ANIMAL BREEDING & GENETICS
The consistency in copying the gene’s during mitosis is made
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ANIMAL BREEDING AND GENETICS
 ANIMAL BREEDING & GENETICS
Before the acceptance and rediscovery of Gregor Johann Mendel’s
work, everyone believed that the characteristics of the offspring’s is
due to the blending of the parents’ blood. Mendel did his work on
pea plant in 1865 but this was not recognized so it just gathered
dust in the shelves.
 1901, De Vries, Correns and Von Tschermark independently
rediscovered Mendel’s work after which this was accepted by the
scientific community.
 1906, Bateson (English naturalist) studied the plumage
characteristics of chickens.
 1909, Johannsen (Dutch biologist) coined the word “gene” referring
to the particulate matter which Mendel used in his treatise.
 1956, Watson and Crick discovered that the DNA has a double helix
structure and that there is such a thing as a genetic code in the DNA.
Gene= smallest unit of inheritance, found as segments of DNA on a
chromosome
DNA= found in the nucleus of the cell, and forms the backbone of
chromosome; spiral of double helix structure composed of
nucleotides (3 parts: deoxyribose sugar, phosphate. And N Base) the
N Basis are Adenine(A), Thymine(T), Guanine(G), Cystine(S).
Chromosome= slender, thread-like strands that contain the units of
inheritance (genes); occur in pairs (homologous) of similar size and
shape in body cells, and have genes that code for similar
information.
Genes on the same locus controlling a trait in the same way are
called ‘homozygous’ and if they contrast in controlling the trait, they
are called [‘heterozygous genes’
Allele= are genes occupying corresponding loci on homologous
chromosomes that affects the same trait but in a different way.
GENES AND THEIR ROLE IN ANIMAL PRODUCTIVITY
Genes and Their Functions:
The gene is the biological unit of inheritance and it is through this
that the parents are able to transmit their characteristics to their
offspring’s. The biological nature and function of the gene however
was hypothesized by James Watson and Francis Crick (1956) which
is now universally accepted.
The gene is a segment of the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which
determines the base sequence of the nucleotides in the messenger
ribonucleic acid (mRNA) that makes up the code for certain
biological functions.
The DNA is a biochemical compound consisting of a chain of
nucleotides called polynucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a
phosphate (P), a sugar (S) and a Base (B). The coding system of the
gene is based on the arrangement of the four bases: Guanine (G),
Adenine (A), Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C).
DNA RNA
Contains A, G, C and T Contains A, C, G and U (uracil)
Contains deoxyribose Contains ribose
Double strand Single strand
Store genetic information Expression of genetic information
FUNCTION OF GENES:
: act as backbone of the chromosome, as part of DNA molecule.
: to replicate when the new cell is produced.
: carry genetic code for the information of polypeptide chain of a protein.
: to synthesize specific protein and enzymes (structural genes).
: to regulate the activity of the structural genes and the amount of
protein synthesized (regulatory genes)
: control several structural genes in an off-on manner (operator genes).
: Store and transmit genetic information from cell to cell and from parent
to offspring
: Copy and replicate itself with great consistency and precision
: Undergo mutation or error in copying of the genetic code which would
be subsequently copied and replicated.
The manner by which the genetic information is transmitted from cell to
cell is through mitosis (multiplicative cell division) while from
parent to offspring is made possible through the reduction cell
division (meiosis) in the germinal cells (gametes) and the
subsequent union of the haploid sperm and egg cells during
fertilization.
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possible by the gene structure itself. The DNA segment consist of
two strands of the chain of bases. These 2 strands are linked
together at each other at the base so that it forms a twisted ladder or
helical shape (double helix). The nature of the gene is such that each
base in one strand can only pair with a specific base
 Adenine (A) is always opposite to Thymine (T) forming an A-
T base pair
 Guanine (G) opposite cytosine (C) - forming a G-C base pair.
Errors/mutation may happen in the copying of genes although occurs
very rarely. If mutation occurs in the somatic cells, then it will be
transmitted from cell to cell. However, if it occurs in the germinal
cells, it may be transmitted to the next generation.
The genetic information that is stored must be such that it can be
decoded and translated into action in the developing individual.
Protein is a basic nutrient of growth, maintenance and reproduction of
all organisms. The orderly synthesis of proteins in the body is made
possible by genes. Genes provide the code for the synthesis of
proteins thru the process of transcription and translation involving
the ribonucleic acid (RNA) and the ribosome in the cells In the
nucleus, the RNA transcribes the sequence of the bases in the DNA
and then carries the information to the cytoplasm in the cells. The
ribosomes attached to the mRNA and read the message according to
3 bases at a time. Each string of 3 bases codes for a certain amino
acid. As each string of 3 bases is read, the corresponding free amino
acid in the cytoplasm is picked and assembled into a string. When
enough of the specific amino acids are in the string now, it forms a
protein molecule.
Genes may modify the phenotypic expression of other genes
Note: regulatory gene may produce repressors.
Repressors inhibit enzymes formation by turning off the operator gene.
To switch on the operator gene, a metabolite inducer is produced to
block the repressor substance.
Structural gene produces ‘gene products’
The gene complex is called ‘the operon’
Different species of animals have different pairs of homologous
chromosomes. Within species, the number of pairs is constant
regardless of breed.
Species 2n chromosome No. of pairs
Human 46 23
Cattle, bison 60 30
Sheep 54 27
Swine 38 19
Goats 60 30
Horse 64 32
donkey 62 31
Mule 63 31+1n
Turkey 82 41
Dogs 78 39
chicken 78 39
Each body cell contains one pairs of chromosomes. All chromosomes
other than sex chromosomes are called ‘autosomes.
In mammal, female has XX and XY; in poultry female has ZW and male
has ZZ. An individual receives one member of each pair from the
male parent & the other from the female parent.
ROLE OF GENOTYPE AND ENVIRONMENT ON PHENOTYPIC OF GENE:
Genotype
: the genetic make-up of individual; fixed at conception and expressed
until death (except for
: refers to the specific combination of genes associated with particular
characteristics of the individual; this is otherwise known as the
genetic material. The expression of the genotype however depends
greatly on the environment such that in favorable environments, the
 ANIMAL BREEDING & GENETICS LEA 2021

genetic material will be expressed but if otherwise, then it will not Black hair coat Chestnut or sorrel
manifest in the individual’s phenotype. Normal hair Curly hair
Poultry Barred plumage Non-barred
Broodiness Non-broodiness
possible mutation). It reflects the action of genes in different Feathered shank Clean shank
combination within the individual. White skin Yellow skin
Environment= causes variations other than heredity (e.g., disease, Sheep Wooly fleece Hairy fleece
nutrition, others). It affects the phenotypic expression of qualitative White wool Black wool
traits (e.g., production and reproduction performance. Swine Cloven hooves Mule foot
Note: genotype and environment interaction are a source of phenotypic Erect ears Drooping eras
variation White belt No belt
Phenotype (Hampshire)
: expression of genotype; visible or measurable traits; differences in Lack of dominance
individuals which are measured by means of senses (e.g., litter size, Two allele are not dominant to each other, and each expresses itself in
color) the phenotype.
: refers to the specific combination of genes associated with particular Example: coat color in shorthorn cattle
characteristics of the individual; this is otherwise known as the R- gene for red, W- gene for white
genetic material. The expression of the genotype however depends Genotype Phenotype
greatly on the environment such that in favorable environments, the RR red
genetic material will be expressed but if otherwise, then it will not WW white
manifest in the individual’s phenotype. RW roan
: The phenotype may not disclose fully the genotype. Often, environment
greatly masks the phenotype. The time when heredity and
Partial dominance
environment exert their influences is shown in the following figure:
Genes are not completely dominant to their alleles.
Example: compress gene in Hereford cattle
P=G+E
Genotyp Phenotype
where: P = phenotype, G = genotype, E = Environment.
e
CC Dwarf
GENE ACTION AND TYPES:
Cc Comprest (midway between
Additive – The addition of one gene to the allele results to a different the dwarf and normal)
phenotype as in the Skin Color theory of Davenport (AABB = black, cc normal
aabb = white, AaBb= mulatto)
Non – Additive – there are two subtypes of this gene action and these Overdominance
are: Heterozygote is superior in phenotype to the homozygote.
Epistasis – the masking on a gene in one locus by another gene in Example:
another locus, this is non predictable Sickle-cell anemia in African blacks
Dominance – complete dominance (polled-horned character in cattle), AA- normal hemoglobin
co dominance/incomplete dominance (red-white-roan coat color of SS- sickle-cell (they die of anemia)
Shorthorn breed of cattle) and over dominance (antigen production AS- heterozygote (highly resistant to anemia than either AA or AS)
of rats).
Epistasis
DOMINANCE AND RECESSIVE Phenotypic expression due to the interaction of two or more pairs of
: A gene is dominants when it covers the expression of its allele (gene genes that are not allele.
occupying the same loci but have different effects). Example: color in collie dog
Example: coat color in angus cattle A(t) gene for tricolor A(t)- gene for white
B- for black is dominant over b-for red. M- gene for merle m- gene for non-merle
Genotype (3) Phenotype (2)
BB Black Genotype Phenotype
Bb Black A(t) a(t) mm Black, tan and white
bb red (tricolor)
A(t) a(t) Mm Blue merle
: homologous black will produce black offspring. A(t) a(t) MM White merle
Kinds of Genotype of Phenotype of Thus, gene M influences the way the tricolor gene a(t) expresses itself
mating offspring’s offspring’s phenotypically even though the M and a(t) genes are not alleles.
BB X BB Bb Black
BB X Bb Bb, bb (1:1) Black Additive gene action
BB X bb Bb Black The effect of each that contributes to the phenotype of an individual for a
certain trait adds to the phenotypic effects of another gene that
: heterozygous black (Bb) individuals do not always breed true. contributes something to the same phenotype.
Kinds of Genotype of Phenotype of Example: skin color in humans
mating offspring’s offspring’s
Bb X BB Bb, Bb (1:1) Black Mechanics of inheritance
Bb X Bb BB, Bb, bb (1:2:1) 3 Black, 1 Red The flow of genetic material from generation to generation is made
Bb X bb Bb, bb (1:1)’ 1 Black, 1 Red possible by reproduction which in animals, involves two processes
which are:
: Red (bb) individuals always produced red offspring, but do not breed Gametogenesis:
true when mated to black. : a process involving the production of gamete, the sperm cells
Kinds of Genotype of Phenotype of (spermatogenesis) and the egg cells (oogenesis).
mating offspring’s offspring’s : process of producing the gametes (spermatogenesis in male, oogenesis
bb X BB Bb Black in the female)
bb X Bb Bb, bb (1:1) 1 Black, 1 Red Fertilization:
bb X bb bb Red : the union of male and female gametes to form a zygote.
: process of the union of the sperm and the egg cells at the fallopian tube.
Some dominants & recessive traits in farm animals
The resulting zygote carrying half of the characteristics of both the
Species Dominant traits Recessive traits
dam and the sire will eventually develop into an embryo and implant
Cattle Black hair coat Red hair coat
at the uterine wall to develop into a fetus.
Cloven hooves Mule foot
Normal size Dwarfism
Polled Horns MENDELIAN (QUALITATIVE) INHERITANCE
Red yellow Involved 2 basis parts: the segregation of genes in the gamete, & the
Horses Bay Non-bay (black) recombination of genes in the zygote.

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Mendel’s work was with pea plants specifically on the seed coat have white belt or not, have droopy ears or erect. These traits are
characteristics (rough and smooth seed coats) Using parent pea controlled by either only one or few of genes. The interaction
plants with rough and smooth seed coats however yielded between the genes involved varying degrees of dominance and
offspring’s, some of which have wrinkled seed coat aside from the epistasis.
rough and smooth ones. Mendel then theorized that there are
particulate matters from the parents that are passed on to its THE NON-MENDELIAN (QUANTITATIVE) INHERITANCE
offspring. From this work, Mendel also developed two laws which : Quantitative traits are controlled by many pair of genes (polygenic).
are: Each having only a small effect. The relationship among alleles is
usually of “codominance” or “lack of dominance”. these polygenes
LAW OF SEGREGATION & RECOMBINATION OF GENES increase the magnitude of the value of the traits and are called
: Law of Independent Segregation – characters are determined by “additive genes” which cause “additive gene action”; in contrast to
particulate matters and that these occur in pairs. In the formation of “dominance” and “epistasis” which cause “non additives gene
gametes, these are segregated randomly so that only one pair is action”. It should be noted that polygenes segregate independently
transmitted by a particular gamete. and have specific effects, just as do genes with dominant and
: Law of Independent Recombination – The paired particulate matters epistatic effects.
will recombine independently and randomly to compose the genetic : The variation observed among large groups of animals is continuous,
character of an individual. and differences among separate phenotype may be so small that
One of the most important implications of Mendel’s finding is that the they cannot be distinguished by casual observation.
process of segregation and recombination of genes is governed Example: weight gain in beef cattle, milk production in dairy cows, rate
purely by chance and that the occurrence of each new combination of speed in racehorses.
may be predicted according to the rules of probability. The phenotypic ratio of a cross among hybrids for n number of genes can
be represented by the coefficient of the binomial expanded to the
Two genes paired in body cells segregate each other in the gametes & nth power (p + q) n, where p and q are probabilities of the two
combine in the zygote alternative outcomes of the event (e.g., dominant or recessive) and n
Dialing with any trait in a population that is controlled by 2 alleles (or is the number of offspring as follows:
one pair of genes), A & a,3 genotypes are possible: AA, Aa & aa Number of Size of F2 needed for Number of Chance of
Parents Progeny pairs of all phenoty obtaining
AA x AA AA alleles combinations pic either
classes extreme
AA x aa Aa
1 4(1:2:1) 3 ¼
aa x aa aa 2 16(1:4:6:4:1) 5 1/16
Aa x AA ½ Aa, ½ AA 3 64(1:6:15:20:15:6:1) 7 1/64
Aa x aa ½ Aa, ½ aa 4 256 9 1/256
Aa x Aa ¼ AA, ½ Aa, ¼ aa 5 1024 11 1/1024
Mating between any two homologous will produce only one king of 6 4096 13 1/4096
genotype.
There are inheritances that do not follow the Mendelian laws and these
are the following:

Sex Linkage (Sex linked traits):

AA x AA AA x aa aa X aa Generally, sex linked traits are carried in the sex chromosomes. There
A A A a a a are autosomes (body chromosomes) and a pair of sex chromosomes
in animal which makes up the totality of its diploid chromosome
AA aa
Aa number of a species.
For mammals, the XX sex chromosomes are with the females and the XY
Mating of heterozygote with homozygote will produce progeny one-half is with the males. In birds or avian species however, it is the male
of which is heterozygote & one-half is homozygous. which has the homogametic sex chromosome that is ZZ while the
female carries the ZW. The Y and the W chromosomes are smaller in
size than the X and the Z chromosomes thus genes carried in the X
Aa Aa Aa x aa and Z chromosomes that are recessive will be manifested in the
A A
A a a individual which has inherited that character. An example of a sex-
linked character is hemophilia which is normally manifested in the
AA Aa Aa a Aa aa
phenotype of male persons.

Autosomal linkage:
Mating of 2 heterozygotes will produces genotypic ratio 1:2:1 in the Chromosomes are occupied by genes in specific
progeny. An individual heterozygous for one pair of gene (Aa) is locus(loci). With autosomal linkage, there is a greater chance of
called ‘monohybrid’ genes that are occupying nearby locus to be inherited together than
those that are located farther. This particularly happens during the
Law of independent assortment or random assortment prophase stage of meiosis where the chromosomes double and
Two or more pairs of genes & the traits they control will show up in the segments of homologous chromosomes cross over and exchange
succeeding generations in the same proportion as if they were acting segments.
alone. Non-nuclear Inheritance:
Angus (BBhh) x Hereford (bbHH) This is more commonly seen in plants where chlorophyll-bearing plants
(Solid, black) (White-face, red) are carried in the cytoplasm. In animals, this is a very rare
Bh bH occurrence although there are some evidences that cytoplasmic
BbHh genetic material affecting milk production may be present in cattle.
(White faced black) Females therefore have a larger role than males in influencing the
characteristics of the offspring since the sperm cell has very little
The offspring, heterozygous for 2 sets of alleles are called ‘dihybrid’ cytoplasmic material.
The ‘Punnett square method’ of illustrating the segregation & Maternal Influence:
recombination of genes (at F2) Other than the genetic material in the chromosomes and the possibility
Female gametes that there may be genetic material in the cytoplasm, the mother
Male gametes BH Bh bH bh could further influence the characteristics of her offspring because
of the maternal care she provided to her young. An example is that
BH BBHH BBHh BbHH BbHh of the incidence of mammary cancer in the progenies of white mice.
Bh BBHh BBhh BbHh Bbhh
BH BBHH BbHh BbHH bbHh Maternal effects forms part of the total environment of the individual
Bh BBHh Bbhh bbHh bbhh and should not be mistaken as genetics.

The traits involved have been the kind where phenotypes were rather Gene in population
easily distinguished one from another (qualitative). Cows were
either black or red or white, spotted or not, had horns or not, hogs
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Population is a group of individuals which share a common gene pool. : The amount of change in gene frequency depends on the proportion of
Gene and genotypic frequencies quantify the genes and the immigrants & natives.
genotypes in the population. If we have genes A and a representing Example:
an allele in a population, this population may be characterized as : Zebu cattle were introduced to provide resistance to tick fever, & the
follows: ability to gain on poor pasture.
Genotype Gene : Red Sindhi cattle were introduced for heat tolerance.
f (AA) = PP f(A) = P : Danish Landrace were introduced to improve bacon qualities & litter
f (Aa) = 2 Pq f(a) = q sized
f (aa) = qq
PP + 2Pq +qq = 1 P+q = 1 Chance or genetic drift: a change in gene frequency due to random
fluctuations caused by chance in mating patterns or sampling errors.
The discussions above are derived from the basic law of population
genetics which is otherwise known as the Hardy-Weinberg Law of Random genetic drift:
Equilibrium. This law although jointly proposed for by Hardy the weakest force to change gene frequency. It operates best with
(English) and Weinberg (German) in 1908, both of them were smaller population and low gene frequencies.
mathematicians.
Non-Random Mating: occurs when some individuals do not have the
The Hardy-Weinberg law states that in a large random mating same chances of mating with other individuals of the opposite sex.
population where selection, migration, mutation and random Forms of non-random mating are:
genetic drift do not operate,  Assortative – individuals which are phenotypically similar
a.) the gene and the genotypic frequencies remain constant from one tend to mate more often
generation to the next, and  Disassortative- mating of individuals which are phenotypically
b.) The genotypic frequency is derived from the gene frequency. less similar.

GENETIC COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL POPULATION

The Hardy-Weinberg Law:
ANIMAL BREEDING
P2+2pq+q2=1.0 A process in which certain individuals in a population are preferred to
After one generation of random mating in a population where the others for the production of the next generation. Individuals
frequencies of two alleles are p and q. the genes will segregate to possessing superior genotypes or genetic potentials for maximum
produce p2, 2pq and q2 whose sum is equal to 1.0 provided that no efficiency of production are used as parents to improve the herd.
migration, mutation or selection occur.
Example: random mating in Shorthorn cattle with regard to the red (RR), KINDS OF SELECTION
roan (Rr), and white (rr) colors where frequency of red gene is 0.7 Natural selection: due to natural forces. In nature: the main force
Genotype Phenotypes Proportion responsible for selection is the survival of the fittest in a particular
s environment.
RR Red P2=0.72=0.49=49% Artificial selection: due to the efforts of ma. Thereby, man determines
Rr Roan 2pq=2(0.7)(0.3)=0.42=42% to a great extent which animals will be used to produce the next
Rr White Q3=0.32=0.09=9% generation
1.0=100%
Below Are Some of The Bases/Methods of Selection Used by
How is gene frequency determined? Livestock Men:
Example: in a flock of 150 chickens, 95 are black (BB), 50 are blue (Bb),
and 5 are white(bb). Each black chickens carries 2 genes for black individual selection:
(2x95=190), and each blue chicken carries one gene for black selection is based on the individual merit or performance, which is
(1*50=50). Total number of genes is 2x number of birds strictly phenotypic.
(2*150=300) Individual selection is important when the heritability of the trait is high,
Frequency of B=190+50=240/300=0.8 indicating that the trait is greatly affected by additive gene action.
Frequency Of b= 41.0-0.8=0.2 or 20% The greatest disadvantage of, selection on the basis of the individuality is
environment and genetic effects are sometimes difficult to
Factors affecting changes in gene frequencies distinguish.
Selection:
: is a process of preferring individual(s) over others in the herd for a
certain purpose. There are 2 types of selection which are natural
(reproductive abnormalities) and artificial (man’s intervention).
Selection generally increases the frequency of the desired genes.
: either natural or artificial; choosing some individuals to leave more Individual selection has also the following limitation:
offspring that other.
F1 Aa x Aa Some important traits are expressed only in females, hence selection of
F2 1AA, 2Aa, 1aa freq. A=0.5, A=0.5 breeding males cannot be based on their own performance
Culling homozygous recessive individuals (aa) would make the Example
AA x Aa
frequency of a=0.33 and A= 0.67 maternal abilities of cows, ewes and sows
A A a milk production in dairy cattle
Mutation: AA Aa egg production on poultry
: is an error in the copying of the genetic code. The importance of
mutation in changing gene frequency is that this is the only source of when animals to be selected are too young their merits cannot be
new gene. Rate of occurrence of mutation however is low. ascertained, e.g., milk and egg production record are available only
: a chemical change in a gene resulting to the formation of an allele. The after sexual maturity is reached
gene no longer expresses its phenotype.
if u = mutation rate of A->a Family selection:
v= mutation rate of a-> A whole families are selected or rejected according to the mean
phenotypic value of the family
the balance between the two rates makes for decreases, increase, or a
stable gene frequency in the population. there are several forms of family selections:
sib selection: based on the values of their relatives: brothers and
Migration: sisters.
: the transfer of individual(s) from one population to another. The Selected individuals do not contribute to the estimate of the family
difference in the genetic composition of the natives to that of the mean.
migrants and their proportion will determine the rate of change of Progeny selection: base o0n the performance of the individual’s
the gene and genotypic frequencies after migration. progeny.
: movement of a population sample from one location to another. It Within family selection: selection is based on the deviation of each
introduces new genes into a population. individual from the mean value of the family to which it belongs.

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Those that exceed their family mean by greatest amount are Inbreeding also bring about abnormalities as recessive genes are
regarded as most desirable and are the ones selected. purified.
Combined selection: this the combination of the above methods, that is;
selection based on the family average and individual performance in Crossbreeding: mating animals of different breeds, varieties, strains or
the family. species of animals, completely unrelated to each other to obtain
The circumstances under which family selection is preferred hybrid vigor or heterosis for traits of great economic importance
include the following: such as growth rate or milk production. The hybrid vigor attained is
Traits with low heritability due to the pressure or many dominant genes in heterozygous
Little variation due to environment and condition.
large family size. Hybrid vigor is defined as the superiority of crossbred offspring over
the average of the parental purebreds. This may be expressed as
Pedigree selection: follows.
pedigree selection is done on the basis of individuals records of One-way or single cross= the mating of 2 different breeds
inheritance; it includes the performance record of immediate Three-way or triple cross= mating of three breeds, or crossbreds to
parents and also grandparents. another breed.
Four-way cross= the mating of four different breeds, or two single
METHODS OF SELECTION crosses.
Crisscrossing= mating back of crossbred progeny to parents, alternately
Backcrossing= the successive crossing of progeny to the ancestor.
Independent culling method:
Grading= the mating of a purebred male to a mongrel/native or
Minimum standards are set for several traits. A failure of any animal to unimproved female
meet the minimum standard for any one trait results in the removal
In-cross breeding= the creation of inbred lines from the same or
from the herd. different breeds and the subsequent mating of the selected lines.
The performance in one trait is considered entirely independent of the
This is one of wide application in producing the commercial strains
performance in other traits. of broilers or egg-type chickens.
Effective if only few traits are considered at a time.
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
Disadvantage: if standards are too high and too many traits are
involved, the level culled could be too high to leave sufficient Puberty & sexual maturity
animals to work with Puberty: is the age at which sperm or egg cells start to be produced;
sexual maturity is the age when production of sperm and egg cells is
Selection index: at maximum
Spermatogenesis: is stimulated by FSH from anterior pituitary; the LH
Evaluates important traits and combines them into one figure or score.
stimulates the production of testosterone by the interstitial cells
High score mean more valuable animals are selected for breeding
(sometimes called ICSH).
purposes.
Oogenesis: is stimulated by FSH, then estrogen is produced by the ovary
The weight assigned to each trait included in the INDEX depends on its
which indues estrous cycle & ovulation
economic importance. Its heritability, and its genetic linkage to other
Varying age of puberty & sexual maturity can affect the rate of genetic
traits.
improvement
Advantage: slightly substandard performance in one trait can be offer
by excellence in another trait. Specie Puberty Estrous Duratio Vol(ml) Million /
Disadvantage: not suited when too many traits are included, and s (month cycle n ml
progress is attempted on characters of low heritability or of little s) (day of Sperm production
economic importance. s) he
at
Tandem methods (hr
)
Selection is practiced for only one trait at a time until satisfactory
Cattle 8-12 2 12-18 2-10 300-
improvement has been made. Selection efforts for this trait are then
2000
relaxed, and effort are directed towards the improvement of a
Sheep 5-8 15-17 24-36 0.7-2 2000-
second, then a third and so on.
5000
The efficiency of this method depends on the genetic association of
traits, so that improvement in one by selection results in Goat 4-8 19-20 34-19 0.6-1 2000-
improvement in the other 3500
Swine 4-8 20-21 48-72 150- 25-300
500
BREEDING METHODS
Horse 12-24 19-23 90-170 30-300 30-800
Breeding= mating of animals to produce its kind; or simply defined as
chicke 4-5 0.2-1.5 0.5-60
procreation.
n
Outbreeding: mating of animals that are less closely related to one
another. Subsystems of outbreeding includes:
Ovulation & fertilization
Outcrossing – The mating of two individuals forms the same breed but
Ovulation: process of release of ovum from ovary, the interval for
are not related ex. Landrace A x Landrace B; both have no common
“spontaneous ovulation” (in cow, ewe, mare, sow)
parent.
Fertilization: the union of male and female gametes to form a zygote or
Upgrading – the mating between a native (mongrel) and a purebred or a
new individual
grade i.e., Phil Native carabao x Murrah Buffalo
Hybridization- Inter specific mating i.e., Horse x Donkey = Mule/Ass
Reproductive Biotechnology
 The general effect of outbreeding is to increase the
heterozygosity of a population. In doing so, there is an observed Different species of farm animals have different cycles and rates of
increase in the performance of the offspring to that of its parents reproduction. Modern day breeds of chickens could produce as
(heterosis/hybrid vigor) much as 200 to 250 chicks per year as compared to cattle with only
about one calf per cow in two years’ time. Poultry species could lay
SYSTEM OF BREEDING eggs almost every day in all months of the year whether it is fertile
or not. Fertile eggs could then be hatched in multiple depending on
 Inbreeding: The mating of individuals that are closely
the capacity of the incubators. Cattle on the other hand as well as
related to each other (up to the third degree). Subsystems under mammals shed eggs only once in every three weeks and when the
inbreeding are:
egg is fertilized, embryonic development happens in the uterus for
several months until parturition.
Close breeding: mating of closely relatively individuals such as brother
to sister, sire to daughter, or son to dam. Artificial Insemination (AI) – This is a process that extends the
Linebreeding: the mating among the family line like uncle x niece;
usefulness of the male in the species by extending the collected
auntie x nephew, cousin x cousin semen and introducing into the female tract artificially using an AI
gun. Instead of one ejaculate servicing one female, it could instead
as much as 100 cows if we talk about cattle.

5
 ANIMAL BREEDING & GENETICS LEA 2021

Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer (MOET) - This

biotechnology extends the usefulness of the female. There will be
donor and recipient females both of them are synchronized (estrus)
simultaneously. The donor female will be the source of matured egg
cells that will be fertilized in vitro and implanted into the uterus of
the recipients.

Sperm Cell sexing and In vitro Fertilization - Sperm cells are sexed in
the lab (whether carrying the X or the Y) chromosome and
eventually used to fertilized the collected matured egg cell which if
fertilized and develops as an embryo, will be implanted in females of
the species.

Nuclear Cloning – This process exploits the continuous splitting of

embryos like that of twins.

Common/Scientific name Diploid Haploid Number

Number (n)
(2n)
Man (Homo sapiens) 46 23
Horse (Equus caballus) 64 38
Ass (Equus astrus) 62 36
European cattle (Bos 60 30
taurus)
American bison (Bison 60 30
bison)

Water buffalo (Bubalus 50 25

bubalis),riverine
Water buffalo (Bubalus 48 24
bubalis), swamp
Reindeer (Cervus cervus) 70 35
Sheep (Ovis aries) 54 28
Goat (Capra hircus) 60 30
Swine (Sus domesticus) 38 19
Dog (Canis familiaris) 78 39
Cat (Felis catus) 38 19
Rabbit 44 22
Mouse 40 20
Rat 42 21