BASIC EDUCATION DIVISION

Senior High South School

ABM 12
Formation of Elements
1.3 Developed by: Yvette M. Villarta

Content Standards: The learners demonstrate an understanding of the formation of the elements during the
Big Bang and during stellar evolution, and the distribution of the chemical elements and the
isotopes in the universe.
Performance Standards: The learner is able to explain the important applications of nuclear reactions to
numerous consumer products like in medicine, energy generation in modern life, and some
advanced technologies.
Learning Competencies: The learner is able to:
a. give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star formation and evolution
(S11/12PS-IIIa-2);
b. describe how elements heavier than iron are formed (S11/12PSIIIa-b-4); and
c. write the nuclear fusion reactions that take place in stars that lead to the formation of new elements
(S11/12PS-IIIa-3).

Specific Learning Outcomes:

In this module, you will spend 3 hours to:

a. briefly discuss stellar nucleosynthesis or fusion;

b. discuss other processes that led to other elements; and
c. write out fusion reactions involved.

INTRODUCTION:

Our world is made up of elements and combinations of elements called compounds. An element is a pure
substance made of atoms that are all of the same type. At present, 116 elements are known, and only about 90 of these
occur naturally. During the formation of the universe some 13.8 billion years ago in the so-called Big Bang, only the
lightest elements were formed. As cloud of cosmic dust and gases from the Big Bang cooled, stars formed, and these
then grouped together to form galaxies.

Elements are formed deep within the

cores of certain types of star.

How are elements formed?

Motivation: Understanding the Life Span of the Stars

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TERMINOLOGIES:

Carl Sagan’s The Cosmic Connection (Sagan, Fusion

2000). Sagan found it remarkable that the Stellar nucleosynthesis
elements we find on Earth are also those we find Proton-proton chain reaction
among the stars (2000). In addition, we find that Triple alpha process
most of what we know as matter was made by Alpha ladder
processes inside stars themselves. CNO cycle
Main-sequence star
Red giant
Supernova explosion
Supernova nucleosynthesis
R-process
S-process

Pre-assessment: Complete the concept map by filling in the right terms.

occurs in
occurs in
which eventually
which evolve into end up in

which form He which form elements which form elements

primarily through primarily through primarily through

Discussion Proper:

1. The formation of light elements such as H and He are formed through nucleosynthesis. The significant amounts
of Li, Be and are formed through other processes, such as cosmic ray spallation. Once matter recombined,
gravity and other forces brought matter together to eventually form stars 200 billion years after the Big Bang
occurred.
2. The hydrogen and helium atoms in stars began combining in nuclear fusion reactions once hydrogen-helium
stars had formed from the action of gravity. This releases a tremendous amount of light, heat, and radioactive
energy. Fusion resulted in the formation of nuclei of new elements. These reactions inside stars are known as
stellar nucleosynthesis. The first fusion process occurs in the hydrogen core of stars such as the sun with a
temperature of less than 15 million K. These kinds of stars are called main-sequence stars.

The three steps of the process known as the main-branch

proton-proton chain.
a. Deuterium (D or 2H) forms from proton fusion, with
one proton turning into a neutron via beta-plus decay,
giving off a neutrino and a positron: 1H + 1H → 2H +
ν + e+
b. 3He forms from deuterium and proton fusion, also
known as deuterium burning. This immediately
consumes all deuterium produced. 2H + 1H → 3He + γ
c. 4He forms from 3He fusion. 3He + 3He → 4He + 2 1H
Equilibrium of the Sun and other main-sequence stars
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3. The entire three-step process releases about 26.7 MeV (mega electron volts) of energy. The energy released is
responsible for the thermal pressure that pushes against gravity. It is also responsible for the light, heat and
radiation emitted by the star. A different process facilitates hydrogen fusion in main sequence stars with
temperature greater than 15 million K.
4. The core of a star becomes comprised of He as H is
depleted, while H fusion only occurs in a shell around it.
Due to this process, the temperature and density of the core
of the star increases up to 100 million K. The star’s thermal
pressure causes it to push out H gas. The star balloons into
a red giant.

Several nuclear fusion processes occur in a red giant aside

from hydrogen fusion. The first is the triple alpha process.
Alpha particles refer to 4He. This reaction involves the
fusion of three 4He atoms in the following steps:
4He + 4He → 8Be

8Be + 4He → 12C + γ

Note that the 8Be intermediate is unstable, so either it decays

or forms 12C.
5. The star can keep growing into a supergiant as it accumulates mass. Alpha fusion processes continue in the
core via the alpha ladder. More and more alpha particles are fused to create heavier elements all the way to iron,
making the core and star itself more massive.
6. The main-sequence stars hotter than 15 million K could facilitate the production of helium once carbon was
present from alpha processes. This happens through a process where 12C is used as a catalyst known as the
carbon fusion cycle or the CNO cycle. This process involves repeated proton capture and beta-plus decay.

The CNO cycle, which uses 12C as a catalyst to form more 4He in larger or hotter main-sequence
stars.
7. A star will eventually be unable to generate energy to push against gravity due to the formation of heavier
elements, thus causing it to collapse on itself. It then undergoes a supernova explosion that releases a
tremendous amount of energy enough to synthesize elements heavier than iron. Examples of these
elements are uranium and thorium, which are some of the heaviest known elements. This is done through
the r-process that involves rapid capture of neutrons by the atom. Other heavy elements are also
synthesized through s-process involving slow neutron capture in red giants.

Practice: Review the lesson using the

concept map used at the motivation
part.

Explain the Mini-Performance Task

#1: Infographics
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Mini-Performance Task #1. A few elements were first discovered as man-made elements since many of them
did not emerge from the major nucleosynthesis reactions (or their minor processes). These include elements
Americium through Lawrencium, as well as some of the recently discovered elements like Flerovium and
Livermorium. Assign the learners to research on one of these elements.

SELF-ASSESSMENT #3

Name: _______________________________________ Grade & Block: ______________ Date: ______________

A. Note Details. The following table summarizes the nuclear fusion reactions in stars. Fill out the table to create a
rough outline of the nuclear reactions involved.

Nuclear Reaction Fuel Products Temperature

Hydrogen 107 K
CNO cycle
Helium Burning 108K
Carbon
Oxygen Mg, S, P, Si
Silicon Burning 3x 109 K

B. Paragraph Completion
1. Exothermic reactions inside the stars that convert hydrogen and helium

These reactions include the proton-proton chain reaction and _______________. The p-p chain involves
the fusion of _______________ hydrogen nuclei to form a _______________ nucleus. The process
releases an enormous amount of energy and a fundamental particle _______________, which is similar to
an electron but has no electrical charge. The _______________ on the other hand transforms four protons
into _______________ nucleus using _______________, _______________, and _______________ as
catalyst. The net products of the cycle are energy in the form of _______________ (γ), _______________
positrons (e+), 2 electron neutrinos (ν), and 1 _______________ (4He). The _______________ produced
in the last step can then participate again in the CNO process and the cycle continues.

2. Helium Burning

Once the star has used up the hydrogen in its core, the exothermic reactions stop and the
_______________ previously produced is expended through the process of _______________. Helium
burning occurs in the deep core of the stars once the temperature hits about _______________. Simplest
reaction in a helium gas should be the fusion of _______________ helium nuclei. There is no stable
configuration with A=8. For example, the beryllium isotope 8Be has a lifetime of only 2.6×10-16 s. But a
third helium nucleus can be added to 8Be before decay, forming _______________ by the “triple-alpha”
reaction.
4He + _______________ → 8Be
8Be + 4He → _______________ + _______________ (γ)

Further, helium burning reactions follow to synthesize even heavier nuclei.

4C +4He  16O + energy
16O + _______________  20Ne + energy
20 Ne + _______________  _______________ + energy

3. Carbon and oxygen Burning

At approximately 5x108 K, carbon burning is likely to start with typical reactions as:

C + 12C → 24Mg + γ (energy)

12
The last reaction that yields Ne is the most probable reaction; since
Ne can
→ 23Mg + n undergo a further reaction to _______________ yield.
Burning carbon is
→ 23Na + p therefore always a source of oxygen in stars.
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→ 20Ne + α (alpha) The oxygen burning on the other hand can start once the
temperature has
→ 16O + 2α reached _______________ resulting in the production of
_____________
and alpha particle.
16O + 16O → _______________
→ 31S + n
→ 31P + p
→ _______________
→ 24Mg + 2α

4. Silicon Burning

The formation of silicon establishes the following equilibrium reaction that lead to an inner core of a star
that is rich in _______________ and _______________. Complete the equation by providing the next
fusion reaction after the formation of Ar until Cr forms. (hint: 3 more nuclear fusion reactions)

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

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REFERENCES:

Contemporary Physics Education Project (CPEP). (2003 November). Chapter 10: Origin of the elements. Retrieved
September 16, 2015 from http://www2.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/ teachersguide/pdf/Chap10.pdf

Santiago, K., Silverio, A, and Ramos, J. D. (2016). Exploring life through science: Physical Science. Phoenix Publishing
House, Inc., Quezon City. ISBN 978-971-06-3891-8.

Punzalan, J. & Monserrat, R. (2016). Science in Today’s World for Senior High School: Physical Science. SIBS Publishing
House, Inc., Quezon City.