Parts of The Cell: General Histology and Embryology

Module 2
Parts of the Cell

GENERAL HISTOLOGY AND
EMBRYOLOGY
CENTRO ESCOLAR UNIVERSITY 1

CENTRO ESCOLAR UNIVERSITY FOR INTERNAL CIRCULATION 2019 1
Cytology
• It is a branch of
biology that deal with
the structure, function,
multiplication,
pathology, and life
history of cells.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cytology
https://101clipart.com/life-science-clip-art/

Definition of Cell
• It is the functional
unit of life, in which
all the chemical
reactions necessary
for the maintenance
and reproduction of
life takes place.
http://www.medicalgraphics.de/en/free-pictures/organs/cell-white-
background.html

Robert Hooke
• Published a book entitled Micrographia, the 1st book describing observations made through
a microscope and coined the term cell, from the monks cell “cellula”, w/c means small rooms.
However what Hooke actually saw was the dead cell walls of plant cells (cork) as it appeared
under the microscope.
Image credit to :https://www.thecoast.ca/halifax/robert-hooke/Profile?oid=3234092 Info credit to: https://bitesizebio.com/166/history-of-cell-biology

Rudolf Virchow
• He is credited with several very important discoveries. His most widely

known scientific contribution is his cell theory.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rudolf-Virchow

CELL THEORY
Cell contain hereditary

All energy flow of life occurs information which is passed
within cells (metabolism & from cell to cell during cell
biochemistry)
division.
Cell is the basic & functional unit of

life.
All cells come from pre-existing

cells. ll cells are basically the same
in chemical composition.
http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/cells.htm
3 Basic Parts of Eukaryotic Cell

Module 2 : Cytology & Embryology
The endomembrane system (endo- = “within”) is a group of membranes and organelles in

eukaryotic cells that works together to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins. It
includes a variety of organelles, such as the nuclear envelope and lysosomes, which you may
already know, and the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, which we will cover shortly.
https://byjus.com/biology/endomembrane-system/ https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/structure-of-a-cell/tour-of-organelles/a/the-endomembrane-system

Cellular differentiation
It is the process
through which a cell
undergoes changes in
gene expression to
become a more
specific type of cell.
https://biologywise.com/cell-differentiation https://biologydictionary.net/cell-differentiation/

Plasma Membrane
• A semi-permeable membrane consist of a network of lipids and proteins that forms the
boundary between a cell’s contents and the outside of the cell. Its function is to protect
the cell from its surrounding environment.
https://biologydictionary.net/plasma-membrane/ https://studylib.net/doc/9654329/structure-of-plasma-membrane

Fluid Mosaic model
• First proposed in 1972.

• According to this model, it is a mosaic of components—primarily,
because of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins—that move freely
and fluidly in the plane of the membrane.

TWO PROTEINS IN PLASMA MEMBRANE
Located only in the inner or outer surface of the
phospholipid bilayer
Embedded in the whole bilayer which have hydrophobic

and hydrophilic areas whereas peripheral do not.
https://socratic.org/.../what-is-the-difference-between-peripheral-and-integral-protein-me...

Functions of Membrane Proteins
•Junctions – Serve to connect and join two cells together

•Enzymes – Fixing to membranes localises metabolic pathways
•Transport – Responsible for facilitated diffusion and active transport
•Recognition – May function as markers for cellular identification
•Anchorage – Attachment points for cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
•Transduction – Function as receptors for peptide hormones
Mnemonic: Jet Rat
Images and Info credit to: https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-1-cell-biology/13-membrane-structure/membrane-proteins.html

Plasma Membrane Specialization
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/402_Types_of_Cell_Junctions_new.jpg

Plasma Membrane Specialization
• Microvilli • Tight junctions

• Are finger-like projections on the • Are proteins that hold adjacent cells together
surface of some cells. These very tightly so nothing can penetrate
between them. Ex: Cells that line the
projections increase surface are for
digestive and urinary tract which ensure the
absorption. Cells that line the small contents within those hollow organs do not
intestine contain microvilli. leak out into the outer layers or body cavity.
•Gap junctions •Desmosomes
•Are open areas within the plasma •Are sometimes called anchoring
membrane found between two junctions. These junctions hold cells
adjacent cells. The proteins together by fibers, which allows
connect two cells while allowing movement without separation. Cells
chemicals to pass between the that contain desmosomes are found
cells. within the muscle tissue and the
skin.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/nemcc-ap/chapter/the-cell-membrane/
Membrane Transport
PASSIVE PROCESSES ACTIVE PROCESSES
• Active Transport
•Simple Diffusion
Primary, Secondary, Symport,
•Facilitated Diffusion Antiport
Channel Mediate • Vesicular Transport
• Exocytosis
Carrier Mediated • Endocytosis
•Osmosis • Phagocytosis, Pinocytosis
• Receptor Mediate Endocytosis

Simple Diffusion across the Cell (Plasma) Membrane
The structure of the lipid bilayer allows small, uncharged substances such as oxygen and
carbon dioxide, and hydrophobic molecules such as lipids, to pass through the cell
membrane, down their concentration gradient, by simple diffusion.
https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/the-cell-membrane/

FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Types of Transport Proteins
Channel mediated • Carrier mediated

• Movement of ion Movement of
down the small, polar
concentration molecule down its
gradient concentration
• Through protein gradient by a
channel ex: Na ion carrier protein. Ex.:
moves through Na transport of
channel ion glucose into cells
by glucose carrier
•It is the passive movement of molecules across the cell membrane via the
aid of a membrane protein, because molecules are unable to freely cross
the phospholipid bilayer (e.g. large, polar molecules and ions)
https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-1-cell-biology/14-membrane-transport/facilitated-diffusion.html
Osmosis.
The diffusion of
water through a
semipermeable
membrane down
its concentration
gradient.
If a membrane is permeable to water, though not to a solute, water will equalize its own concentration by diffusing to the
side of lower water concentration (and thus the side of higher solute concentration). In the beaker on the left, the solution
on the right side of the membrane is hypertonic.
https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/the-cell-membrane/#fig-ch03_01_07

https://studynova.com/quiz/biology/cell-biology/1-3/
Active transport - ATP is required to move a substance across a membrane, often
with the help of protein carriers. Usually against its concentration gradient
The Na+/K+ pump is an important ion pump found in the membranes of many types of cells
like nerve cells. Powered by ATP, the pump moves sodium and potassium ions in opposite
directions, each against its concentration gradient. In a single cycle of the pump, three sodium
ions are extruded from and two potassium ions are imported into the cell.
Three Forms of Endocytosis.
• Endocytosis (bringing “into the cell”).It often brings materials into the
cell that must to be broken down or digested.
• Phagocytosis (“cell eating”) is the endocytosis of large particles.
• Many immune cells engage in phagocytosis of invading pathogens.
• Pinocytosis (“cell drinking”) brings fluid containing dissolved
substances into
a cell through membrane vesicles.
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis is endocytosis by a portion of the cell
membrane that contains many receptors that are specific for a certain
substance. Iron, a required component of hemoglobin, is
endocytosed by red blood cells in this way.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/nemcc-ap/chapter/3204/
Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME)
It is a vesicular transport event that facilitates the internalization and recycling of receptors
engaged in a variety of processes, including signal transduction (G-protein and tyrosine
kinase receptors), nutrient uptake and synaptic vesicle reformation. Two classical
examples of CME are iron-bound transferrin recycling and the uptake of low-density
lipoprotein (LDL).
biologywise.com

Exocytosis
Material destined for

export is packaged into a
vesicle inside the cell. The
membrane of the vesicle
fuses with the cell
membrane, and the
contents are released into
the extracellular space.

Example of Exocytosis in Cell
Pancreatic Cells’ Enzyme Products. The pancreatic acinar cells produce and secrete many
enzymes that digest food. The tiny black granules in this electron micrograph are secretory
vesicles filled with enzymes that will be exported from the cells via exocytosis. LM × 2900.
(Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
Ribosomes
•“Protein workbenches” or
the site of protein
synthesis.
•It contains protein and
rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
• Consists of a small and
larger sub-unit which bind
together during
“translation”
Wikimedia Commons

Differences of Free and Fixed ribosomes
Images credit to : https://slideplayer.com/slide/13061979/

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
It contains a network of
tubules and flattened
sacs with two major
regions: smooth
endoplasmic reticulum
and rough endoplasmic
reticulum. Rough ER
contains attached
ribosomes while smooth
ER does not.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/0313_Endoplasmic_Reticulum.jpg

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Rough endoplasmic reticulum
serves as a transitional area • synthesizes proteins

for transport vesicles. via the translation
It also functions in process.
carbohydrate and lipid • Rough ER also
synthesis. Cholesterol and manufactures
phospholipids are membranes.
examples.
https://www.thoughtco.com/endoplasmic-reticulum-373365

Golgi apparatus
• Also called Golgi complex or Golgi

body, membrane-bound organelle of
eukaryotic cells (cells with clearly
defined nuclei) that is made up of a
series of flattened, stacked pouches
called cisternae.
• It is responsible for transporting,
modifying, and packaging proteins and
lipids into vesicles for delivery to
targeted destinations.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Golgi_apparatus_(editors_version).
svg

Lysosomes
•It serve as digestion compartments for

cellular materials that have exceeded their
lifetime or are otherwise no longer useful. In
this regard, the lysosomes recycle the cell's
organic material in a process known as
autophagy.
•It break down cellular waste products, fats,
carbohydrates, proteins, and other
macromolecules into simple compounds,
which are then transferred back into the
cytoplasm as new cell-building materials,
utilizing about 40 different types of hydrolytic
enzymes, all of which are manufactured in
the endoplasmic reticulum and modified in
the Golgi apparatus.
Images and information credit to: https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/peroxisomes/peroxisomes.html

Peroxisomes
•The organelles were first discovered by the
Belgian scientist Christian de Duve, who also
discovered lysosomes.
•It contain a variety of enzymes, like catalase
which primarily function to get rid the cell of
toxic substances, and in particular, hydrogen
peroxide (a common byproduct of cellular
metabolism).
•Some types of peroxisomes, such as those in
liver cells, detoxify alcohol and other harmful
compounds by transferring hydrogen from
the poisons to molecules of oxygen (a process
termed oxidation).
Images and information credit to: https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/peroxisomes/peroxisomes.html

Mitochondria
• An oval-shaped organelle suspended in
the jelly-like cytosol of the cell with an
outer one, surrounding the whole
organelle, and an inner one, with many
inward protrusions called cristae that
increase surface area.
• They are often called the powerhouses or
energy factories of the cell which enable
the cell to make a steady supply of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s
main energy-carrying molecule.
• The process of making ATP using
chemical energy from fuels such as
sugars is called cellular respiration, and
many of its steps happen inside the
mitochondria.
Images and information credit to:https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-cells/hs-prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes/a/chloroplasts-
and-mitochondria
The Cytoskeleton
Images and information credit to:

https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Davis/BIS_2A%3A_Introductory_Biology_(Easlon)/Readings/14%3A_The_Cytoskeleton

The Cytoskeleton
• Microfilaments: Also called actin filaments because they are mostly composed of the protein actin; They are
about 7 nanometers thick, making them the thinnest filaments in the cytoskeleton. They aid in cytokinesis,
which is the division of a cytoplasm of a cell when it is dividing into two daughter cells; They aid in cell
motility; They are also involved in cytoplasmic streaming, which is the flowing of cytosol (the liquid part of the
cytoplasm) throughout the cell. Are also part of muscle cells and allow these cells to contract, along with
myosin. Actin and myosin are the two main components of muscle contractile elements.
• Intermediate filaments which are about 8-12 nm wide; they are called intermediate because they are in-
between the size of microfilaments and microtubules. Are made of different proteins such as keratin (found in
hair and nails. All intermediate filaments are found in the cytoplasm except for lamins, which are found in the
nucleus and help support the nuclear envelope that surrounds the nucleus. The intermediate filaments in the
cytoplasm maintain the cell’s shape, bear tension, and provide structural support to the cell.
• Microtubules are the largest of the cytoskeleton’s fibers at about 23 nm and are hollow tubes made of alpha
and beta tubulin. They form structures like flagella, which are “tails” that propel a cell forward and are also
found in structures like cilia, which are appendages that increase a cell’s surface area and in some cases allow
the cell to move. Most of the microtubules in an cell come from a centrosome which is a
microtubule organizing center (MTOC). They are important in forming the spindle apparatus (or mitotic
spindle), which separates sister chromatids so that one copy can go to each daughter cell during cell division.
https://biologydictionary.net/cytoskeleton/

NUCLEUS
• It houses the cell’s genetic material, or DNA, and is also
the site of synthesis for ribosomes, the cellular
machines that assemble proteins.
• Nuclear envelope, enclose the nucleoplasm is the ,
which is made up of two layers of membrane: an outer
membrane and an inner membrane that contains two
layers of phospholipids, arranged with their tails
pointing inward forming a phospholipid bilayer.
• Nuclear pores, refer to small channels that span the
nuclear envelope, to let substances enter and exit the
nucleus.
• Nucleolus. the darkly staining region is the site in
which new ribosomes are assembled.
• Nucleoplasm, a gel-like substance
• Chromatin, is the DNA wrapped around proteins.
Image credit to: https://microbenotes.com/nucleus-structure-and-functions/

DNA & histone proteins are packaged into structures called
chromosomes.
• Each chromosome is made up of DNA

tightly coiled many times around
proteins called histones that support its
structure.
• Each chromosome has a constriction
point called the centromere, which
divides the chromosome into two
sections, or “arms.” The short arm of
the chromosome is labeled the “p
arm.” The long arm of the chromosome
is labeled the “q arm.”
• The location of the centromere on each
chromosome gives the chromosome its
characteristic shape, and can be used
to help describe the location of specific
genes.
https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/basics/chromosome
Vaults
A, Schematic three-dimensional
representation of a vault, an
octagonal barrel-shaped
organelle believed to transport
messenger RNA from the
nucleus to the cytoplasmic
ribosomes.
B, Schematic representation of
an opened vault, showing its
octagonal structure.
https://basicmedicalkey.com/cellular-biology/
INCLUSIONS
• Contain products of metabolic

activity of the cell

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Module 2

Parts of the Cell

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• He is credited with several very important discoveries. His most widely

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Cell contain hereditary

Cell is the basic & functional unit of

All cells come from pre-existing

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The endomembrane system (endo- = “within”) is a group of membranes and organelles in

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• First proposed in 1972.

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Embedded in the whole bilayer which have hydrophobic

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•Junctions – Serve to connect and join two cells together

Images and Info credit to: https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-1-cell-biology/13-membrane-structure/membrane-proteins.html

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• Microvilli • Tight junctions

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Channel mediated • Carrier mediated

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Material destined for

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Images credit to : https://slideplayer.com/slide/13061979/

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serves as a transitional area • synthesizes proteins

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• Also called Golgi complex or Golgi

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•It serve as digestion compartments for

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Images and information credit to:

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Image credit to: https://microbenotes.com/nucleus-structure-and-functions/

• Each chromosome is made up of DNA

• Contain products of metabolic

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