less than, the voltage
impressed across the armature terminals.

Eb = VL – Vse –Vsh – Vbr or VL = Eb + Vse + Vsh + Vbr

Where Eb = the counter electromotive force or back emf in volts

VL = the line voltage

Vse = voltage drop on series field

Vsh = Voltage drop on shunt field

Vbr = voltage drop at the brushes

Page 27 of 59
Figure shows the commutator, brushes, and conductor arrangement in a dc motor. This Is a conceptual model
of a DC Brush Motor where the commutation of current to supply the armature field is accomplished by a
concentric series of contacts on the armature and brushes that remain stationary with the stator windings.

docscience (https://physics.stackexchange.com/users/45613/docscience), Construction of constant angular velocity

DC motors, URL (version: 2016-10-10): https://physics.stackexchange.com/q/285452

Commutation in DC Motor
When a dc motor is in operation, a unidirectional current is fed to the armature conductors through brushes
and the commutators. It should be clear that the function of the commutator and the brushes in a dc motor is
to act as an inverter, that is, to change direct current to alternating current, because the current in the
armature conductors must be alternating if rotation in the same direction is to continue.

Page 28 of 59
It should be noted particularly that:

1. in the dc generator the commutator and brushes function to change the internally generated alternating
current to a load-applied direct current, and

2. in the dc motor the commutator and brushes perform an inverse function by changing the externally
applied direct current to alternating current flowing in the armature conductors.

In both cases, whether generator or motor, the current in the armature winding is always alternating, while
the current in the external circuit is always direct.

Figure shows Workings of a brushed electric motor with a two-pole rotor (armature) and permanent magnet
stator. "N" and "S" designate polarities on the inside axis faces of the magnets; the outside faces have
opposite polarities. The + and - signs show where the DC current is applied to the commutator which
supplies current to the armature coils. Illustration of a simple electric motor. Created by Wapcaplet in Blender.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Electric_motor_cycle_2.png

Operating Differences Between Motors and Generators

GENERATOR MOTOR

Page 29 of 59
1. When generator is in operation, it is driven by a
mechanical machine and the rotation through a
magnetic field generates a voltage, which in turn
produces current.
2. Load constitutes those electrical devices that
converts electrical energy into another form like
lighting, appliances, etc.
3. Voltage in a generator changes when the load
changes.
4. Voltage of a generator can be adjusted by: a.)
changing the speed
b.) changing the strength of
magnetic field
( an increase in speed and flux corresponds to an
increase in voltage )
5. Generators are usually and frequently operated
in parallel.
6. Generators are always started without electrical
1. When a motor is in operation, it is “fed” by an
electric current from an electrical supply; the motor
current then produces two stationary magnetic
fields, one by the field and the other by the
armature, which react with each other to develop
torque, which, in turn, produces mechanical
rotation.
2. Load on a motor constitutes the force that tends
to oppose rotation and is called countertorque,
such load may be fan blades, excavators, elevators,
drills, and many of other commonly used
machines.
3. Speed of rotation changes as the load changes.
4. Speed of rotation can be changed by:
a.) changing the strength of magnetic flux
b.) Changing the voltage impressed across the
armature terminals
( an increase in flux decreases the speed, while a
higher armature voltage increases the speed )
5. Motors are usually operated as single
independent unit.
6. Motors may or may not have a mechanical load
Page 30 of 59
 loads. when they are started.

Torque Equation of DC Motors

In a DC Motor, the complete electromagnetic torque (T) developed in the armature is not available on the shaft.
This is so because a part of it is lost to overcome the iron and mechanical (friction and windage) losses.
Therefore, shaft torque (Tsh) is somewhat less than the torque developed in the armature.

Thus, in the case of DC motors, the actual torque available at the shaft for doing useful mechanical work is
known as Shaft Torque. It is called so because it is available on the shaft of the motor. It is represented by the
symbol Tsh.

The output of the motor is given by the equation shown below where Tsh is the shaft torque in r.p.s and the N is
the rotation of the motor in r.p.m. The shaft torque is expressed as:

where

The difference between the armature torque and the shaft torque ( Ta – Tsh ) is known as the lost torque and is
due to the formation of the torque. https://circuitglobe.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/shaft-
torque-equation-2.jpg

NOTE: Torque produced or generated can also be computed using the same equation format but instead of
using the power output replace it by the power developed in a motor. Power developed in a dc motor is Pd =
EbIa.

Example 1.

Page 31 of 59
CLASSIFICATION OF DC MOTORS

Just like a generator, motor has three classification or types, series motor, shunt motor, and compound motor.
Each type of motor has its own characteristics when speed is concerned. Motors may have constant speed,
variable speed, and adjustable speed. The constant and variable speed refer to the inherent change in speed
with change in load while adjustable speed refers to variations resulting from manual(operator-controlled) or
automatic adjustment.

The schematic diagrams of dc motors are the same with that of generators. But it is the line voltage that
supplies power to the motor. So, it is the line current that is being fed to the field and armature. The line
circuitry is the power input to the machine and the connection of load to the armature shaft is the load itself.
Have you figured it out?

1. SERIES MOTOR – it is series motor if the field winding is connected in series with the armature. The
field winding has extremely low resistance and has very few turns of heavy wires or conductors.

The current originates at the line or source and it passes through the series field and the armature.

IL = Ise = Ia and Eb = VL – IaRa – IseRse - Vbr

2. SHUNT MOTOR – If a comparatively high- resistance field winding of many turns of fine wire is
employed for motor function, it is connected in parallel with the armature, then it is called shunt motor.

Page 32 of 59
 The current comes from the line or source and will be divided into shunt field current and the armature
current.

IL = Ish + Ia and Eb = VL – IaRa – Vbr

Fig. shown below the connections of DC shunt motor.

NOTE- The flux in a DC shunt motor is approximately constant because the field current is constant since field winding is
connected directly to the constant supply voltage.

a. Torque and Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia)-

We know that in a d.c. motor,

Since the motor is fed by the constant supply voltage, hence flux is constant, therefore-

Hence Torque and Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia) is a straight line and it is passing through the origin as
shown in Fig below.

The shaft torque is less than armature torque which is shown by a dotted line.
From the curve,

Page 33 of 59
it is clear that a very large current is required to start a heavy load. Therefore, a shunt motor should not be
started on heavy load.

b. Speed and Armature current characteristic (N/Ia)-

The speed N of a. d.c. the motor is given by;

Under the normal condition, the flux and back emf of DC shunt motor is constant. Therefore, the speed of a
shunt motor remains constant after that by varying of armature current.

When the load is increased, Eb (= V-IaRa) and flux decrease due to the armature resistance drop and armature
reaction respectively. However, back emf decreases slightly more than flux, therefore, the speed of the motor
decreases slightly with the load.

Page 34 of 59
c. Speed and torque characteristic (N/Ta)-

 The curve is obtained by plotting the values of the speed of a DC motor and Armature torque for different
armature currents.  It observed that speed falls as the load torque increases.

From the characteristics, it is clear that the Speed and torque characteristic is approximately similar to Torque
and Armature current characteristic.

Conclusions

(i) There is the small change in the speed of a shunt motor from no-load to full-load. Hence, it is essentially a
constant-speed motor.

(ii) The starting torque is low because of torque proportional to the armature current.

https://nakshelectrical.blogspot.com/feeds/7424335347446971556/comments/default

3. COMPOUND MOTOR – as a good interaction from among us, why don’t you take your part to do the
browsing and let you find yourself the behavior of a compound generator.

Page 35 of 59
Example 1. A 480V 20kW shunt motor took 2.5A. The armature and field resistance are 0.6 and 800 ohms
respectively and the brush drop of 2V. Find the counter emf.

VSH
RSH

480V
800Ω
= 0.6A

IA = IL-ISH
= 2.5A - 0.6A
= 1.9A

EB = VL - IARA - VD
= 480V - (1.9A)(0.6Ω) – 2V
= 476.86V Answer

Example 2. A 240V dc shunt motor has an armature and field resistance of 0.6 and 120 ohms respectively.
Determine the load current when its back emf is 138.4V.

VL - E B
RA
240 V– 138.4V
0.6Ω
= 169.333A

VSH
RSH
240V
120Ω
= 2A

IL = IA + ISH
= 169.333A + 2A
= 171.333A Answer

NOTE: When some conditions are inherently constant , the generated power in a generator and power
developed in a motor becomes; E = kΦN. The fact is that the number of conductors, the number of poles ,
the 60 conversion factor, and the number of parallel paths cannot change when the machine had been
assembled and constructed, thus the constant “k” in the equation.
In a shunt motor, the flux most of the time is constant unless it is specified, thus the equation becomes
E = kN.

Page 36 of 59
In a series motor flux is proportional to the series field current.

Example 3. A 10hp 230V shunt motor takes an armature current of 6A and run at speed of 1200rpm. The
armature resistance is 0.20 ohms. Determine the speed with 37A armature current and the same flux.

EB1 = VL-IA1RA
= 230V - (6A)(0.20Ω)
= 228.8 V

EB2 = VL - IA2RA
= 230V - (37A)(0.20Ω) Equating this two becomes
= 222.6V

Since EB = kN and equating the two equations (having the same constant k)

EB1 EB2
N1 N2

EB2N1
EB1
(1200)(222.6)
228.8
= 1167.483 rpm Answer

Example 4. A 250V shunt motor has a speed of 500rpm, armature resistance of 0.6 ohms and armature
current of 52A. Calculate the speed if the torque is doubled.

EB1 = VL - IA1RA Condition given: T2 = 2T1

= 250V - (52A)(0.60Ω) kIA = 2kIA1
= 218.8V IA2 = 2IA1
IA2 = 2(52A)
IA2 = 104A
EB2=VL-IA2RA
=250V - (104A)(0.60Ω)
=187.6V

EB = kN

EB1 EB2
N1 N2
EB2N1
EB1
(500)(187.6)

Page 37 of 59
 218.8
= 428.702rpm Answer

POWER STAGES IN A DC MOTOR

Stage A Stage B Rotational Stage C

Losses or
Copper Losses Stray Losses
Power Input Pcu Power Developed Pstray Power Output

(input from the line (developed power (power rating of the

or supply) at the armature) motor in
horsepower)

Pg = EbIa

Po
Pin = VLIL

From the given tabular representation of the power stages, several equations can be derived from this:

Pin = Po + Pstray + Pcu Pin = Pd + Pcu Pin = Po + Ploss Pd = Po + Pstray

NOTE: The same efficiency equations are applied to dc motors.

Example 1. A 230V shunt motor has an armature current of 60A. If the armature circuit resistance is 0.15
ohms. Determine the back emf and power developed

EB = VL - IARA
= 230V - (60A)(0.15Ω)
= 221V
PD = EBIA
= (221V)(60A)
= 13.260 kW

Example 2. Calculate the efficiency at full load of a 40hp,500V shunt motor draws a line current of 4A at no
load. The shunt field resistance is 250 ohms and the armature resistance is 0.20 ohms. The brush drop at full
load is 2V. At full load the motor draws a line current of 80A.
VSH PSH = ISHVSH

Page 38 of 59
 RSH = (2)(500)
500V = 1000 W
250Ω
= 2A

PA = IA2RA
= (78)2(0.20)
= 1216.8 W

IANL = ILN L- ISH

= 4A - 2A Pin = ILVL
= 2A = (80)(500)
IAFL=ILFL-ISH = 40000W
=80A – 2A PBr = IAVD
=78A = (78)(2)
PSTRAY = VLIANL - IANL2RA = 156W
= (500)(2) – (2)2(0.2) PLOSS = PA+ PSH + PSTRAY + PBr
= 999.2W =1216.8 + 1000 + 999.2 + 156
= 3.372 kW
PIN - PLOSS
PIN
40kW – 3.372kW
40kW
= 84.48% Answer

Example 3. A 110V shunt motor is developing 8hp while operating at an overall efficiency of 88%.
Determine the stray power losses if the armature and shunt field resistance are 0.08 and 60 ohms,
respectively.
VSH PO=(8hp)(746)
RSH =5968W
110V
60Ω PO
=1.833A η
PIN 5968W
VL 0.88
6.782kW = 6781.818W
110V
= 61..653A
IA = IL - ISH PA = IA2RA
= 61.653A – 1.833A = (59.82)2(0.08)
= 59.82A = 286.275W
PSTRAY = PIN - PO - PA - PSH PSH = ISHVSH
= 6781.818 - 5968 – 286.275 – 201.63 = (1.833)(110)
= 325.913 W Answer = 201.63W

Page 39 of 59
Example 4. A 220V dc short shunt compound motor has an armature resistance of 0.5 ohms a shunt field
resistance of 162 ohms and a series field resistance of 5 ohms. Calculate the power developed by the
armature if the armature current is 32A.

VSH = IARA +EB

= (32)(0.5) +EB
= 16 +EB
VSH
RSH
16 +EB
162Ω
IL = IA + ISH
= 32A + 16 +EB
162Ω
5200 +EB
162Ω

EB = VL - IARA - ILRSE
= 220V - (32A)(0.5Ω) – 26000 +EB
162Ω
= 42.204V

PD = EBIA
= (42.204V)(32A)
= 1.351 kW Answer

Self-assessment EXERCISES

1. A 420V shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.7 ohms and a field resistance of 180 ohms.
Determine its back emf if it gives an output 8kW at an efficiency of 80%. Answer: 8.69 kW

2. A 250V dc shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.08 ohms and field resistance of 80 ohms.
Determine the total armature power developed when a motor delivering 20kW input. Answer: 18.75 kW

3. A 220V 18hp dc shunt motor has a friction and iron loss of 180W. The armature resistance is 0.25

Page 40 of 59
ohms and shunt field resistance is 120 ohms. Determine the maximum efficiency of the motor. Answer:
89.13%

4. A 240V dc shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.30 ohms on load, takes armature current of
45A and runs at speed of 760rpm. If the flux of the motor is reduced by 10% without changing the load
torque. Find the new speed of thee motor. Answer: 844.44 rpm

5. The input and output powers of a 220 V shunt motor are 30 and 28 kW, respectively. The armature
and field resistances are 40 ohms and 0.0125 ohm, respectively. Determine the efficiency of the motor if
the output power is reduced to 10 kW. Answer: 84.93%

Questions to Ponder

1. What purpose does the commutator serve in a dc motor?

2. What is meant by a load in a motor?

3. What is the difference between an adjustable speed to a variable speed motor?

4. What is the importance of dc motor starters and dc motor controllers?

5. Enumerate at least 10 applications for dc motors and tell what type of dc motor is applicable to
them.

6. In your home or the places you went by, can you identify appliances that has a motor part in it and
tell how they help in people’s everyday life and its impact to the environment and the society as well.

Page 41 of 59
FINAL TERM Discussion
OBJECTIVES

At the end of the discussion, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish from each other the different methods of controlling the speed of dc
motors.
2. Apply theoretically the principles and laws of electrical engineering to the ideas and
concepts of speed control of dc motors.
3. Apply mathematically the formulas and the electrical equations to analyze and
critically solve problems involving speed control of dc motors.
4. Familiarize with the basics of single phase transformer apparatus.
5. Appreciate the importance and benefit of electrical machines and apparatus
particularly in the industry and in the society as well.

Speed Control of DC Motor

Page 42 of 59
https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fslideplayer.com.

 Flux Control Method and Armature Control Method

To control the flux, a rheostat is added in series with the field winding, as shown in the circuit diagram.
Adding more resistance in series with the field winding will increase the speed as it decreases the flux. When
the supply voltage V and the armature resistance Ra are kept constant, speed is directly proportional to the
armature current Ia. Thus, if we add a resistance in series with the armature, Ia decreases and, hence, the
speed also decreases.

Voltage Control Method

In this method, the supply voltage is being kept variable. The shunt field is connected to a fixed exciting
voltage and armature is supplied with different values of voltage.

Page 43 of 59
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slideshare.net

Page 44 of 59
 From the different sources presented above, it is true that the speed of dc motors are controllable by the
following methods:

1. Flux Control Method

2. Armature Control Method

3. Voltage Control Method

Example 1. A 500V shunt motor running at 800rpm takes an armature current of 48A. What value of
resistance that must be placed in series with the armature to reduce the speed to 600 rpm while maintaining
the same torque.

EB1 = VL -IA1RA EB2 = VL - IA2(RA+R)

= 500V - (40A)(0.38Ω) 363.6 = 500 - (48)(0.38 + R)
= 484.8V R = 2.462 Ω Answer

EB=kN
EB1 EB2
N1 N2
EB1N2
N1
(484.8)(600)
800
= 363.6 V

Example 2. A 10kW 250V shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.5 ohms and a field resistance of 200
ohms. At no load and rated voltage the speed is 1200rpm and the armature current is 3A. At full load and
rated voltage the line current is 47A and the flux is 4% less than its no load value. Determine the speed and
torque developed at full load.

VSH IA2 = IL-ISH

Rsh = 47A - 1.25A
250V = 45.75A
200Ω
= 1.25A
EB1=VL-IA1RA EB2=VL-IA2RA
=250V - (3A)(0.5Ω) =250V - (45.75A)(0.5Ω)
=248V =227.1V
60IA1EB1
2πN1
=5.93 N-m T1Ф2 IA2
EB=kNФ IA1

EB1 EB2 (5.93)(0.96)(45.75)

Ф1 N1 Ф2N2 3
Ф1EB2N1 T2 = 86.8 N-m Answer

Page 45 of 59
 EB1 Ф2
(550)(195.30)
(230.109)(0.96)

EXTRA READINGS!!!!!!!!

Methods of Speed Control of a DC Motor

March 29, 2019 By Dave. (WatElectrical.com )

The basic principle of the DC motor is a device which converts DC energy into mechanical
energy. When the current carrying armature  is connected to the supply end though
commentator segment, brushes are placed within the North South Poles of permanent or
electromagnets. By using these electromagnets operating principle is depends on the Fleming’s
left hand rule to determine the direction of the force acting on the armature conductors of the
DC motor.

Speed Control Methods of a DC Motor

Speed of a DC motor can be varied by varying flux, armature resistance or applied voltage.
Different speed control methods for different DC shunt and series methods are there.

Speed Control of Shunt Motors

 Flux control method

 Armature and Rheostatic control method
 Voltage control method

1. Multiple voltage control

2. Ward Leonard system

Speed Control of Series Motors

 Flux control method

1. Field diverter
2. Armature diverter
3. Trapped field control
4. Paralleling field coils

Page 46 of 59
  Variable Resistance in series with motor
 Series -parallel control method

Flux Control Method

In this flux control method, speed of the motor is inversely proportional to the flux. Thus, by
decreasing flux and speed can be increased vice versa. To control the flux , he rheostat is added
in series with the field winding will increase the speed (N), because of  this flux  will decrease.
So, the field current is relatively small and hence I2R loss is  decreased. This method is quite
efficient.

Flux Control Method

So in this method, the

speed can be increased by
reducing flux, it puts a
method to reducing flux
with this method, it puts a
method to maximum speed
as weakening of flux
beyond the limits will
adversely affect the
commutator.

Armature Control Method

In the armature control

method, the speed of the DC motor is directly proportional to the back emf (Eb) and Eb = V-
IaRa. When supply voltage (V) and armature resistance Ra are kept constant, the Speed is
directly proportional to armature current (Ia). If we add resistance in series with the armature,
the armature current (Ia) decreases and hence speed decreases.

This armature control method is based on the fact that by varying  the voltage across the
required voltage. The motor back EMF (Eb) and Speed of the motor can be changed. This
method is done by inserting the variable resistance (Rc) in series with the armature.

Armature Control Method

The basic equation of the armature

control method, N is directly

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proportional to  the V-ia  (Ra+Rc) where Rc is controller resistance and Ra is the armature
resistance.  Due to the voltage back in the controller resistance the back EMF is decreased.
Since N is directly proportional to the Eb.

Voltage Control Method of DC Motor

Multiple Voltage Control: In this method, the shunt field is connected to a fixed exciting
voltage, and the armature is supplied with different voltages.  So the Voltage across armature is
changed with the help of a suitable switchgear devises. Armature speed is approximately
proportional to the voltage across the armature.

Ward-Leonard System: This Ward –leonard system is used where very sensitive speed control
of the motor is required (e.g electric excavators, elevators, etc.). The arrangement of this system
is as required in the figure shown below.

M2 is the motor, it controls the  speed of the generator. M1 may be any AC motor or DC motor
with constant speed. G is the generator directly coupled to M1. In this method the output from
the generator G is fed to the armature of the motor M2 whose speed is to be controlled. The
generator output voltage can be connected to the motor M2 and it can be varied from zero to its
maximum value, and hence the armature voltage of the motor M2 is varied very smoothly.
Hence very smooth speed control of motor can be obtained by this method.

Ward Leonard System

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Speed Control Of Series Motor

 Flux Control Method

Field Diverter : A Rheostart is connected parallel to the series field as shown in fig(a). This
variable resistor  is also called as a diverter, as desired value of the current can be diverted
through this resistor and hence current through field coil can be decreased. Hence flux can be
decreased to desired amount and speed(N) can be increased.

Armature Diverter : Rheostat (Divider) is connected across the armature of the coil  as shown
in fig (b). For a given constant load torque, if armature current is reduced, then flux must
increase. As armature torque Ta α ØIa. This will result in an increase in current taken from the
supply and hence flux Ø will increase and subsequently speed of the motor will decrease.

Field Armature

Tapped Field Control

This tapped field control method is shown in fig (c). In this method, field coil is tapped dividing
the number of turns. Thus we can select different value of Ø by selecting a different number of
turns. In this method flux is reduced and speed is increased by decreasing the number of the
turns of the series field winding. The switch S can be short circuit any part of the field winding,
thus decreasing the flux and raising the speed (N) with full turns of coil.

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 Tapped Field Control

Paralleling Field Coils: This is used for fan motors several speed can be obtained  by
regrouping the field coils in series with the DC armature.

Variable Resistance In Series With Armature Method

In this method, an introducing resistance (R) is series with the armature of motor.The voltage
across the armature can be reduced. So the speed reduces in proportion with it. It is seen that for
a 4 pole motor, the speed of the motor  can be obtained easily.

Series-Parallel Control Method: This type of the method can be widely used in electric
traction, where two or more mechanisms coupled series motors are employed. If required  low
speed motors are joined in series, and for higher speed motors are joined in parallel.

When motors are connected in series, the motors have the same current passing through them,
although voltage across each motor is divided. When in parallel, the voltage across each motor
is same, although current gets divided.

Speed Control Methods of DC Motor

 .
The major advantage of DC motors has been the ability to control the speed-torque
characteristic over a fairly wide range of speeds for a given torque. Variable-speed AC
drives now make it possible to use induction motors to perform tasks that previously could
only be done by DC motors. However, there are many DC motors still being used in industry
for variable-speed applications.
From the speed equation (equation 1) for the shunt DC motor, we can observe that there are two
controllable variables that could be used to change the speed of the machine.
n=Vt−IaRaKgϕp(1)n=Vt−IaRaKgϕp(1)

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In particular, decreasing the flux in the denominator would allow the speed to increase. That
can be done easily by increasing the field rheostat resistance.The other controllable variable is
the terminal voltage of the machine. By decreasing the terminal voltage, the speed would drop.
One other possibility is to change the resistance in the armature circuit.
All three of these techniques will be described below.

Field Current Control

Field current control is the most common method of controlling the speed of a DC shunt or
compound motor. Field current control allows the speed to be increased above some base value
that is determined by the terminal voltage of the motor.
This method is simple, inexpensive, and doesn’t cause much change in the motor losses. The
lowest speed attainable for a DC shunt motor at a given terminal voltage occurs when the field
rheostat is adjusted to zero.
Adding resistance by adjusting the rheostat causes lower field current and flux. If the flux per
pole decreases, the denominator of equation 1 decreases and the speed of the machine increases.

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 FIGURE 1:    Control of DC shunt motor speed by shunt field rheostat.
Figure 1 shows the motor torque versus speed for a shunt DC motor with several values of field
resistance. The relationship of equation 2 is linear between motor speed and torque, so the
speed drops linearly as the torque increases.
n=Vt−Ra(TdKmϕp)Kgϕp(2)n=Vt−Ra(TdKmϕp)Kgϕp(2)
The speed of the machine when rated voltage is applied and rated torque is delivered is called
the base speed of the machine.
By increasing the field rheostat resistance, we move to a new torque-speed line that provides an
operating speed above the base speed of the motor. Figure 1 shows two other such lines.
It is important, however, to note that the machine is rated in terms of how much power it can
deliver. Thus, we must ensure that we don’t overload the machine. As we know that the power
delivered by a motor is proportionate to its speed times the torque it delivers. In SI units,
P=ωT(3)P=ωT(3)
Where ω is the radian rotational speed of the motor and T is the torque delivered to the shaft.
From equation 3, it is clear that an increase in speed will require a corresponding decrease in
torque to keep the power constant. This means that the rated torque of a motor must decrease as
the operating speed is decreased. The dashed line in Figure 1 shows how the torque must
decrease to keep the horsepower constant.
The field rheostat method of speed control yields a so-called constant horse power drive,
meaning the rated horsepower is constant. Of course, the actual horsepower that is delivered
depends on the load.

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Speed ranges of 8 to 1 are possible for small motors, 4 to 1 for medium motors, and 2 to 1 for
large motors. Since field rheostat control only allows us to increase the speed of the motor, we
must use another method to decrease the speed of the motor.
Armature Voltage Control
From equation 1, decreasing the terminal voltage will decrease the speed of the motor,
assuming the flux per pole of the field remains unchanged.
Figure 2 shows the effect of reducing the voltage applied to the machine. In the steady state, a
reduction in the terminal voltage is accompanied by almost an equal reduction in the C-EMF.
If the flux is maintained constant (by separately exciting the field or by rheostat adjustment),
then the motor speed varies directly with the voltage.

FIGURE 2:    Armature voltage control of a DC motor.

As the speed is reduced below the base speed, the torque can remain at 100% of rated value, but
the power will be de-rated because ω is getting smaller.
Recall that Td=KmϕpIaTd=KmϕpIaand the maximum values of flux and armature current are
essentially fixed by the iron and copper in the motor.
 Figure 2 also shows a constant horsepower line, which clearly requires more than rated torque
as the speed drops. Thus, the horsepower rating of the motor must drop as the speed decreases.

This method of speed control yields a so-called constant torque drive, meaning the motor can
deliver rated torque. In fact, it is possible for a DC motor to deliver rated torque at zero speed,
thus producing a holding torque.
The combination of field rheostat and armature voltage control can produce a drive with a
very wide range of operating speeds.

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Figure 3 shows the rated torque and horsepower for such a drive. Below base speed, the drive is
rated for constant torque and variable horsepower, while above-rated speed, it is rated
for constant horsepower and variable torque.

FIGURE 3:    Torque and horsepower ratings for a DC motor above and below base speed.
Armature Resistance Control
Looking again at the speed equation (equation 1), increasing the armature circuit resistance
would decrease the speed of the motor, assuming the terminal voltage and field flux remain the
same. Figure 4 shows how this could be accomplished by placing a variable resistance in series
with the armature.

FIGURE 4:    Equivalent circuit of a shunt DC motor with armature resistance control.

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It is important that the extra resistance be placed in the circuit between the armature and the
shunt field, as shown, to avoid affecting the field flux.
Figure 5 shows how the motor speed changes when resistance is added to the armature circuit.
Adding armature circuit resistance has the effect of changing the slope of the torque-speed
characteristic, as shown in Figure 5.
Although this method is relatively easy to implement, it adds extra losses to the system be cause
resistance dissipates energy all of the time it is in the circuit.

FIGURE 5:    Speed variation of a shunt DC motor due to armature control.

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Series Motor Speed Control
The speed of a series DC motor can also be controlled using either armature voltage control or
armature circuit resistance.
As with the shunt motor, resistance control is cheap but inefficient. Voltage control, on the
other hand, is efficient but more expensive. Both produce essentially the same result as shown
in Figure 6.

Adding armature resistance or decreasing the terminal voltage allows the motor to produce
rated torque at a slower speed or less torque at rated speed, as shown by the dotted and dashed
curves.

FIGURE 6:    Speed control of a series DC motor.

EB1 EB2 (5.93)(0.96)(45.75)

Ф1 N1 Ф2N2 3
Ф1EB2N1 T2 = 86.8 N-m Answer
EB1 Ф2
(550)(195.30)
(230.109)(0.96)
N2 = 1142 rpm Answer

Exercises
1.

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