What Do Whales Feel?

An examination of the functioning of the senses in cetaceans,

the group of mammals comprising whales, dolphins and porpoises

Some of the senses that we and other terrestrial mammals take for granted are either reduced or absent in cetaceans or fail
to function well in water. For example, it appears from their brain structure that toothed species are unable to smell. Baleen
species, on the other hand, appear to have some related brain structures but it is not known whether these are functional. It
has been speculated that, as the blowholes evolved and migrated to the top of the head, the neural pathways serving sense
of smell may have been nearly all sacrificed. Similarly, although at least some cetaceans have taste buds, the nerves serving
these have degenerated or are rudimentary.

The sense of touch has sometimes been described as weak too, but this view is probably mistaken. Trainers of captive
dolphins and small whales often remark on their animals’ responsiveness to being touched or rubbed, and both captive and
freeranging cetacean individuals of all species (particularly adults and calves, or members of the same subgroup) appear to
make frequent contact. This contact may help to maintain order within a group, and stroking or touching are part of the
courtship ritual in most species. The area around the blowhole is also particularly sensitive and captive animals often object
strongly to being touched there.

The sense of vision is developed to different degrees in different species. Baleen species studied at close quarters
underwater – specifically a grey whale calf in captivity for a year, and free-ranging right whales and humpback whales studied
and filmed off Argentina and Hawaii – have obviously tracked objects with vision underwater, and they can apparently see
moderately well both in water and in air. However, the position of the eyes so restricts the field of vision in baleen whales that
they probably do not have stereoscopic vision.

On the other hand, the position of the eyes in most dolphins and porpoises suggests that they have stereoscopic vision
forward and downward. Eye position in freshwater dolphins, which often swim on their side or upside down while feeding,
suggests that what vision they have is stereoscopic forward and upward. By comparison, the bottlenose dolphin has
extremely keen vision in water. Judging from the way it watches and tracks airborne flying fish, it can apparently see fairly
well through the air–water interface as well. And although preliminary experimental evidence suggests that their in-air vision
is poor, the accuracy with which dolphins leap high to take small fish out of a trainer’s hand provides anecdotal evidence to
the contrary.

Such variation can no doubt be explained with reference to the habitats in which individual species have developed. For
example, vision is obviously more useful to species inhabiting clear open waters than to those living in turbid rivers and
flooded plains. The South American boutu and Chinese beiji, for instance, appear to have very limited vision, and the Indian
susus are blind, their eyes reduced to slits that probably allow them to sense only the direction and intensity of light.

Although the senses of taste and smell appear to have deteriorated, and vision in water appears to be uncertain, such
weaknesses are more than compensated for by cetaceans’ well-developed acoustic sense. Most species are highly vocal,
although they vary in the range of sounds they produce, and many forage for food using echolocation. Large baleen whales
primarily use the lower frequencies and are often limited in their repertoire. Notable exceptions are the nearly song-like
choruses of bowhead whales in summer and the complex, haunting utterances of the humpback whales. Toothed species in
general employ more of the frequency spectrum, and produce a wider variety of sounds, than baleen species (though the
sperm whale apparently produces a monotonous series of high-energy clicks and little else). Some of the more complicated
sounds are clearly communicative, although what role they may play in the social life and ‘culture’ of cetaceans has been
more the subject of wild speculation than of solid science.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 15–21 on your answer sheet.

SENSE SPECIES ABILITY COMMENTS

toothed no evidence from brain structure
Smell
baleen not certain related brain structures are present
nerves linked to their 15 ........... are
Taste some types poor
underdeveloped

Touch all yes region around the blowhole very sensitive

16 ........... yes probably do not have stereoscopic vision

dolphins, probably have stereoscopic

yes
porpoises vision 17........... and ........
probably have stereoscopic vision forward and
18 ............. yes
upward
Vision
exceptional in 19 ........... and good in air-water
bottlenose dolphin yes
interface

boutu and beiji poor have limited vision

probably only sense direction and intensity of

Indian susu no
light

most large baleen yes usually use 20 ............ repertoire limited

21 ...............whales
Hearing and ............. whale yes song-like
s
use more of frequency spectrum; have wider
toothed yes
repertoire

Questions 22-26

Answer the questions below using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 22–26 on your answer sheet.

22 Which of the senses is described here as being involved in mating?  

23 Which species swims upside down while eating?  
24 What can bottlenose dolphins follow from under the water?  
25 Which type of habitat is related to good visual ability?  
26 Which of the senses is best developed in cetaceans? 
 GREYING POPULATION STAYS IN THE PINK

Elderly people are growing healthier, happier and more independent, say American scientists. The results of a 14-
year study to be announced later this month reveal that the diseases associated with old age are afflicting fewer
and fewer people and when they do strike, it is much later in life.

In the last 14 years, the National Long-term Health Care Survey has gathered data on the health and lifestyles of
more than 20,000 men and women over 65. Researchers, now analysing the results of data gathered in 1994, say
arthritis, high blood pressure and circulation problems -the major medical complaints in this age group - are
troubling a smaller proportion every year. And the data confirms that the rate at which these diseases are declining
continues to accelerate. Other diseases of old age - dementia, stroke, arteriosclerosis and emphysema - are also
troubling fewer and fewer people.

'It really raises the question of what should be considered normal ageing,' says Kenneth Manton, a demographer
from Duke University in North Carolina. He says the problems doctors accepted as normal in a 65-year-old in 1982
are often not appearing until people are 70 or 75.

Clearly, certain diseases are beating a retreat in the face of medical advances. But there may be other contributing
factors. Improvements in childhood nutrition in the first quarter of the twentieth century, for example, gave today's
elderly people a better start in life than their predecessors.

On the downside, the data also reveals failures in public health that have caused surges in some illnesses. An
increase in some cancers and bronchitis may reflect changing smoking habits and poorer air quality, say the
researchers. 'These may be subtle influences,' says Manton, 'but our subjects have been exposed to worse and
worse pollution for over 60 years. It's not surprising we see some effect.'

One interesting correlation Manton uncovered is that better-educated people are likely to live longer. For example,
65-year-old women with fewer than eight years of schooling are expected, on average, to live to 82. Those who
continued their education live an extra seven years. Although some of this can be attributed to a higher income,
Manton believes it is mainly because educated people seek more medical attention.

The survey also assessed how independent people over 65 were, and again found a striking trend. Almost 80% of
those in the 1994 survey could complete everyday activities ranging from eating and dressing unaided to complex
tasks such as cooking and managing their finances. That represents a significant drop in the number of disabled
old people in the population. If the trends apparent in the United States 14 years ago had continued, researchers
calculate there would be an additional one million disabled elderly people in today's population. According to
Manton, slowing the trend has saved the United States government's Medicare system more than $200 billion,
suggesting that the greying of America's population may prove less of a financial burden than expected.

The increasing self-reliance of many elderly people is probably linked to a massive increase in the use of simple
home medical aids. For instance, the use of raised toilet seats has more than doubled since the start of the study,
and the use of bath seats has grown by more than 50%. These developments also bring some health benefits,
according to a report from the MacArthur Foundation's research group on successful ageing. The group found that
those elderly people who were able to retain a sense of independence were more likely to stay healthy in old age.

Maintaining a level of daily physical activity may help mental functioning, says Carl Cotman, a neuroscientist at the
University of California at Irvine. He found that rats that exercise on a treadmill have raised levels of brain-derived
neurotrophic factor coursing through their brains. Cotman believes this hormone, which keeps neurons functioning,
may prevent the brains of active humans from deteriorating.
As part of the same study, Teresa Seeman, a social epidemiologist at the University of Southern California in Los
Angeles, found a connection between self-esteem and stress in people over 70. In laboratory simulations of
challenging activities such as driving, those who felt in control of their lives pumped out lower levels of stress
hormones such as cortisol. Chronically high levels of these hormones have been linked to heart disease.

But independence can have drawbacks. Seeman found that elderly people who felt emotionally isolated
maintained higher levels of stress hormones even when asleep. The research suggests that older people fare best
when they feel independent but know they can get help when they need it.

'Like much research into ageing, these results support common sense,' says Seeman. They also show that we
may be underestimating the impact of these simple factors. 'The sort of thing that your grandmother always told
you turns out to be right on target,' she says.

Write the correct letter, A-Q, in boxes 14-22 on your answer sheet.

Research carried out by scientists in the United States has shown that the proportion of people over 65 suffering from the
most common age-related medical problems is 14 .................... and that the speed of this change is 15 .................... . It
also seems that these diseases are affecting people 16 .................... in life than they did in the past, This is largely due to
developments in 17 .................... , but other factors such as improved 18 .................... may also be playing a part.
Increases in some other illnesses may be due to changes in personal habits and 19 .................... The research
establishes a link between levels of 20 .................... and life expectancy. It also shows the there has been a considerable
reduction in the number of elderly people who are 21 .................... , which means that the 22 .................... involved in
supporting this section of the population may be less than previously predicted.

A cost B falling C technology D undernourished

E earlier F later G disabled H more
I increasing J nutrition K education L constant
M medicine N pollution O environmental P health
Q independent

Write the correct letter, A-F, in boxes 11-13 on your answer sheet. Choose one for each number

23 Home medical aids

24 Regular amounts of exercise

25 Feelings of control over life

26 Feelings of loneliness

List of Descriptions

A may cause heart disease.

B can be helped by hormone treatment.

C may cause rises in levels of stress hormones.

D have cost the United States government more than $200 billion.
E may help prevent mental decline.

F may get stronger at night.

G allow old people to be more independent.

H can reduce stress in difficult situations.