AKU QUESTION PAPER : - 2020 SOLUTION

( 8TH SEMESTER )

QN (2.) ANS : -

Topology is derived from two Greek words topo and logy, where
topo means 'place' and logy means 'study'. In computer networks, a
topology is used to explain how a network is physically connected
and the logical flow of information in the network. A topology mainly
describes how devices are connected and interact with each other using
communication links.

In computer networks, there are mainly two types of topologies, they

are:

1. Physical Topology: A physical topology describes the way in which

the computers or nodes are connected with each other in a
computer network. It is the arrangement of various elements(link,
nodes, etc.), including the device location and code installation of a
computer network. In other words, we can say that it is the physical
layout of nodes, workstations, and cables in the network.
2. Logical Topology: A logical topology describes the way, data flow
from one computer to another. It is bound to a network protocol and
defines how data is moved throughout the network and which path it
takes. In other words, it is the way in which the devices
communicate internally.
Network topology defines the layout, virtual shape, or structure of
the network, not only physically but also logically. A network can
have one physical topology and multiple logical topologies at the
same time.

In this blog, we will mainly concentrate on physical topologies. We'll learn

about different types of physical topologies, their advantages, and
disadvantages.
In a computer network, there are mainly six types of physical
topology, they are:

1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Tree Topology
6. Hybrid Topology
Now let us learn these topologies one by one:

Bus Topology
Bus topology is the simplest kind of topology in which a common
bus or channel is used for communication in the network. The bus is
connected to various taps and droplines. Taps are the connectors,
while droplines are the cables connecting the bus with the computer. In
other words, there is only a single transmission line for all nodes.
When a sender sends a message, all other computers can hear it, but
only the receiver accepts it(verifying the mac address attached with the
data frame) and others reject it. Bus technology is mainly suited for small
networks like LAN, etc.

In this topology, the bus acts as the backbone of the network, which joins
every computer and peripherals in the network. Both ends of the shared
channel have line terminators. The data is sent only in one direction and
as soon as it reaches the end, the terminator removes the data from the
communication line(to prevent signal bounce and data flow disruption).

In a bus topology, each computer communicates to another computer on

the network independently. Every computer can share the network's total
bus capabilities. The devices share the responsibility for the flow of data
from one point to the other in the network.

For Example Ethernet cable, etc.

Following are the advantages of Bus topology:

1. Simple to use and install.

2. If a node fails, it will not affect other nodes.
3. Less cabling is required.
4. Cost-efficient to implement.
Following are the disadvantages of Bus topology:

1. Efficiency is less when nodes are more(strength of signal

decreases).
2. If the bus fails, the network will fail.
3. A limited number of nodes can connect to the bus due to limited bus
length.
4. Security issues and risks are more as messages are broadcasted to
all nodes.
5. Congestion and traffic on the bus as it is the only source of
communication.

Ring Topology
Ring topology is a topology in which each computer is connected to
exactly two other computers to form the ring. The message passing is
unidirectional and circular in nature.
This network topology is deterministic in nature, i.e., each computer is
given access for transmission at a fixed time interval. All the nodes are
connected in a closed-loop. This topology mainly works on a token-based
system and the token travels in a loop in one specific direction.

In a ring topology, if a token is free then the node can capture the token
and attach the data and destination address to the token, and then leaves
the token for communication. When this token reaches the destination
node, the data is removed by the receiver and the token is made free to
carry the next data.

For Example, Token Ring, etc.

Following are the advantages of Ring topology:

1. Easy Installation.
2. Less Cabling Required.
 3. Reduces chances of data collision(unidirectional).
4. Easy to troubleshoot(the faulty node does not pass the token).
5. Each node gets the same access time.
Following are the disadvantages of Ring topology:

1. If a node fails, the whole network will fail.

2. Slow data transmission speed(each message has to go through the
ring path).
3. Difficult to reconfigure(we have to break the ring).

Star Topology
Star topology is a computer network topology in which all the nodes
are connected to a centralized hub. The hub or switch acts as a
middleware between the nodes. Any node requesting for service or
providing service, first contact the hub for communication.
The central device(hub or switch) has point to point communication
link(the dedicated link between the devices which can not be accessed by
some other computer) with the devices. The central device then broadcast
or unicast the message based on the central device used. The hub
broadcasts the message, while the switch unicasts the messages by
maintaining a switch table. Broadcasting increases unnecessary data
traffic in the network.

In a star topology, hub and switch act as a server, and the other
connected devices act as clients. Only one input-output port and one
cable are required to connect a node to the central device. This topology
is better in terms of security because the data does not pass through
every node.

For Example High-Speed LAN, etc.

Following are the advantages of Star topology:

1. Centralized control.
2. Less Expensive.
3. Easy to troubleshoot(the faulty node does not give response).
4. Good fault tolerance due to centralized control on nodes.
5. Easy to scale(nodes can be added or removed to the network
easily).
6. If a node fails, it will not affect other nodes.
7. Easy to reconfigure and upgrade(configured using a central device).
Following are the disadvantages of Star topology:

1. If the central device fails, the network will fail.

2. The number of devices in the network is limited(due to limited input-
output port in a central device).

Mesh Topology
Mesh topology is a computer network topology in which nodes are
interconnected with each other. In other words, direct communication
takes place between the nodes in the network.
There are mainly two types of Mesh:

1. Full Mesh: In which each node is connected to every other node in

the network.
2. Partial Mesh: In which, some nodes are not connected to every
node in the network.
In a fully connected mesh topology, each device has a point to point link
with every other device in the network. If there are 'n' devices in the
network, then each device has exactly '(n-1)' input-output ports and
communication links. These links are simplex links, i.e., the data moves
only in one direction. A duplex link(in which data can travel in both the
directions simultaneously) can replace two simplex links.
If we are using simplex links, then the number of communication links will
be 'n(n-1)' for 'n' devices, while it is 'n(n-1)/2' if we are using duplex links
in the mesh topology.

For Example, the Internet(WAN), etc.

Following are the advantages of Mesh topology:

1. Dedicated links facilitate direct communication.

2. No congestion or traffic problems on the channels.
3. Good Fault tolerance due to the dedicated path for each node.
4. Very fast communication.
5. Maintains privacy and security due to a separate channel for
communication.
6. If a node fails, other alternatives are present in the network.
Following are the disadvantages of Mesh topology:

1. Very high cabling required.

2. Cost inefficient to implement.
3. Complex to implement and takes large space to install the network.
4. Installation and maintenance are very difficult.

5. Tree Topology:
Tree topology is a computer network topology in which all the nodes
are directly or indirectly connected to the main bus cable. Tree
topology is a combination of Bus and Star topology.
In a tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments, which can
be easily managed and maintained. There is a main hub and all the other
sub-hubs are connected to each other in this topology.

Following are the advantages of Tree topology:

1. Large distance network coverage.

2. Fault finding is easy by checking each hierarchy.
3. Least or no data loss.
4. A Large number of nodes can be connected directly or indirectly.
5. Other hierarchical networks are not affected if one of them fails.
Following are the disadvantages of Tree topology:

1. Cabling and hardware cost is high.

 2. Complex to implement.
3. Hub cabling is also required.
4. A large network using tree topology is hard to manage.
5. It requires very high maintenance.
6. If the main bus fails, the network will fail.

Hybrid Topology:
A Hybrid topology is a computer topology which is a combination of
two or more topologies. In practical use, they are the most widely used.

In this topology, all topologies are interconnected according to the needs

to form a hybrid. All the good features of each topology can be used to
make an efficient hybrid topology.
Following are the advantages of Hybrid topology:

1. It can handle a large volume of nodes.

2. It provides flexibility to modify the network according to our needs.
3. Very Reliable(if one node fails it will not affect the whole network).
Following are the disadvantages of Hybrid topology:

1. Complex design.
2. Expensive to implement.
3. Multi-Station Access Unit(MSAL) required.
Hence, after learning the various computer network topologies, we
can conclude that some points need to be considered when
selecting a physical topology:

 Ease of Installation.
 Fault Tolerance.
 Implementation Cost.
 Cabling Required.
 Maintenance Required.
 Reliable Nature.
 Ease of Reconfiguration and upgradation.
Which Topology Should I Choose?

There is a range of factors that you need to take into account when
choosing which topology to use. Before choosing a topology you’ll want to
closely consider the following:

 Length of cable needed

 Cable type
 Cost
 Scalability

First, you need to take into account the length of the cable you need to
provide service to all your network devices. A bus topology is the most
lightweight in terms of cable needs. In this sense, this would be the
simplest topology to install and buy cables for. This ties into the second
factor, you need to consider the type of cable you’re going to use.
Cable types range from twister pairs to coaxial cables and optical fiber
cables.

The cost of installing the topology is also very important. The more complex
the topology you choose is, the more you’ll need to pay in terms of
resources and time to create that setup.

The final factor you’ll want to take into account is scalability. If you’re
planning to upscale your network infrastructure in the future you want to
make sure that you use a network that is easy to add devices to. A star
topology network is ideal for this because you can add network nodes with
minimal disruption. This isn’t as simple within a ring network because you
will incur downtime if you add any nodes.

QN 5) ANS : -

What is a cyber attack?

A cyber attack is any attempt to gain unauthorized access to a computer,
computing system or computer network with the intent to cause damage.
Cyber attacks aim to disable, disrupt, destroy or control computer systems
or to alter, block, delete, manipulate or steal the data held within these
systems.

A cyber attack can be launched from anywhere by any individual or group

using one or more various attack strategies.

People who carry out cyber attacks are generally regarded as

cybercriminals. Often referred to as bad actors, threat actors and hackers,
they include individuals who act alone, drawing on their computer skills to
design and execute malicious attacks. They can also belong to a criminal
syndicate, working with other threat actors to find weaknesses or problems
in the computer systems -- called vulnerabilities -- that can be exploited for
criminal gain.
Government-sponsored groups of computer experts also launch cyber
attacks. They're identified as nation-state attackers, and they have been
accused of attacking the information technology (IT) infrastructure of other
governments, as well as nongovernment entities, such as businesses,
nonprofits and utilities.

Why do cyber attacks happen?

Cyber attacks are designed to cause damage. They can have various
objectives, including the following:

Financial gain. Most cyber attacks today, especially those against

commercial entities, are launched by cybercriminals for financial gain.
These attacks often aim to steal sensitive data, such as customer credit
card numbers or employee personal information, which the cybercriminals
then use to access money or goods using the victims' identities.

Other financially motivated attacks are designed to disable the computer

systems themselves, with cybercriminals locking computers so that their
owners and authorized users cannot access the applications or data they
need; attackers then demand that the targeted organizations pay them
ransoms to unlock the computer systems.

Still other attacks aim to gain valuable corporate data, such as propriety
information; these types of cyber attacks are a modern, computerized form
of corporate espionage.

Disruption and revenge. Bad actors also launch attacks specifically to

sow chaos, confusion, discontent, frustration or mistrust. They could be
taking such action as a way to get revenge for acts taken against them.
They could be aiming to publicly embarrass the attacked entities or to
damage the organizations' reputation. These attacks are often directed at
government entities but can also hit commercial entities or nonprofit
organizations.

Nation-state attackers are behind some of these types of attacks. Others,

called hacktivists, might launch these types of attacks as a form of protest
against the targeted entity; a secretive decentralized group of
internationalist activists known as Anonymous is the most well known of
such groups.

Insider threats are attacks that come from employees with malicious intent.

Cyberwarfare. Governments around the world are also involved in cyber

attacks, with many national governments acknowledging or suspected of
designing and executing attacks against other countries as part of ongoing
political, economic and social disputes. These types of attacks are
classified as cyberwarfare.

How do cyber attacks work?

Threat actors use various techniques to launch cyber attacks, depending in
large part on whether they're attacking a targeted or an untargeted entity.

In an untargeted attack, where the bad actors are trying to break into as
many devices or systems as possible, they generally look for vulnerabilities
that will enable them to gain access without being detected or blocked.
They might use, for example, a phishing attack, emailing large numbers of
people with socially engineered messages crafted to entice recipients to
click a link that will download malicious code.

In a targeted attack, the threat actors are going after a specific

organization, and methods used vary depending on the attack's objectives.
The hacktivist group Anonymous, for example, was suspected in a 2020
distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack on the Minneapolis Police
Department website after a Black man died while being arrested by
Minneapolis officers. Hackers also use spear-phishing campaigns in a
targeted attack, crafting emails to specific individuals who, if they click
included links, would download malicious software designed to subvert the
organization's technology or the sensitive data it holds.

Cyber criminals often create the software tools to use in their attacks, and
they frequently share those on the so-called dark web.

Cyber attacks often happen in stages, starting with hackers surveying or

scanning for vulnerabilities or access points, initiating the initial
compromise and then executing the full attack -- whether it's stealing
valuable data, disabling the computer systems or both.

What are the most common types of cyber attacks?

Cyber attacks most commonly involve the following:

1. Malware, in which malicious software is used to attack information

systems. Ransomware, spyware and Trojans are examples of malware.
Depending on the type of malicious code, malware could be used by
hackers to steal or secretly copy sensitive data, block access to files,
disrupt system operations or make systems inoperable.
2. Phishing, in which hackers socially engineer email messages to entice
recipients to open them. The recipients are tricked into downloading the
malware contained within the email by either opening an attached file or
embedded link.
3. Man-in-the-middle, or MitM, where attackers secretly insert themselves
between two parties, such as individual computer users and their
financial institution. Depending on the details of the actual attack, this
type of attack may be more specifically classified as a man-in-the-
 browser attack, monster-in-the-middle attack or machine-in-the-middle
attack. It is also sometimes called an eavesdropping attack.
4. DDoS, in which hackers bombard an organization's servers with large
volumes of simultaneous data requests, thereby making the servers
unable to handle any legitimate requests.
5. SQL injection, where hackers insert malicious code into servers using
the Structured Query Language programming language to get the server
to reveal sensitive data.
6. Zero-day exploit, which happens when a newly identified vulnerability
in IT infrastructure is first exploited by hackers.
7. Domain name system (DNS) tunneling, a sophisticated attack in
which attackers establish and then use persistently available access --
or a tunnel -- into their targets' systems.
8. Drive-by, or drive-by download, occurs when an individual visits a
website that, in turn, infects the unsuspecting individual's computer with
malware.
9. Credential-based attacks happen when hackers steal the credentials
that IT workers use to access and manage systems and then use that
information to illegally access computers to steal sensitive data or
otherwise disrupt an organization and its operations.
How can you prevent a cyber attack?
There is no guaranteed way for any organization to prevent a cyber attack,
but there are numerous cybersecurity best practices that organizations can
follow to reduce the risk.

Reducing the risk of a cyber attack relies on using a combination of skilled

security professionals, processes and technology.

Reducing risk also involves three broad categories of defensive action:

1. preventing attempted attacks from actually entering the organization's IT

systems;
2. detecting intrusions; and
3. disrupting attacks already in motion -- ideally, at the earliest possible
time.

Best practices include the following:

 implementing perimeter defenses, such as firewalls, to help block

attack attempts and to block access to known malicious domains;
 using software to protect against malware, namely antivirus software,
thereby adding another layer of protection against cyber attacks;
 having a patch management program to address known software
vulnerabilities that could be exploited by hackers;
 setting appropriate security configurations, password policies and
user access controls;
 maintaining a monitoring and detection program to identify and alert
to suspicious activity;
 creating incident response plans to guide reaction to a breach; and
 training and educating individual users about attack scenarios and
how they as individuals have a role to play in protecting the
organization.

QN 6) ANS : -
A computer that sits between different networks or applications. The
gateway converts information, data or other communications from one
protocol or format to another. A router may perform some of the
functions of a gateway. An Internet gateway can transfer
communications between
an enterprise network and the Internet. Because enterprises often use
protocols on their local-area networks (LANs) that differ from those of
the Internet, a gateway will often act as a protocol converter so that
users can send and receive communications over the Internet.
A product or feature that uses proprietary techniques to link
heterogeneous systems.
(a) Broadcast :- Broadcasting is the distribution of audio and video
content to a dispersed audience via radio, television, or other, often
digital transmission media.
The original term broadcast referred to the literal sowing of seeds on
farms by scattering them over a wide field.
(b) Mulitcast : - In this method traffic recline between the boundaries of
unicast (one point to one destination) and broadcast (one point to all
destinations). And multicast is a “one source to many destinations” way
of traffic distribution, which means that only the destinations that openly
point to their requisite to accept the data from a specific source to
receive the traffic stream.
 ( c ) Unicast : - Unicast: traffic, many streams of IP packets that move
across networks flow from a single point, such as a website server, to a
single endpoint such as a client PC. This is the most common form of
information transference on networks.
(7.) ans : - The hardware components are the server, client, peer,
transmission medium, and connecting devices. The software components
are operating system and protocols.
The following figure shows a network along with its components −

Hardware Components

 Servers −Servers are high-configuration computers that manage the

resources of the network. The network operating system is typically
installed in the server and so they give user accesses to the network
resources. Servers can be of various kinds: file servers, database
servers, print servers etc.
  Clients − Clients are computers that request and receive service
from the servers to access and use the network resources.
 Peers − Peers are computers that provide as well as receive services
from other peers in a workgroup network.
 Transmission Media − Transmission media are the channels
through which data is transferred from one device to another in a
network. Transmission media may be guided media like coaxial
cable, fibre optic cables etc; or maybe unguided media like
microwaves, infra-red waves etc.
 Connecting Devices − Connecting devices act as middleware
between networks or computers, by binding the network media
together. Some of the common connecting devices are:
a. Routers
b. Bridges
c. Hubs
d. Repeaters
e. Gateways
f. Switches
Software Components

 Networking Operating System − Network Operating Systems is

typically installed in the server and facilitate workstations in a network
to share files, database, applications, printers etc.
 Protocol Suite − A protocol is a rule or guideline followed by each
computer for data communication. Protocol suite is a set of related
protocols that are laid down for computer networks. The two popular
protocol suites are −
o a. OSI Model ( Open System Interconnections)
o b. TCP / IP Model
Repeaters : - Repeaters are network devices operating at physical layer of
the OSI model that amplify or regenerate an incoming signal before
retransmitting it. They are incorporated in networks to expand its coverage
area. They are also known as signal boosters.
Why are Repeaters needed?
When an electrical signal is transmitted via a channel, it gets attenuated
depending upon the nature of the channel or the technology. This poses a
limitation upon the length of the LAN or coverage area of cellular networks.
This problem is alleviated by installing repeaters at certain intervals.
Repeaters amplifies the attenuated signal and then retransmits it. Digital
repeaters can even reconstruct signals distorted by transmission loss.
So, repeaters are popularly incorporated to connect between two LANs
thus forming a large single LAN. This is shown in the following diagram −
Types of Repeaters
According to the types of signals that they regenerate, repeaters can be
classified into two categories −

 Analog Repeaters − They can only amplify the analog signal.

 Digital Repeaters − They can reconstruct a distorted signal.
According to the types of networks that they connect, repeaters can be
categorized into two types −

 Wired Repeaters − They are used in wired LANs.

 Wireless Repeaters − They are used in wireless LANs and cellular
networks.
According to the domain of LANs they connect, repeaters can be divided
into two categories −

 Local Repeaters − They connect LAN segments separated by small

distance.
 Remote Repeaters − They connect LANs that are far from each
other.
Advantages of Repeaters

 Repeaters are simple to install and can easily extend the length or
the coverage area of networks.
 They are cost effective.
 Repeaters don’t require any processing overhead. The only time they
need to be investigated is in case of degradation of performance.
 They can connect signals using different types of cables.
Disadvantages of Repeaters

 Repeaters cannot connect dissimilar networks.

 They cannot differentiate between actual signal and noise.
 They cannot reduce network traffic or congestion.
 Most networks have limitations upon the number of repeaters that
can be deployed.
 Hub : - A network hub is a node that broadcasts data to every
computer or Ethernet-based device connected to it. A hub is less
sophisticated than a switch, the latter of which can isolate data
transmissions to specific devices. Network hubs are best suited for
small, simple local area network (LAN) environments.

switches:-
Switches are networking devices operating at layer 2 or a data link layer of
the OSI model. They connect devices in a network and use packet
switching to send, receive or forward data packets or data frames over the
network.
A switch has many ports, to which computers are plugged in. When a data
frame arrives at any port of a network switch, it examines the destination
address, performs necessary checks and sends the frame to the
corresponding device(s).It supports unicast, multicast as well as broadcast
communications.
Features of Switches
 A switch operates in the layer 2, i.e. data link layer of the OSI model.
 It is an intelligent network device that can be conceived as a multiport
network bridge.
 It uses MAC addresses (addresses of medium access control
sublayer) to send data packets to selected destination ports.
 It uses packet switching technique to receive and forward data
packets from the source to the destination device.
 It is supports unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-many) and
broadcast (one-to-all) communications.
 Transmission mode is full duplex, i.e. communication in the channel
occurs in both the directions at the same time. Due to this, collisions
do not occur.
 Switches are active devices, equipped with network software and
network management capabilities.
 Switches can perform some error checking before forwarding data to
the destined port.
 The number of ports is higher – 24/48.
Types of Switches
There are variety of switches that can be broadly categorised into 4 types −

 Unmanaged Switch − These are inexpensive switches commonly

used in home networks and small businesses. They can be set up by
simply plugging in to the network, after which they instantly start
operating. When more devices needs to be added, more switches are
simply added by this plug and play method. They are referred to as u
managed since they do not require to be configured or monitored.
 Managed Switch − These are costly switches that are used in
organisations with large and complex networks, since they can be
customized to augment the functionalities of a standard switch. The
augmented features may be QoS (Quality of Service) like higher
security levels, better precision control and complete network
management. Despite their cost, they are preferred in growing
organizations due to their scalability and flexibility. Simple Network
Management Protocol (SNMP) is used for configuring managed
switches.
 LAN Switch − Local Area Network (LAN) switches connects devices
in the internal LAN of an organization. They are also referred as
Ethernet switches or data switches. These switches are particularly
helpful in reducing network congestion or bottlenecks. They allocate
bandwidth in a manner so that there is no overlapping of data packets
in a network.
 PoE Switch − Power over Ethernet (PoE) switches are used in PoE
Gogabit Ethernets. PoE technology combine data and power
transmission over the same cable so that devices connected to it can
receive both electricity as well as data over the same line. PoE
switches offer greater flexibility and simplifies the cabling connections
QN ( 8) ANS : -

An IP (Internet Protocol) Address is an alphanumeric label assigned

to computers and other devices that connect to a network using an
internet protocol. This address allows these devices to send and
receive data over the internet. Every device that is capable of connecting to
the internet has a unique IP address.

TYPES OF IP ADDRESSES

There are a few different types of IP addresses that each serve a unique
purpose.

Public IP address

A public IP address is the main address used for communicating

between hosts and the global internet. This address is unique for all users.

Private IP Address

A private IP address is the identifier given to devices connected to a private

network. These addresses are only accessible by devices inside a private
network. Private IP addresses are not all unique, as there are only a limited
number of devices connected to a network at any given time.

Static and Dynamic IP Address

Both private and public IP addresses can be static or dynamic. A static IP

address is manually configured and will never change. It is a permanent
internet address. A dynamic IP address is a temporary address that is
automatically assigned each time a computer or device accesses the
internet.

The four numbers in an IP address are used in different ways to identify a

particular network and a host on that network. Four regional Internet
registries ARIN, RIPE NCC, LACNIC and APNIC assign internet addresses
from the following three classes:
  Class A – supports 16 million hosts on each of 126 networks
 Class B – supports 65,000 hosts on each of 16,000 networks
 Class C – supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks

IPV4 VS. IPV6

There are two versions of IP addresses commonly in use today. IPv4 used
to be the standard version of IP addresses used for all devices. This
version uses a 32-bit number format, meaning it’s a string of characters
made up of 32 numbers. It can support a maximum of approximately 4.3
billion unique IP addresses. Due to the massive growth in devices
connecting to the internet, the number of unique IPv4 addresses was
eventually depleted.

IPv6 was developed as the new standard to alleviate this issue. In IPv6, the
IP address size is increased from 32-bits to 128-bit. Additionally, letters can
be included along with numbers. This new version of IP address can
theoretically support an infinite number of unique addresses.

QN (9) ans : -

(a) URL : - URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. It is the address of
a resource, which can be a specific webpage or a file, on the internet. It is
also known as web address when it is used with http. It was created in
1994 by Tim Berners-Lee. URL is a specific character string that is used to
access data from the World Wide Web. It is a type of URI (Uniform
Resource Identifier).

Every URL contains the following information:

o The scheme name or protocol.

o A colon, two slashes.
o A host, normally called a domain name but sometimes as a literal IP
address.
o A colon followed by a port number.
o Full path of the resource.
The URL of a web page is displayed above on the page in the address
bar. A typical URL looks like this:

http://www.javatpoint.com/full-form

The above URL contains:

o protocol: http
o host or domain: www.javatpoint.com
o Path of the resource: /full-form

(b) Node : - A node within a computer network is defined as, a connecting

point or redistributed point or communicating point or joint, or a transfer
point where the data can be stored, received, transmitted, or created. A
node can be either a computer or any device that involves receiving and
sending the data inside the computer networks. It is simply called a network
node. The link that connects the node of a network is known as a
communication channel.

The network node is either a redistribution point or an endpoint that

transmits the data with a recognizing, processing, and forwarding capability
to other network nodes. To form a network connection for data
transmission, 2 or multiple network nodes are needed. It depends on the
type of network and the referred protocol layer.

( c ) Datagram : - n a connectionless communication systems, datagram

refers to the smallest unit via which data is transmitted. Datagrams are data
packets which contain adequate header information so that they can be
individually routed by all intermediate network switching devices to the
destination. These networks are called datagram networks since
communication occurs via datagrams. They exist in packet switching
networks.
Features of Datagram Networks
 Datagram switching is done at the network layer of the
communication system.
 In datagram networks, each data packet or datagram is routed
independently from the source to the destination even if they belong
to the same message. The network treats the packet as if it exists
alone.
 Since the datagrams are treated as independent units, no dedicated
path is fixed for data transfer. Each datagram is routed by the
intermediate routers using dynamically changing routing tables. So
two successive packets from the source may follow completely
separate routes to reach destination.
 In these networks, no prior resource allocation is done for the
individual packets. This implies that no resources like buffers,
processors, bandwidth, etc. are reserved before the communication
commences.
 In datagram networks, resources are allocated on demand on a
First−Come First−Serve (FCFS) basis. When a packet arrives at a
router, the packet must wait if there are other packets being
processed, irrespective of its source or destination.
 Datagram communication is generally guided by User Datagram
Protocol or UDP.
The following diagram shows datagram packets being send by host H1 to
host H2. The four datagram packets labelled as A, B, C and D, all
belonging to same message are being routed separately via separate
routes. The packets in the message arrives in the destination out of order.
It is the responsibility of H2 to reorder the packets in order to retrieve the
original message.
 (d) Cookie : -
Cookies are text files with small pieces of data — like a username and
password — that are used to identify your computer as you use a computer
network. Specific cookies known as HTTP cookies are used to identify
specific users and improve your web browsing experience.

Data stored in a cookie is created by the server upon your connection. This
data is labeled with an ID unique to you and your computer.

When the cookie is exchanged between your computer and the network
server, the server reads the ID and knows what information to specifically
serve to you.

Different types of cookies - Magic Cookies and HTTP Cookies

 Magic Cookies
 HTTP Cookies

Cookies generally function the same but have been applied to different use
cases:
"Magic cookies" are an old computing term that refers to packets of
information that are sent and received without changes. Commonly, this
would be used for a login to computer database systems, such as a
business internal network. This concept predates the modern “cookie” we
use today.
HTTP cookies are a repurposed version of the “magic cookie” built for
internet browsing. Web browser programmer Lou Montulli used the “magic
cookie” as inspiration in 1994. He recreated this concept for browsers when
he helped an online shopping store fix their overloaded servers.
The HTTP cookie is what we currently use to manage our online
experiences. It is also what some malicious people can use to spy on your
online activity and steal your personal info.

QUESTION PAPER SOLUTION 2017

QN2..) ANS ; - Difference between Internet, Intranet and Extranet :

Point of
difference Internet Intranet Extranet

Accessibility
of network Public Private Private

To share
information with
suppliers and
vendors it makes
Specific to an the use of public
Availability Global system. organization. network.

Restricted area
upto an
Restricted area organization and
All over the upto an some of its
Coverage world. organization. stakeholders or so.
Point of
difference Internet Intranet Extranet

Accessible only to
It is accessible the members of
It is accessible only to the organization and
Accessibility to everyone members of external members
of content connected. organization. with logins.

It is largest in The connected

No. of number of The minimal devices are
computers connected number of devices comparable with
connected devices. are connected. Intranet.

Single Single/ Multiple

Owner No one. organization. organization.

It’s purpose is It’s purpose is to

to share It’s purpose is to share information
information share information between members
Purpose of throughout the throughout the and external,
the network world. organization. members.

It is dependent
on the user of It is enforced via
the device firewall that
connected to It is enforced via separates internet
Security network. firewall. and extranet.

Employees of the
General Employees of the organization which
Users public. organization. are connected.

There is no
hard and fast Policies of the Policies of the
Policies rule for organization are organization are
behind setup policies. imposed. imposed.
Point of
difference Internet Intranet Extranet

It is maintained by It is maintained by
CIO. HR or CIO. HR or
It is communication communication
maintained by department of an department of an
Maintenance ISP. organization. organization.

It is more
economical to It is less It is also less
Economical use. economical. economical.

It is the
network of It is derived from It is derived from
Relation networks. Internet. Intranet.

WIPRO using DELL and Intel

What we are internal network for using network for
normally using its business its business
Example is internet. operations. operations.

QN 2.) ANS :

DNS : -

Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical naming system built on a

distributed database for computers, services, or any resource connected to
the Internet or a private network. Most importantly, it translates human
readable domain names into the numerical identifiers associated with
networking equipment, enabling devices to be located and connected
worldwide. Analogous to a network “phone book,” DNS is how a browser
can translate a domain name (e.g., “facebook.com”) to the actual IP
address of the server, which stores the information requested by the
browser.

How DNS Servers Work

The DNS directory is distributed worldwide, stored in special servers called
dns servers (i.e., “domain name servers”) that are interconnected and
communicate regularly to synchronize directory information and create
redundancy.

DNS servers and IP addresses

A DNS server stores specific information that pairs a domain name with
particular IP addresses. A domain may have one or hundreds of IP
addresses associated with it. Amazon.com, for example, has thousands of
servers across the globe, and the physical server that a user connects
within one country is likely completely different from another user
elsewhere around the world. The global nature of Internet services requires
a network of distributed and scalable DNS servers to ensure that users can
quickly look up and resolve the requested server’s location, wherever they
are around the globe.

The DNS Lookup Process

The purpose of DNS is to translate a domain name into the appropriate IP
address. This is done by looking up the dns records of the requested
domain. There are typically eight steps in this DNS lookup process that
follow the information path from the originating web browser to the DNS
server and back again. In practice, DNS information is often cached to
reduce the DNS lookup response time. When the DNS information is not
cached, the eight-step lookup process is as follows:

The eight steps in a DNS lookup:

1. A user enters a domain name (e.g., facebook.com) into their browser,
and the browser sends the query via their internet service provider isp to a
DNS recursive resolver.
2. The DNS recursive resolver, in turn, sends a query to the root DNS
nameserver (.).
3. The root server returns to the resolver the address of the top-level
domain (i.e., “TLD”) DNS root server, which has the needed information for
the facebook.com domain. (Examples of a top- level domain tld include
“.com”, “.net”, and “.org,” which each TLD having it’s own root DNS server.)
4. In turn, the resolver then sends the information request to the Top-Level
Domain server (In this case, the “.com” TLD nameserver).
5. The TLD name server responds to the resolver with the targeted IP
address of the domain’s nameserver. (In this case, the DNS server for
“facebook.com”.)
6. Next, the DNS recursive resolver sends the query to the domain’s DNS
server.
7. The domain’s DNS server then returns the IP address to the DNS
resolver for the requested domain (e.g., “facebook.com”.
8. Finally, the DNS resolver returns the IP address of the requested domain
to the requesting web browser. The browser sends the HTTPS request to
the targeted IP address, and the server with that address returns the
webpage, which renders in the user’s browser.

Types of DNS Services

There are two primary types of services that DNS servers provide:
Authoritative DNS and Recursive DNS. Both are integral to the DNS
infrastructure, but each serves a different purpose during a DNS query. The
recursive DNS server at the beginning and the authoritative DNS server at
the end of the DNS query.

Recursive DNS Server: As discussed in the DNS lookup process

description, the recursive DNS server responds to a request from the client
and returns the IP address for the requested domain name. The recursive
resolver server makes a series of requests until it reaches the authoritative
DNS nameserver for the requested domain.
Authoritative DNS Server: The authoritative DNS server is the server that
actually holds and maintains the record for the requested domain. The
authoritative DNS server also has an updated mechanism, allowing
administrators to manage their public DNS names. The authoritative DNS
server is the final source of truth for a domain’s DNS information and is
responsible for providing the domain’s IP address information back to the
requesting recursive DNS server.

QN 4) ans : - internet address : - An Internet address uniquely identifies

a node on the Internet. Internet address may also refer to the name or IP of
a Web site (URL

An IP address is a unique address that identifies a device on the internet or

a local network. IP stands for "Internet Protocol," which is the set of rules
governing the format of data sent via the internet or local network.

In essence, IP addresses are the identifier that allows information to be

sent between devices on a network: they contain location information and
make devices accessible for communication. The internet needs a way to
differentiate between different computers, routers, and websites. IP
addresses provide a way of doing so and form an essential part of how the
internet works.

Following are the different classes of IP address:

1. Class A

2. Class B

3. Class C

4. Class D

5. Class E

Class A

 This Class IP address always has its first bit as 0, next 7 bits as a
network address and following 24 bits as the host address.

 The range of IP addresses is 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255.

 This means that it allows 2^7 networks and 2^24 hosts per network.
 This class of IP address is used for a very large network. Ex. Big
Organisation

Class B

 Class B IP address always has its first bits as 10, next 14 bits as a
network address and following 16 bits as the host address.

 The range of IP addresses is 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255.

 This means that it allows 2^14 networks and 2^16 hosts per network.

 This class of IP address is used for a medium network like multinational

companies.

Class C

 Class C IP address always has its first bits as 110, next 21 bits as a
network address and following 8 bits as the host address.

 The range of IP addresses is the first block from 192.0.0.0 to 192.0.0.255

and the last block from 223.255.255.0 to 223.255.255.255.

 This means that it allows 2^21 networks and 2^8 hosts per network.

 This class is used for a small network such as small companies or

colleges.

Class D

 Class D IP address always has its first bits as 1110.

 There is no segregation of host and network addresses.

 It allows multicast which means a datagram directed to multiple hosts.

Class E

 The address begins with 1111.

 It is reserved for future use, research, and development purpose.

QN 5.) ANS : -
TCP/IP model
o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer,
transport layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first
four layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in
TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and
each of them provides specific functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by

two or more lower-level protocols.
Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data
Link layer defined in the OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data
between two devices on the same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP
datagram into frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP
addresses into physical addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25,
frame relay.

Internet Layer
o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
 o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets
from any network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of
the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant

part of the entire TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses

known as IP addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet
and higher layers to identify the device and to provide internetwork
routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which
the data is to be transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the
data from the transport layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the
data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the data into
message known as IP datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of
the IP datagram by data link layer protocol is known as Maximum
Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than
the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller
units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation
can be done by the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver
side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an original message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network
such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source
and destination are on the distant network, then the IP datagram is
sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram
through various devices such as routers.

ARP Protocol
 o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical
address from the IP address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical
address of the device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the
network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept
the ARP request and process the request, but only recipient
recognize the IP address and sends back its physical address
in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical
address both to its cache memory and to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications
regarding datagram problems back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its
destination. If a router is unable to route the data because of some
unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on fire or
network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the
sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is
reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the
destination device is responding or not.
o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems,
not correct them. The responsibility of the correction lies with the
sender.
 o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the
intermediate routers because the IP datagram carries the addresses
of the source and destination but not of the router that it is passed to.

Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and
correction of data which is being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol
and Transmission control protocol.

o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of
transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not
specify the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol
reports the error to the sender that user datagram has been
damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address
of the application program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the
address of the application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user
datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error
detection.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only
checksum; it does not contain any ID of a data segment.
 o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and
it is active for the duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits
the damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments
must be received and acknowledged before the transmission is
considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into
smaller units known as segment, and each segment contains a
sequence number which is required for reordering the frames to
form an original message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and
reorders them based on sequence numbers.

Application Layer
o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of
representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
 o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with
another application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every
application cannot be placed inside the application layer except those
who interact with the communication system. For example: text editor
cannot be considered in application layer while web browser
using HTTP protocol to interact with the network
where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol
allows us to access the data over the world wide web. It transfers the
data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext
transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext
environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to
another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is
a framework used for managing the devices on the internet by using
the TCP/IP protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP
protocol that supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer
protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail
address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used
to identify the connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But,
people prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the
system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain
Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the
connection between the local computer and remote computer in such
a way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote
system.
 o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard
internet protocol used for transmitting the files from one computer to
another computer.

QN 6(a) ans : - In Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Receiver’s MAC

address is fetched. Through ARP, (32-bit) IP address mapped into (48-bit)
MAC address.
Whereas, In Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP), IP address
is fetched through server. Through RARP, (48-bit) MAC address of 48 bits
mapped into (32-bit) IP address.
Let’s see that the difference between ARP and RARP:
S.NOARP RARP
Whereas RARP stands for
ARP stands for Address Reverse Address Resolution
1. Resolution Protocol. Protocol.

Whereas through RARP, (48-

Through ARP, (32-bit) IP bit) MAC address of 48 bits
address mapped into (48-bit) mapped into (32-bit) IP
2. MAC address. address.

In ARP, broadcast MAC While in RARP, broadcast IP

3. address is used. address is used.

While in RARP, RARP table is

In ARP, ARP table is managed managed or maintained by
4. or maintained by local host. RARP server.

While in RARP, IP address is

In Address Resolution
fetched.
Protocol, Receiver’s MAC
s
5. address is fetched.

While in RARP, RARP table

uses RARP reply for
In ARP, ARP table uses ARP configuration of IP addresses
6. reply for its updation. .

7. Hosts and routers uses ARP While RARP is used by small

 for knowing the MAC address users having less facilities.
of other hosts and routers in
the networks.

(b) Web Directory : -

The terms “Web directory” and “search engine” are often used
interchangeably. Web directories are organized Web site listings put
together by human reviewers, whereas search engine listings are put
together by automated systems and lack a navigable structure. Much of the
confusion stems from the various hybrid models that have developed over
time, as search engines have incorporated directory features to assist with
issues such as categorization and site quality.

There are advantages and drawbacks to using a Web directory as opposed

to a search engine. One vehicle may be better suited to certain types of
searches than the other. Directories place an emphasis on linking to site
home pages and try to minimize deep linking. This makes directories more
useful for finding sites instead of individual pages. Some directories attempt
to solve this shortcoming by partnering with a search engine for
supplemental listings.

QN (7.) ans : -

Web browser : - Web Browser is a common term which is frequently used

by people while discussing the Internet. However, the exact definition of a
web browser is known by few only.
Web Browser Definition: A software application used to access
information on the World Wide Web is called a Web Browser. When a user
requests some information, the web browser fetches the data from a web
server and then displays the webpage on the user’s screen.

Types of Web Browser

The functions of all web browsers are the same. Thus, more than the
different types there are different web browsers which have been used over
the years.
Discussed below are different web browser examples and their specific
features:
1. WorldWideWeb

 The first web browser ever

 Launched in 1990
 It was later named “Nexus” to avoid any confusion with the World
Wide Web
 Had the very basic features and less interactive in terms of graphical
interface
 Did not have the feature of bookmark
2. Mosaic

 It was launched in 1993

 The second web browser which was launched
 Had a better graphical interface. Images, text and graphics could all
be integrated
 It was developed at the National Center for Supercomputing
Applications
 The team which was responsible for creating Mosaic was lead by
Marc Andreessen
 It was named “the world’s first popular browser”
3. Netscape Navigator

 It was released in 1994

 In the 1990s, it was the dominant browser in terms of usage share
 More versions of this browser were launched by Netscape
 It had an advanced licensing scheme and allowed free usage for non-
commercial purposes
4. Internet Explorer

 It was launched in 1995 by Microsoft

 By 2003, it has attained almost 95% of usage share and had become
the most popular browsers of all
 Close to 10 versions of Internet Explorer were released by Microsoft
and were updated gradually
  It was included in the Microsoft Windows operating system
 In 2015, it was replaced with “Microsoft Edge”, as it became the
default browser on Windows 10
5. Firefox

 It was introduced in 2002 and was developed by Mozilla Foundation

 Firefox overtook the usage share from Internet Explorer and became
the dominant browser during 2003-04
 Location-aware browsing was made available with Firefox
 This browser was also made available for mobile phones, tablets, etc.
6. Google Chrome

 It was launched in 2008 by Google

 It is a cross-platform web browser
 Multiple features from old browsers were amalgamated to form better
and newer features
 To save computers from malware, Google developed the ad-blocking
feature to keep the user data safe and secure
 Incognito mode is provided where private searching is available
where no cookies or history is saved
 Till date, it has the best user interface

QN (8)

(a) ans : -
E-mail System
E-mail system comprises of the following three components:
 Mailer
 Mail Server
 Mailbox
Mailer
It is also called mail program, mail application or mail client. It allows
us to manage, read and compose e-mail.
Mail Server
The function of mail server is to receive, store and deliver the email. It is
must for mail servers to be Running all the time because if it crashes or is
down, email can be lost.
Mailboxes
Mailbox is generally a folder that contains emails and information about
them.
Working of E-mail
Email working follows the client server approach. In this client is the mailer
i.e. the mail application or mail program and server is a device that
manages emails.
Following example will take you through the basic steps involved in
sending and receiving emails and will give you a better understanding of
working of email system:
 Suppose person A wants to send an email message to person B.
 Person A composes the messages using a mailer program i.e. mail
client and then select Send option.
 The message is routed to Simple Mail Transfer Protocol to person
B’s mail server.
 The mail server stores the email message on disk in an area
designated for person B.
The disk space area on mail server is called mail spool.

 Now, suppose person B is running a POP client and knows how to

communicate with B’s mail server.
 It will periodically poll the POP server to check if any new email has
arrived for B.As in this case, person B has sent an email for person
B, so email is forwarded over the network to B’s PC. This is
message is now stored on person B’s PC.
The following diagram gives pictorial representation of the steps discussed
above:

(b.) ans : -
Role of Web server : - A web server is software and hardware that uses
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and other protocols to respond to client
requests made over the World Wide Web. The main job of a web server
is to display website content through storing, processing and
delivering webpages to users.
Apache : - Apache HTTP Server is a free and open-source web server
that delivers web content through the internet. It is commonly referred
to as Apache and after development, it quickly became the most
popular HTTP client on the web. It’s widely thought that Apache gets
its name from its development history and process of improvement
through applied patches and modules but that was corrected back in
2000. It was revealed that the name originated from the respect of the
Native American tribe for its resiliency and durability.
QN (9.) ans : -
(a) Firewall : -
A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing
network traffic and decides whether to allow or block specific traffic based
on a defined set of security rules.
Firewalls have been a first line of defense in network security for over 25
years. They establish a barrier between secured and controlled internal
networks that can be trusted and untrusted outside networks, such as the
Internet.

(b) Kerberos : -
Kerberos is a computer network security protocol that authenticates
service requests between two or more trusted hosts across an untrusted
network, like the internet. It uses secret-key cryptography and a trusted
third party for authenticating client-server applications and verifying users'
identities.

Initially developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) for

Project Athena in the late '80s, Kerberos is now the default authorization
technology used by Microsoft Windows. Kerberos implementations also
exist for other operating systems such as Apple OS, FreeBSD, UNIX,
and Linux.

Microsoft rolled out its version of Kerberos in Windows 2000, and it's
become the go-to protocol for websites and single sign-on implementations
over different platforms. The Kerberos Consortium maintains the Kerberos
as an open-source project.

The protocol derives its name from the legendary three-headed dog
Kerberos (also known as Cerberus) from Greek myths, the canine guardian
to the entrance to the underworld. Kerberos had a snake tail and a
particularly bad temper and, despite one notable exception, was a very
useful guardian.

But in the protocol's case, the three heads of Kerberos represent the client,
the server, and the Key Distribution Center (KDC). The latter functions as
the trusted third-party authentication service

(c ) NAT : - NAT stands for network address translation. It's a way to

map multiple local private addresses to a public one before transferring the
information. Organizations that want multiple devices to employ a single IP
address use NAT, as do most home routers.

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