PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
Doc Jose Macatangay
OVERVIEW Philippine Literature at a Glance-3
Module 1 covers three important topics related to the
study of Philippine Literature: Definitions of
Literature, Literary Standards/Values, and Introduction
to Philippine Literature / History of Philippine
Literature. Your engagements in this module are by
reading and viewing, participating in an online
discussion, and answering formative assessment.
Lesson 1: The Difficulty of Defining Literature-
3
Literature has a plethora of definitions. Have you ever
questioned the inadequacy of a definition for
Literature? Is there a definition that will cover the
broad spectrum of Literature? This lesson provides you
with some definitions of Literature and the arguments
raised for a particular definition. The readings and
videos will help you internalize the meaning of
Literature. By the end of the lesson, you should be able
to find a definition of Literature from a reliable source
given by an author, agree or disagree with the
definition, and formulate your definition of Literature.
To accomplish the objectives intended for this lesson:
1. Read the PPT on The Difficulty of Defining
Literature.pdf
The lesson presents and summarizes some definitions
provided for Literature and the arguments for them.
2. Refer to the following links for the lesson enhancement:
a. Why Literature has Many Definitions
http://bit.ly/3hArOsh
b. What Literature Can Teach Us http://bit.ly/3pCLUoE
3. Watch the following short videos to understand more
about Literature and its significance.
a. An Adjunct Explains Why Literature Matters
https://bit.ly/2B8HB03
b. How Books Can Open Your Mind https://bit.ly/3hmFLJK
PPT1-The Difficulty of Defining Literature
The Difficulty of Defining LiteratureLesson adapted from
the article “Why Literature has Many Definitions” available
at http://bit.ly/3hArOsh
“Why Literature has Many Definitions?
” The essay written by Sitwe Benson defines literature and
“brings out the inadequacies attached to the definitions.”The
essay concludes that the presence of the different genres of
literature makes it difficult to have one working definition
attached to it.
Argument on the Definitions of Literature
http://bit.ly/3hArOsh
1.Literature is a Latin word „litera‟ which means
Writing. Argument: Saying that literature is any written
material is too limiting because literature may be both oral
and written forms. Twenty-first century literature that
considers the influence and prominence of technology goes
beyond the meaning of text as more than just words on page.
What are the flaws of these definitions of Literature?
1. Literature is literally “an acquaintance with letters.”
2. As a common noun, the word „literature‟ can refer to any
form of writing, such as essays or poetry. As a proper noun,
literature refers to a whole body of literally work, worldwide
or relating to a specific culture (Wikipedia, 2008).
3. Literature is a body of written works of a culture,
language, people or a period.
Something to ponder upon
Can we consider a history book literature?
How about a cookbook or the manual of your I-phone? Can
we consider a Mathematics book literature? Think of a
Mathematics formula? Does it express a language “worth
calling as literature?
”What about YouTube videos, blogs, and podcasts?
Why are these definitions of literature narrow in scope
according to Benson?
1.Scylar(1998: 83) defines literature as “ any writing on a
subject: the body of published work concerned with a
particular subject.”
2.Pollanen(1997) says that “literature refers to published
writings in a particular style on a particular subject.”
Can you use this working definition of literature?
Encarta (2009) defines literature as “the use of well-chosen
words to tell a story through narrative, involving characters
in conflict, or to express an emotion or idea through artfully
arranged images.”
Why is this view about literature contradicts the concept that
literature is “anything written”?
The purpose of literature is to entertain and instruct (or to
delight and enlighten) the reader through the use of the
imagination. Literature can also shock, amaze, or provide
readers with an escape from reality for a while.
What are the qualities of “good literature” according to this
definition?
Hancock (2006) defines literature as “being written works
of fiction and non fiction in which compositional excellence
and advancement in the art of writing are higher priorities
than are considerations of profit or commercial appeal.”
Davids(1983) says that “literature is a creative writing of
artistic value.”
1
PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
Doc Jose Macatangay
Summing up
Why is Literature difficult to define? 1.The body of
literature is encompassing and has many forms.
2.Some definitions of literature do not consider the “orature”
component.
3.Other definitions limit themselves to literature being
written or published.
4.The purposes of literature may be too broad or too
specific.
5.The 21stcentury literature does not limit the meaning of
literature to anything printed on a page.
Search. Agree/Disagree. Define
Search for a definition of Literature from a source.
Ideally, a definition is given by a credible author or
provided by a reliable source. Write the definition and the
source in the box.
Definition of Literature:
Source:
Do you agree or disagree with the given definition?
Explain your points for agreeing or disagreeing in a
paragraph of three-five sentences. Write your paragraph
in the box.
Agreement/Disagreement with the given Definition of
Literature
This time, formulate your definition of the word
Literature guided from the source/author. If you agree
with the author's definition, you may paraphrase and
enhance it. If you disagree, you may define Literature
based on the weakness of the given definition and the
strength of your disagreement. Upon formulating your
definition, you are supposed to have an appreciation and
ownership of it. Simplify your definition in one sentence
only.
My Definition of Literature
WHY LITERATURE HAS MANY DEFINITIONS
Posted on October 30, 2011 by Sitwe
https://sitwe.wordpress.com/2011/10/30/why-literature-has-
many-definitions/
WHY LITERATURE HAS MANY DEFINITIONS
This essay attempts to define literature and bring out the
inadequacies attached to these various definitions. It will
also be established that the word literature is a very
difficulty concept to define from one perspective. This is
because the current understanding of literature has departed
from the etymological understanding of the term literature.
In order to achieve this purpose, this essay will give several
definitions of literature and argue for both its strengths and
weaknesses thereby showing how one definition is not
enough to describe the scope of literature.
To begin with, according to Bwalya .L (2006) the term
literature is a latin word ‘litera’ which means Writing . From
this background, it is believed that literature is anything that
is written. The people that subscribe to this notion believe
that any written material qualifies to be called literature,
hence mathematical figures are also literature. However, this
definition has recently faced a lot of criticism because some
scholars believe that a piece of art does not need to be
written for it to be called literature. Such people extend their
argument by saying that this definition is very narrow
because it leaves out orature or oral literature. This is to say
that literature exists in many forms, therefore saying that
literature is any written material is being narrow minded
because literature as it is known today exists in many forms
which are both in oral and written form.
In addition, literature is literally “an aquaitance with letters”
as in the first sense given in the oxford English Dictionary
(from the latin litera meaning ‘an individual character
(letter). The term has generally come to identify a collection
of texts. The word ‘literature’ as a common noun can refer
to any form of writing, such as essays or poetry. ‘Literature
as a proper noun refers to a whole body of literally work,
world wide or relating to a specific culture (Wikipedia,
2008).
The above definition is in line with Hancock (2006) who
believe that literature is a body of written works : the body
of written works of a culture, language, people or a period of
time. This definition means that literature is something that
is written and excludes possibilities of oral literature. One’s
analysis of this definition further shows that historical facts
that exists in written form qualify to be called literature. To
this end, one can assume that a history text book about the
history of Europe is literature. While this may be accepted
as true following the original meaning of the word litera, it
is important to note that this definition has an number of
flaws. As earlier eluded, it excludes orature which is a
weakness on its part. Secondly, it is common knowledge
today that literature follows certain basic elements. For
example, the language used in literature is poetic, hightened
and very tense. In this view, a mathematical text book can
not be described as being literature. On can argue that 2x +
4y does not express any language worth calling as literature.
In addition, scylar (1998: 83) defines literature as “ any
writing on a subject: the body of published work concerned
with a particular subject.” A similar definition to this scholar
was coined by Pollanen (1997) which says that ‘literature
refers to published writings in a particular style on a
particular subject. The term is also used to show if the item
has been published in a book, catolog raisonne, museum
exhibition or news letter. This definition is quite interesting
yet narrow in scope. It holds that literature is any form of
writing, of course agreeing with the ones discussed above
and the etymological meaning of the word literature. While
this view is worth noting, it should be noted that the
argument that literature should be a published work is very
narrow. It ignores oral literature because orature can not be
published. Orature is a type of literature that is handed down
from one generation to the next by word of mouth. This
means that this definition does not encompass or does not
recognise oral literature which is today a very important for
of literature. In addition, to take literature as being any form
of writing, then is to say that something becomes literature
the time is written whether such a piece of work is published
or not. Its important to distinguish between a book and
literature. Literature is any written piece of work. The
2
PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
Doc Jose Macatangay
definition also argues that literature is concerned with a
particular subject, the question that follows is: what subject?
This question is valid because there are alot of literally texts
or simply what people call literature yet the publication or
the written piece is on several subjects. This definition can
not stand as a working definition for literature because it is
very narrow and lacks detail and sound justification.
Another definition that is widely held upon is according to
Encarta (2009) which says that Literature is the use of well-
chosen words to tell a story through narrative, involving
characters in conflict, or to express an emotion or idea
through artfully arranged images.
The purpose of literature is to entertain and instruct (or to
delight and enlighten) the reader through the use of the
imagination. Literature can also shock, amaze, or provide
readers with an escape from reality for a while. This
definition is broad although it does not encompass
everything. The first point to note is that this definition is
slightly divergent from the tradition notion which holds that
literature is anything that is written. It holds that for a piece
of work to be called literature, it should not just use words
anyhow. This is so because according to the proponents of
this view point, literature has its own writing style and
words are carefully selected and used in order to fulfill its
purpose.
The above definition also means that literature serves many
purposes some of which are to entertain and to instruct. In
addition, this view holds that people or characters or writers
use literature in order to express emotions. While this is true,
it does not apply to every piece of literature. This is because
there are several texts that are written purely for education
or to inform. The other point is that, there is no piece of
writing where words are used anyhow, every piece of
writing selects words carefully but does not mean that any
piece of writing in which the author uses words carefully
qualifies to be called literature.
In addition to the above, the definition also says that
literature has characters. This contradicts with the original
meaning of the word literature. For the sake of emphasis, the
word literature refers to writtng. Originally, this means that
any written piece whether it has characters or not, it will still
be called literature and there are several pieces of writing
that do not have characters.
Hancock (2006) also defines literature as being written
works of fiction and non fiction in which compositional
excellence and advancement in the art of writing are higher
priorities than are considerations of profit or commercial
appeal. Similar to this definition is the one by Davids (1983)
whilch says that literature is a creative writing of artistic
value. These two definitions seem to suggest that literature
does not follow the ordinary conventions of writing.
Therefore, literature is that which follows a creative writing
and has the element of compositional excellence. This leads
to the the notions of bad and good literature. It appears that
good literature is one that uses or has all or many of the
creative aspects while bad literature is one that lacks or has
few creative aspects.
Kafimbwa (2005) argues that the difficulty in defining
literature lies in the fact that literature exists in many forms.
Therefore, scholars have failed to come up with one
definition that will embrace all the types of literature in their
varying forms and degrees. Wikipedia (2009) provide
evidence this argument by mentioning the various forms of
literature. Some types of literature are poetry, short stories,
songs, novels, folktales and essays. Within each of these
types or forms there are different genres. In poetry these
genres include epics (Stephen Vincent Benet’s John
Brown’s Body), lyrics (Robert Frost’s “Birches”), and
dramatic monologues (T. S. Eliot’s “The Love Song of J.
Alfred Prufrock”). Fiction genres include the psychological
(Virginia Woolf’s To the Lighthouse), naturalistic
(Theodore Dreiser’s Sister Carrie), and proletarian (John
Steinbeck’s In Dubious Battle). Some essay genres are the
personal and the informative; famous essayists include
Ralph Waldo Emerson, who penned “Self-Reliance,” and E.
M. Forster, who wrote Two Cheers for Democracy.
The existence of the different types of literature have made
it difficult for scholars to come up with one working
definitions for literature. Each of the definitions that exist
now all have deficiencies. This is so because the body of
literature is wide, has many forms. Literature exists both in
written and oral form. Any definition that may be deemed
wholistic is one that will embrace all the genres, forms in
their varying degrees.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bwalya L (2005) Oral Literature: Study Material. UNZA.
Encarta (2009).
Davids M (1983) Undersdtanding Literature. Michigan: Michigan
press.
Hanconck P (2006) What is Literature. Sydney: Australia.
http://www.Wikipedia.free online encyclopedia.
http://www.answers.com
What Literature Can Teach Us
Communication and research skills—and how to be a better human
being
Literature is a term used to describe written and sometimes spoken
material. Derived from the Latin word literature meaning "writing
formed with letters," literature most commonly refers to works of
the creative imagination, including poetry, drama, fiction,
nonfiction, and in some instances, journalism, and song.
What Is Literature?
Simply put, literature represents the culture and tradition of a
language or a people. The concept is difficult to precisely define,
though many have tried; it's clear that the accepted definition of
literature is constantly changing and evolving.
For many, the word literature suggests a higher art form; merely
putting words on a page doesn't necessarily equate to creating
literature. A canon is the accepted body of works for a given
author. Some works of literature are considered canonical, that is,
culturally representative of a particular genre (poetry, prose, or
drama).
Literary Fiction vs. Genre Fiction
3
PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
Doc Jose Macatangay
Some definitions also separate literary fiction from so-called
"genre fiction," which includes types such as mystery, science
fiction, western, romance, thriller, and horror. Think mass-market
paperback.
Genre fiction typically does not have as much character
development as literary fiction and is read for entertainment,
escapism, and plot, whereas literary fiction explores themes
common to the human condition and uses symbolism and other
literary devices to convey the author's viewpoint on his or her
chosen themes. Literary fiction involves getting into the minds of
the characters (or at least the protagonist) and experiencing their
relationships with others. The protagonist typically comes to a
realization or changes in some way during the course of a literary
novel.
(The difference in type does not mean that literary writers are
better than genre fiction writers, just that they operate differently.)
Why Is Literature Important?
Works of literature, at their best, provide a kind of blueprint of
human society. From the writings of ancient civilizations such as
Egypt and China to Greek philosophy and poetry, from the epics of
Homer to the plays of William Shakespeare, from Jane Austen and
Charlotte Bronte to Maya Angelou, works of literature give insight
and context to all the world's societies. In this way, literature is
more than just a historical or cultural artifact; it can serve as an
introduction to a new world of experience.
But what we consider to be literature can vary from one generation
to the next. For instance, Herman Melville's 1851 novel "Moby
Dick" was considered a failure by contemporary reviewers.
However, it has since been recognized as a masterpiece and is
frequently cited as one of the best works of Western literature for
its thematic complexity and use of symbolism. By reading "Moby
Dick" in the present day, we can gain a fuller understanding of
literary traditions in Melville's time.
Debating Literature
Ultimately, we may discover meaning in literature by looking at
what the author writes or says and how he or she says it. We may
interpret and debate an author's message by examining the words
he or she chooses in a given novel or work or observing which
character or voice serves as the connection to the reader.
In academia, this decoding of the text is often carried out through
the use of literary theory using a mythological, sociological,
psychological, historical, or other approaches to better understand
the context and depth of a work.
Whatever critical paradigm we use to discuss and analyze it,
literature is important to us because it speaks to us, it is universal,
and it affects us on a deeply personal level.
School Skills
Students who study literature and read for pleasure have a higher
vocabulary, better reading comprehension, and better
communication skills, such as writing ability. Communication
skills affect people in every area of their lives, from navigating
interpersonal relationships to participating in meetings in the
workplace to drafting intraoffice memos or reports.
When students analyze literature, they learn to identify cause and
effect and are applying critical thinking skills. Without realizing it,
they examine the characters psychologically or sociologically.
They identify the characters' motivations for their actions and see
through those actions to any ulterior motives.
When planning an essay on a work of literature, students use
problem-solving skills to come up with a thesis and follow through
on compiling their paper. It takes research skills to dig up evidence
for their thesis from the text and scholarly criticism, and it takes
organizational skills to present their argument in a coherent,
cohesive manner.
Empathy and Other Emotions
Some studies say that people who read literature have more
empathy for others, as literature puts the reader into another
person's shoes. Having empathy for others leads people to socialize
more effectively, solve conflicts peacefully, collaborate better in
the workplace, behave morally, and possibly even become involved
in making their community a better place.
Other studies note a correlation between readers and empathy but
do not find causation. Either way, studies back the need for strong
English programs in schools, especially as people spend more and
more time looking at screens rather than books.
Along with empathy for others, readers can feel a greater
connection to humanity and less isolated. Students who read
literature can find solace as they realize that others have gone
through the same things that they are experiencing or have
experienced. This can be a catharsis and relief to them if they feel
burdened or alone in their troubles.
Quotes About Literature
Here are some quotes about literature from literature giants
themselves.
Robert Louis Stevenson: "The difficulty of literature is not to write,
but to write what you mean; not to affect your reader, but to affect
him precisely as you wish."
Jane Austen, "Northanger Abbey": "The person, be it gentleman or
lady, who has not pleasure in a good novel, must be intolerably
stupid."
William Shakespeare, "Henry VI": “I’ll call for pen and ink and
write my mind.”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TpE8TiN8HyY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ibCtsHgz3Y
Lesson 2: Literary Standards and Values
Literature is represented by texts, but is there a way of
knowing if a text is Literature? And if it passes the test of
being called Literature, is it a "good" text? What is the basis
of your former Literature teacher for asking you to read a
text class? The literary standards determine what may
qualify for a literary text. An analogy is, a woman sets
standards among her suitors to determine a potential partner.
This lesson presents and defines to you the seven literary
standards in World literature. A Filipino author, Paz
Latorena, called the three standards as literary values. You
should answer an assignment applying the literary standards
to a given text by the end of the module.
Your engagements in this lesson are by:
1. Reading the PowerPoint Presentation with the given
sources: Literary Standards and Values.pdf
2. Watching the short video: Universal Theme: Definition
and Examples https://bit.ly/39jP3mI
PPT2-Literary Standards
The 7 Literary Standards The criteria to determine whether a
text is literary or not is developed by William J. Long in
4
PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
Doc Jose Macatangay
1909 in his book “English Literature: Its History and Its
Significance for the Life of the English-speaking World.”
http://bit.ly/2Mtiye1
The seven literary standards determine whether a piece of
work is considered literary, but there is no set of guidelines
or standards when it comes to determining if a piece of
literature is “good.” http://bit.ly/3q6WKTX
There are seven literary standards:
1. Universality- is the appeal of a literary piece to every
reader regardless of “culture, race, gender, and time.”
According to Andrew Sedillo“some of the more common
universal themes found in literature include individual
struggle towards a personal goal, a person's struggle with
humanity, falling in love, life cycles, karma, coping with
tragedy, adolescence and discovering the world around us.”
https://bit.ly/39jP3mI
2. Artistry A literary piece appeals to our “sense of beauty.”
A literature that is aesthetically appealing “reveals hidden
truth and beauty.”
3. Intellectual Value It refers to the power of literature to
make us think critically as the language of literature needs to
be read between and beyond the lines.
4. Suggestiveness refers to the emotional power of literature
“to definesymbolism, nuances, implied meanings, images
and message, giving and evoking visions above and beyond
the ordinary life and experiences.”
5. Spiritual Value refers to the power of literature to inspire
readers to elevate their spirit as they read various genres of
literature.
6. Permanence is “determined by a written work’s ability to
stand the test of time.” http://bit.ly/2Mtiye1NoliMe
Tangereand El Filibusterismowere written long time ago,
but they remain relevant. That is the test of permanence.
7. Style is the “author’s distinct way of expressing his/her
thoughts in his/her writings.” Readers need to know the style
of writers to interpret the literary text based on how it is
writtenby a particular author.
http://bit.ly/2Mtiye1
Educating the Literary Taste by Paz Latorena
In her essay, “Educating the Literary Taste,” Paz Latorena,
identified the three literary values that should serve as
literary standards.
These are:1.Intellectual value 2. Emotional value 3. Ethical
value
Literary Values Intellectual Value a literary composition
makes the reader think “to some purpose so that his mental
life is enriched and enlarged as a result of reading.
”Emotional Value refers to what appeals to the emotions
being the “distinguishing mark of any literature.” Emotions
may be pleasant or unpleasant.
Moods, feelings,, and attitudes may be synonymous to
emotions.
Ethical Value refers to “the morality of the work or the side
effect of immorality in a work.”
Which is the correct concept of literature? Is it didactic (for
instruction) as Plato claims or is it aesthetic (for pleasure) as
Aristotle holds? Horace believes that literature both teaches
and delights.
Useful Sources
The 7 Literary Standards http://bit.ly/2Mtiye1
What Are the Seven Literary Standards? http://bit.ly/3q6WKTX
Universal Theme: Definition and Examples https://bit.ly/39jP3mI
Lopez, et.al. (2009). Views: Between Borders, Beyond Barriers
Understanding Peoples and Cultures Through World Literatures:
Philippines: UST, Publishing House.
Lesson 3: Philippine Literary History vis-a-vis Genres-4
The final lesson for Module 1 aims to trace the development of
Philippine Literature from pre-colonial to contemporary times,
describe the predominant themes and genres of each era of
Philippine literary history, and relate how the themes of Literature
of the various eras contributed to the growth of Philippine
Literature. After your lesson engagements, you will take a quiz by
answering some questions for each literary era.
To enhance your understanding of the lesson,
1. Read the PowerPoint presentation (ppt) Literary Periods of
Philippine Literature.pdf
2. Read the following supplementary sources about the lesson:
a. Survey of Philippine Literature https://bit.ly/38x9TyZ
b. Bienvenido L Lumbera on Revaluation: The National Stages
of Philippine Literature and its History https://bit.ly/3q9pyeI (Links
to an external site.)
PPT3- Literary Periods of Philippine
Literature
What is Philippine Literature? It is the writings of Filipino
authors within the pre-historic, post colonial and modern
periods.Philippine literature refers to “all literature from the
Philippines, written in Spanish, English, Tagalog, and a
variety of other Philippine languages.”
http://bit.ly/2KOSg5A
The Philippine Literary History
According to Lumberaand Lumbera, the different literary
periods in Philippine literature are:
1.Oral lore from PrecolonialTimes (-1564)
2.Literature under Spanish Colonialism (1565-1897)
3.Literature under US Colonialism (1898-1945)
4.Literature under the Republic (1946-1985)
5.Literature after EDSA (1986-1995)
Oral Lore from PrecolonialTimes (-1564)
5
PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
Doc Jose Macatangay

The simplest forms of oral literature were poems, proverbs, (1986-1995)

and songs using the language of daily life.Prose narratives
were myths, hero tales, fables, and legends used to “explain
natural phenomena, past events, contemporary beliefs, and
entertain the early Filipinos.”Folk epics were considered the
most significant pieces of oral literature. According to
Lumbera& Lumbera, even before the Spanish conquest,
“Filipinos had a culture that linked them with the Malays of
Southeast Asia.”
Literature under Spanish Colonialism (1565-1897)
Foci of writings during this period:
1.Writings about peasants, workers, and guerillas
2.Migrant workers both as “a subject matter and authorial
voice.”
3.Gay and lesbian as content
4.Writing from the regions (Introduction of regional
literature in schools)After EDSA, the New Criticism had
lost its prestige with the presence of post-structuralism and
post-modernism critical discourses.

AngMahalnaPassion niJesuChristongMahal, a Christian

narrative poem “intended to replace the epic poems of the 21st-century Literature
pagan past. Genres of 21stLiterature according to Katrina Melissa Cruz
”Awitand koridowere the narrative poems during the http://bit.ly/2L8ye6e
Spanish colonialism. Awitwas the poetic genre of Francisco 1.Creative nonfiction
Baltazar(Balagtas) who wrote “Floranteat Laura. 2.Hyper poetry
3.Mobile phone text tula
”Ninay, the first Tagalog novel authored by a native 4.Chick lit
Filipino, Pedro Paternowho also had a collection of his 5.Speculative fiction
Spanish poems with the title “Sampaguitas” that marked the 6.Flash fiction
beginning of national consciousness among the Filipinos. 7.Blog
Jose Rizal, our National hero was one of the writers who 8.Graphic novels
raised the Filipino consciousness with his notable works: the
novels “NoliMe Tangereand El Filibusterismo. Sources: Lumbera, B. & Lumbera, C. (1997). Philippine
Literature Revised Edition, Philippines: Anvil. Philippine
The essay through the pages of La Solidaridadbecame the Literature during the American Periodhttps://bit.ly/2L7eujr
21stCentury Literature from the Philippines and the World
“significant contribution of the Spanish to the Philippine
http://bit.ly/2L8ye6e
literary history.”

Literature under Spanish Colonialism (1565-1897)

According to Lumbera& Lumbera:Philippine Literature had

become aware of its distinct role as the “product of
colonized people struggling the rule of a foreign power.”The
Spanish Colonialism brought the “self-conscious literature
that marks the beginning of a truly Filipino literature.”

Literature under US Colonialism (1898-1945)

According to Lilia Quindoza-Santiago, the weakness of this

literary period is on the lack of collaboration of writers of
various languages “to come together, share experiences, and
come to a conclusion on the elements that constitute good
writing in the Philippines.”According to Lumbera&
Lumbera, at the end of US Colonialism, Philippine literature
“had attained its identity as national literature as a result of
the patriotic and resistance literature during the early years
of American rule.”

Literature under the Republic (1946-1985)

When freedom was gained from religious censorship,

printing presses bloomed as businesses. Literary forms
during this period were essays, novels, narrative poetry,
allegorical drama, and poetic verse. This period gave birth to
free verse in poetry, modern short story, and critical
essay.The revival of Philippine theater and playwriting
raised political awareness of the masses. Championed by
Jose Garcia Villa (Doveglion), New Criticism as a critical
theory became influential. New Criticism assumes that a
literary work is “a verbal construct” and that a literary piece
could be studied autonomously, devoid of its author.
6