Low Cost Roads and Bridges - Brown

Low cost roads and bridges, by Victor J. Brown and Carleton N. Conner.
Brown, Victor J. (Victor Jacob), b. 1894.

Chicago, Ill., Gillette Pub. Co. [c1933]
http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015068164006
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Transpur.auon
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I
LOW COST ROADS
and BRIDGES
Low Cost Roads
and
Bridges
BY
VICTOR Jf 'BROWN, C.E.

Associate Member American Society of Civil Engineers, Member Western
Society of Engineers, Member American Road Builders' Asso
ciation, Registered Professional Engineer and Land Sur
veyor, Secretary A. R. B. A. Committee on Admin
istrative and Financial Relationship of State
and County, Member A. R. B. A. Com
mittee on Low Cost Roads, Editor
of Roads and Streets,
and
CARLETON N;k CONNER,

Member American Society of Civil Engineers, Member American Society
for Testing Materials, Chairman of Committee on Low Cost
Roads of Highway Research Board, Engineer Executive of
American Road Builders' Association, Associate
Editor of Roads and Streets.
TRANSPORTATION LIBRARY
Gillette Publishing Company

400 West Madison Street,
CHICAGO. ILLINOIS.
Copyright, 1933
Gillette Publishing Company

400 West Madison St.,
Chicago, 111
Board of County Supervisors or Commissioners Discussing Proposed
Highway Program for the Ensuing Year
To those conscientious representatives of tlte

people, The Boards of County Supervisors
or Commissioners of the United States, •
ivho must decide upon how, when,

and where to build and main
tain roads most economi
cally, this book is re
spectfully dedi
cated.
\
PREFACE
But few subjects pertaining to roads have received more attention
by engineers and officials, in recent years, than that of low cost roads.
It is of interest not alone to the road official, but to the user of roads
and to the taxpayer. To the latter, the taxpayer and the user, low-cost
roads mean not only a greater mileage of improved roads for the same
expenditure, but, what is more important, a material hastening of the
clay of the complete improvement of all state and secondary roads. Ex
perience has shown that low-cost road surfaces of acceptable quality and
quantity are possible when constructed and maintained by modern equip
ment. The use of equipment and the mileage of secondary and low-cost
roads have increased greatly in the past five years and there are strong
indications they will continue to increase. "7~
The purpose of this book is to present the best practice in the design,
construction and maintenance of low-cost roads. The authors have en
deavored to present the subject in the broad aspect because in the final
analysis economic transportation is the result to be desired. For that
reason it has been necessary to discuss highway location and economics,
grade line design, width, visibility, traffic analysis, and other engineering
subjects, as well as methods of construction of various surfacings.^ A
low-cost road necessarily demands or requires that it be carried over a
low-cost bridge, therefore, a chapter on low-cost bridges and culverts has
been included.
While the material for this book was prepared primarily for the en
gineer, the authors have endeavored to present it in such a way that it
can be used as a guide by a Board of County Commissioners in deciding
upon what to do regarding the improvement of their local and light
traffic roads. A county board, when in session discussing future plans
or a future budget, often decides to improve a certain county road in
a certain way, arbitrarily; i. e., based upon no factual data. It is the
purpose of this book to explain the engineering principles underlying
the local or light traffic road improvement problem and .thus give a
rational approach to the question of the selection of type of improve
ment.
+ Because many state highways carry light or medium traffic, low-cost
roads are the economic types for these locations. They are often built
as part of a stage construction program, i
Compound interest and sinking fund tables are included for the en
gineer who desires to evaluate the annual cost of a road to the user or
taxpayer of the system of roads under his supervision. It is frequently
the case that a county road and even a state system is built by a county
fir state wide bond issue, in which case, on the balance sheet of the state
vii
viii PREFACE
or county, the bond issue appears as a bonded debt liability. The off
setting asset on this balance sheet is the valuation of the roads built.
Furthermore, the authors believe the time is not far distant when the
highway, as part of the highway transport plant, will have to be evaluated
for the establishment of motor transport rates.
The material in the book has been obtained from authoritative sources.
The authors' problem was one of selection, correlation and synthesis,
rather than research, experiment and analysis. The chapters on surfac-
ings have been read and checked for technical accuracy by consulting
engineers specializing in bituminous constructions. This has been desir
able and necessary because of the many changes recently made in bitu
minous material grades and tests and because of the promotion of certain
concrete types. There has been a definite trend toward standardization.
There exists in the minds of the layman as well as in the minds of
many engineers a certain mystery and ambiguity of thought regarding
bituminous materials and methods of construction.
As an example of this ambiguity, let us take an average town or vil
lage which has a connecting link to construct joining it to the rural areas.
We cite this as an example because quite recently a certain engineer had
a long conversation with the distracted mayor of a municipality where
this kind of work was under consideration. He stated that within
a week of the time the work was mentioned in a public way, he and his
council were besieged by representatives of almost every type of con
struction known. In addition to that they were approached by various
contractors who were interested in the various types of paving and as
the mayor explained regarding this instance they were offered the follow
ing choice of surfaces, each one of which the mayor remarked had been
represented to him as being the proper surface for their conditions. They
were offered a retread surface of tar or asphalt, they were offered an
emulsified surface, they were offered any one of a dozen different types
of cold laid pavements, they were offered a concrete pavement, they were
offered an asphalt mixed macadam pavement, and in addition to all these,
they were offered sheet asphalt on either a black base or concrete base.
Now we ask what would you do in a similar set of circumstances if yon
were a member of that council ?
The immediate reaction was one which may be expected any time. The
mayor and council were amazed and disappointed at the lack of harmony
existing in paving matters. They are successful business men in their
own lines of endeavor and cannot see why it is that there is no guide for
them in pavements. They decided not to do any work at all this year
and in the meantime try to find out who is right.
The trend of bituminous surfacing and paving in general has had the
effect of confusing the average layman, it has had the effect of compli
cating the efforts of engineers in deciding what type of surfacing is best.
It has had the further evil effect of putting in competition different types
PREFACE ix
of bituminous construction and it is not uncommon to hear very broad

statements by the supporters of one type against those of another,
made
even of the same type. This is not good for the highway industry itself,
and it certainly does not induce confidence in those engineers and others
who are in the market for pavements.
The authors have endeavored to clarify this situation.
The authors adopted the plan of beginning each chapter with Figure 1,
or Table I, as the case may be, so that revision might more easily be
made. They also endeavored to adhere to a plan in Chapter V as follows :
A. Oiling of Earth Roads

1. Oils
2. Soils
B. Bituminous Surface Treatments
1. Well compacted and solid bases
2. Poorly compacted and loose bases
C. Bituminous Road-mix Surface Courses
1.Fine Aggregate Type
2. Graded Aggregate Type
3. Coarse Aggregate Type
D. Bituminous Plant-mix Surface Courses
1. Fine Aggregate Type
2. Graded Aggregate Type
3. Coarse Aggregate Type
E. Bituminous Penetration Macadam Surface Course
The authors also endeavored to present the material under each sub
head in the following manner :
(a) General Description

(b) Materials
1. Aggregates
2. Bitumens
a. Specifications
Methods of testing
b.
(c) Construction Methods
((]) Maintenance Methods
(e) Construction Costs
(f) Maintenance Costs
(g) Service
Credit is due to many engineers who have assisted in the preparation
of the material from which the manuscript was prepared and the authors
wish to acknowledge the valuable aid rendered by Mr. A. R. Taylor,
The Koppers Products Co.; Mr. B. E. Gray, The Asphalt Institute, and
Mr. Geo. E. Martin, The Barrett Co.. for reading and checking the tech
nical accuracy of the bituminous surface types, and to Mr. M. D. Catton,
the Portland Cement Association, for preparing material for the chapter
X PREFACE
on the use of concrete. Without their loyal cooperation this book would
not have been possible. The authors also express their acknowledgment
to Mr. R. H. Lewis, U. S. Bureau of Public Roads, for his excellent
treatment of the interpretation of tests, to Mr. E. O. Rhodes, Koppers
Products Co., for his discussion on the manufacture of tar, to Mr. Gene
Abson, Chicago Paving Laboratory, for his discussion on the manufacture
of asphalt, and to Mr. Charles T. Murray, Managing Editor of Roads
and Streets, for his guiding suggestions.
Last, but not least, the authors wish to give due credit for material ab
stracted from various sources. They endeavored to give credit in the
text for these sources and hope that none were missed. They freely
abstracted from Roads and Streets, Proceedings of the American Road
Builders' Association, Engineering Neivs-Record, Proceedings of the
Higlnvay Research Board, Public Roads, state highway department man
uals, and other publications.
Victor J. Brown,
Carlton N. Conner.
Chicago, 111.
February, 1933
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
3APTER 1 1 to 7
The Design of Local Highways

Discusses wherein the design of purely local roads varies from
trunk line design. Intangible and economic values explained.
CHAPTER II 8 to 89
Economics and Planning

Discusses annual cost of transportation and of the highway
surface. Sinking fund and annuity tables included. How to
lay out a county road system explained.
CHAPTER III 90 to 153
Location, Design and Grading

Discusses the engineering principles involved in deciding upon
a grade line and location. Low-cost roads classified. Survey
ing methods for road work. Fresno and wheeler grading dis
cussed. Effect of haul explained.
CHAPTER IV 154 to 204
Untreated Surfaces
Discusses the many types of construction using local aggre
gate only.
CHAPTER V 205 to 327
Bituminous Surface Courses

Discusses oiled earth treatments, surface treatments, road-mix
surfaces, plant-mix surfaces, penetration macadam surfaces.
Fine aggregate types, graded aggregate types, and coarse
aggreate types considered, in order given, under both road-
mix surfaces and plant-mix surfaces.
CHAPTER VI 328 to 348

Use of Concrete for Low-Cost Road Construction
Discusses the economics of single track concrete and newer
developments in making low-cost roads using Portland cement.
CHAPTER VII 349 to 381

Materials Manufacture and/or Proprietary Mixes
Discusses the manufacture of asphalt and tar for road pur
poses. Also includes short description of the various patented
products and trade name materials.
xii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
CHAPTER VIII 382 to 419
Interpretation of Tests on Bituminous Road Materials
Discusses what tests are made and why. An explanation of the
simplified scheme of analysis for liquid asphaltic products is
included.
CHAPTER IX 420 to 448

Equipment and Machinery
Discusses mechanical units used for building and maintaining
low-cost roads.
CHAPTER X 449 to 471
Maintenance
Discusses organization for maintenance work and general main
tenance procedure.
CHAPTER XI 472 to 536
Low-Cost Bridges and Culverts

Discusses methods of determining size of waterway and condi
tion of bridges and culverts. Descriptions of various types of
low-cost bridges included.
LOW COST ROADS AND BRIDGES
CHAPTER I
DESIGN OF LOCAL HIGHWAYS

purpose in the construction of low cost roads is either to
provide temporary improvement on trunk line routes pending the
SINCE availability of funds sufficient for standard trunk line construc
tion or, and more generally, to provide an amount of improvement ade
quate to meet local requirements, the design of these highways must be
treated from a somewhat different standpoint than usually is accepted as
governing trunk line design. This is particularly true wherever it may
reasonably be presumed that the contemplated improvement will retain its
dominant aspects as a local road for an extended period of time. During
the past ten years the major emphasis has naturally been placed on the
development of trunk line highways, for the need of such highways has
been very great and the benefit to be obtained by constructing them rela
tively large. But as these are completed attention must be increasingly
diverted to the improvement of local roads and it now seems probable that
the major highway problem of the next ten years will be the conversion
of purely local and now largely unimproved rights of way into more con
veniently usable and more dependable highways.
The Objective in Design. —As the mileage of roadways that falls
in the very general classification of local roads is large and the use likely
to be made of them is relatively small, the basic objective underlying their
improvement requires statement and brief comment. This objective may
be defined as road service that is adequate at a cost not inconsistent with
the value of the service improvement can render. In this objective there
is no vital difference from the objective underlying trunk line construction.
However, the statement of the objective in local road improvement will
serve to draw attention to the fact that whereas the capitalization of the
tangible value of the service a trunk line can render will ordinarily justify
an expenditure considerably in excess of the usual cost of its construction,
the capitalization of the tangible value of the service the improvement
of a local road can render will almost never as clearly justify its construc
tion. This does not signify a lack of justification for local road construc
tion, but it does emphasize the fact that much of the value of such im
provements eminates from the comfort and convenience they afford their
normal users, from the social and recreational values they possess. The
value of such factors is likely to be quite intangible. It cannot be accu
2 LOW COST ROADS AND BRIDGES
rately defined in monetary units and even when estimated, its value can
only be approximated by such devices as studies of the effect of highway
improvement on land values, on the ease with which property can be
rented, on the market there is for property, etc., in localities where the
roads have been improved and in otherwise equally attractive localities
where they have not. For these reasons and perhaps for others as well,
though the objective is the development of adequate road service at a cost
not inconsistent with the value such service has, the careful designer always
is likely to find himself in a position in which he feels reasonably certain
Neither Economic nor Social Value Attaches to a Road Like This

that warranted expenditures exceed those he can readily and clearly jus
the justification of extensive local road improvement is less
tify. In short,
to be found in the tonnage these roads will carry than is the case where
ti unk line roads are under consideration and more in the social values they
create.
The Nature of Social and Related Values. — Rut if it is likely to
be somewhat difficult to establish a definite monetary justification for local
road improvement on account of the relatively light traffic such roads will
carry, a statement of the more intangible values they will produce becomes
important. These values cover the field of comfort and convenience as
well as the field of reliability and extend into the field of recreation. There
is no need to state these values in detail. Comfort and convenience allude
to such matters as freedom from the annoyance of dust and mud. Reli
ability alludes to the value that arises from the certainty that a road will
be safely and comfortably usable during all seasons of the year. Recreation
values arise both from the use of the road itself and from the fact that
its improvement places other recreational values dependably within reach
whenever resort to them is desired. To these values it would be reasonable
to add the advantage that accrues from the more dependable access im
proved highways always provide to schools, to churches and to markets —
to educational, religious, social and business activities — all of which
is,
that
are important in the lives of human beings generally.
But quite impossible to put monetary value on recreation or
is
it
social contacts or educational facilities. On the other hand, men regularly

DESIGN OF LOCAL HIGHWAYS 3
spend considerable amounts of money to enjoy these activities from which

it would appear reasonable to conclude that though their value is intangible
it nevertheless is very real. It is also reasonable to conclude that if these
things are so desired by men generally that they will expend considerable
sums to enjoy them, they will readily include such reasonable — even lib
eral — sums over and above the purely commercial value of local road im
provement as may be consistent with their value from a social standpoint.
From the Economic Standpoint. — These matters may be reduced
to the simple statement that the commercial value of a highway as this is
ordinarily understood is not at all the same as its economic value. This
may be illustrated by calling attention to the obvious fact that men no
where limit their expenditures to bare necessities unless forced by circum
stances to do so. Overalls and cheap underwear will, for instance, protect
a man from the elements as completely as a well-tailored suit and will
accomplish this result at a considerably lower cost. Men buy the higher
priced garments largely on account of the personal satisfaction they derive
from being well dressed — in short, because of the added pleasure they
derive from a satisfactory personal appearance. Indeed, personal satis
faction — pleasure — is the ultimate objective in most human activity and
the admitted objective is the accumulation of wealth of which highways
are our accumulation in one field. In other words, accumulations of wealth
are for the purpose of making the world a better place in which to live.
In such a concept of wealth, commercial values — the usefulness of wealth
as a means of creating additional wealth — have a place, sometimes a large
place, but outside of the field of commerce and business — the wealth pro
ducing enterprises — their place is one of relative unimportance. In the
development of highways there always is some commercial value but
always there also is a large element of making at least a bit of the world
more attractive to mankind. In the development of local roads this is the
dominant objective and the engineer who fails to sense this broader eco
nomic justification for these improvements is pretty certain to find that
his treatment of local road development is objectionably restricted.
On the other hand, though the major objective in local road improve
ment is the creation of conditions yielding greater comfort and conven
ience and though, as a nation, we are relatively wealthy, it nevertheless is
not possible to satisfy our every desire as to better highways any more
than it is as to other things. This implies the necessity for a careful ap
praisal of the expenditures that can be afforded and then an examination
of how the greatest benefits can be obtained from these expenditures. In
considering the improvement of local roads, the workings of the law of
diminishing return are conspicuously apparent. The needs to be met are
easily determinable as are the services the improvement can render. In
theory and very generally also in practice neither will change a great deal
for a good many years. There is no problem of increasing traffic density
as there is in trunk line construction — no problem of location to shorten
4 LOW COST ROADS AXD BRIDGES
distance for the benefit of through traffic.

Certain definite services can
be rendered and in all probability this service will be rendered to about the
same number of people for a considerable period. On the service side
there is, then, a relatively fixed situation. On the cost side a certain
amount of money will satisfy a certain portion of the apparent service
needs. At some higher cost some additional services can be rendered. At
a still higher cost still other services can be rendered. At some point in a
series of this kind it will be apparent that additional expenditure yields
relatively little by way of additional service. At some point it will be rea
sonably certain that the community cannot afford additional expenditure.
The problem of the designing engineer is so to design that the services the
highway will provide are as numerous and as valuable as possible and its
cost consistent with the financial ability of the region to be served.
Highway Service. — But if service is the important consideration,

the nature of service in terms of highway use will warrant some discus
sion, the purpose here being to note the things that are important to the
user of a highway and, therefore, from his standpoint to be included in
the category of services the highway can render him and the matters that
are of little or no consequence. In this discussion the effort will be made
to reflect the views of those who will use these roads — the rural residents
whose homes or whose lands are served by them. Obviously their views
may differ a good deal from the views of those who use trunk line high
ways, for in general the man who lives on a local road is not endeavoring
to reach a distant point in a limited time or to transport heavy loads at a
high speed or to travel for pure pleasure. Ordinarily, he wishes only to
proceed at a reasonable rate of speed, to a nearby destination with cer
tainty that he can proceed safely and comfortably. But this somewhat
different desire suggests a considerable number of points at which the de
sign of local roads can and should differ from trunk line design.
Distance. — In the improvement of local roads the objective is serv

ice to those who live along these roads. This implies the improvement
of existing rights of way. The service rendered is sharply reduced if
people must move their homes in order to make use of an improved road.
It is also reduced if farms are cut up and established cropping areas are
destroyed. Relocations should, therefore, be kept at a minimum. More
over, distance is not a matter of great moment — not so much distance in
gross but the differences in distance that can be secured by relocation.
Even small savings in distance are of value when the traffic to be carried
is large. They are relatively of little value when the dominant objective
is the creation of social values. Here the correct criterion is the number
of families that can be reached rather than the shortest or the easiest
route to the most outlying point to be reached.
Gradients. — In rural regions as on the trunk lines and in the cities

DESIGN OF LOCAL HIGHWAYS 5
the percentage of horse-drawn traffic is so small that it is all but negli

gible. Travel is by automobile and transportation largely by truck. In the
design of these vehicles manufacturers have steadily increased the amount
of power that is available per unit of vehicle weight. The obvious ob
jective is speed and this is the use made of it on modern trunk line roads.
But it is equally available for hill climbing and on local roads is of greater
value for that purpose than for fast driving. But because modern motor
vehicles can climb relatively steep grades without difficulty, and because
while no service of much value to the rural user is afforded by their elimi
nation, a considerable expense always is involved, local road design may
reasonably be based on maximum gradients that are a good deal higher
than are usually adopted on trunk line construction. Moreover, as the
service local roads can render is social rather than commercial and based
on limited use at moderate speeds rather than on extensive use at high
speeds, there is little demand for such refinements as long uniform gradi
ents, carefully adjusted vertical curves, etc.. all of which add materially
to the cost of construction but none of which yield benefits of commen
surate value to the rural residents served by these roads. The logical
result is a rolling grade, relatively high maximum gradient and little or
no correction of existing ground line gradients.
Another Reason for Ground Line Gradients. — In trunk line con
struction a very considerable part of the cost of all grading work is gen
erated by the conversion of the ground line gradient into uniform gradi
ents having a satisfactory degree of rise or fall. There is no need to dis
cuss the merits of these conversions here, but it is a well-established fact
that these conversions generate a great deal of expense because the move
ment of the material used in their development generates a great deal of
longitudinal haul and this is expensive. The use of ground line gradients
with a very moderate degree of correction to eliminate minor irregularities
in the gradient, entirely eliminates this element in expense with little or
no sacrifice of service value to local users. Where minor irregularities
are encountered they can be thrown to the side but are preferably moved
short distances longitudinally in order to make the general gradient a little
more uniform.
Curvature. — Road improvement always involves the problem of
changes in direction. Many of these are necessary. Others result from
the fact that the right of way is crooked — that is, that it involves changes
in direction that are likely to have neither intention nor value. In trunk
line construction the general practice is to eliminate crookedness and to
make necessary changes in direction sufficiently gradual to insure a long
sight distance. The safety and the convenience of the traffic, much of
which moves at a high speed, require this. The design of local roads
presupposes a limited use, at lower speed, principally by those who are
thoroughly familiar with the roads used. These conditions do not gen
erate the need for the elimination of crookedness or for the use of long
radius curves that is found in the trunk line field. This should not be
interpreted as an intimation that these factors may be ignored in the design
of local roads. They cannot be ignored but neither should they be per
mitted to absorb the money that is properly applied to their treatment in
trunk line highway design.
Safety. — It is very easy to remark that all highways should be
safe — that their design should make them safe. But what is a safe high
way? Obviously there is no very definite answer to this question for the
very good reason that a highway may appear perfectly safe to a careful
driver and prove quite dangerous to reckless drivers. By the same token,
a highway may be usable with a high degree of safety at 30 miles an hour
and highly dangerous at 50 miles an hour. There is, in short, no absolute
standard of safety to be met in highway design and in the nature of the
case there cannot be until the speed that must be accommodated has been
more definitely standardized. In the meantime, the conditions as to speed
and correlated matters for which provision will be made are likely to
differ from place to place and to depend on the judgment of responsible
engineers. Therefore, all that can or should be said here as to such pro
visions for safety as minimum rates of curvature, vertical curves, width
of surfacing, sight distance along the highway and at intersections, etc.,
is that there is no need to transfer the standards applicable to trunk line
construction to the local road field, for both the nature and the amount
of the traffic on local roads are so different that they may be reasonably
served by a treatment of these matters that would be entirely inconsistent
with the conditions that prevail on our trunk line highways.
However, since the location of trunk line roads is the most permanent
feature, and since low cost roads are frequently an intermediate stage
to higher types, it is deemed advisable to treat these subjects in greater
detail in the following pages.
Surfaces. — While the major benefit local users will derive from
improved highways is to be ascribed to their dependability, that is, to the
fact that they can be safely and certainly used at all seasons of the year,
a condition that can be established by the construction of gravel or other
low type surface, so much is added by way of comfort and personal

satisfaction if the dust and the mud nuisances ate eliminated that it can
hardly be said that a reasonable amount of service is rendered unless they
are eliminated. As the matter of surfaces is treated in other chapters of
this book, it will not be further discussed at this point except to remark
that as in the other aspects of design discussed in previous paragraphs,
the relatively light traffic local roads may be expected to carry — light both
in number of vehicles per day and in the weights carried — warrants the
use of thinner surfaces than can be safely used on trunk line highways.
The development of balloon tires for trucks as well as for automobiles
has already measurably reduced the strain on surfaces and as the "air
wheel" type of tire comes into more general use this strain will be further
DESIGN OF LOCAL HIGHWAYS
reduced. It would therefore appear that the near future will bring very
complete justification of what must now be expressed only as a prediction
that even thinner surfaces than could now be recommended will prove
entirely satisfactory on most purely local highways.
The Need jor a Low Cost Surface is Plainly Evident
Measure of Service. — It would, perhaps, be desirable to close this

chapter at this point but there is another thought the authors feel they
should leave with the reader. The mileage of local roads in this country
is very large. In the nature of the case most of these roads always will
be local roads with only local traffic to carry. But the number of people
who live along these roads is large and their need of improved road service
great. The reader may not altogether agree with all of the ideas presented
in the preceding paragraphs of this chapter or with all of the conclusions
reached. That is not essential, for the real purpose of this chapter has
been to present a method of approach to the design of local roads — to sug
gest the things requiring consideration and the nature of this considera
tion rather than to present final conclusions. It is believed that the con
clusions are correct but whether this is true or not this much is reason
ably certain — that the service a rural road can render must be measured
by other standards than those now commonly applied in trunk line con
struction and that both the economy with which local road construction
is carried out and the adequacy of the service these roads will render will
depend on a thorough study of the service they should render and how
this service can be most economically provided.
CHAPTER II
ECONOMICS AND PLANNING
public has four alternatives in the solution of its highway
THE surfacing problem.

First, it can insist on building the highest type of pavement and
have a limited mileage of that type;
Second, it can insist on building the highest type of pavement
in widespread and extensive mileages "if it is willing to pay the
bill," but the bill would be far beyond any amounts so far con
templated by taxation;
Third, it can have an extensive and widespread mileage of rea
sonably satisfactory types of surfacing constructed and maintained
within normal limits of taxation; or
Fourth, it can have uneconomic, unsatisfactory, "fair weather"
roads that can be kept passable in good weather only by relatively
large, unbalanced maintenance expenditures.
The apparently complex and difficult phase of the highway problem
is that of establishing definite policies in planning and financing that will
lead to the rapid construction of a sufficient mileage of reasonably satisfac
tory roads, to permit of the free movement of traffic everywhere neces
sary at all times; the so-called "all-weather roads."
Secondary roads are not necessarily low cost roads and primary roads
cannot always be called high cost roads. There is only one standard of
measurement with which we can determine whether a road is a low cost
or a high cost road, and that standard is economic transportation.
ECONOMICS OF TRANSPORTATION
Several factors are involved in the cost of transportation. They are:
1. Highway Costs —
a. Cost of location, grading, and draining
b. Cost of highway surface
c. Cost of maintenance
2. Vehicle Costs —
a. Cost of delays
b. Cost of rise and fall ; gradient costs
c. Cost of curvature
d. Cost of stopping and starting
c. Cost of operating vehicle
8
ECONOMICS AND PLANNING 9
Highway costs (a) and (c), listed above, are considered separately
in their respective chapters. Cost of highway surfaces are considered later
in this chapter.
The distinction "vehicle costs," above, is somewhat of a misnomer.
The costs listed thereunder pertain to the operation of the vehicle over
the highway and are more correctly "vehicle operation costs."
The cost of delays does not enter into low cost road calculations to
any extent because the factor that makes cost of delays significant is large
volume of traffic. In case one desires to employ that factor in economic
calculations we state, as a matter of record, that Fred Lavis, Consulting
Highway Engineer, has calculated the value of delaying a vehicle for one
minute as follows:
For trucks 2.3 cts. per car-min.
For light commercial vehicles 2.1 cts. per car-min.
For non-commercial vehicles 1.0 ct. per car-min.
With a knowledge of the traffic, the average value of a car-minute
can be computed for any specific analysis.
Cost of rise and fall is the cost incurred travelling on increasing and
decreasing gradients. Dean T. R. Agg, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa,
discusses this subject in considerable extent in a bulletin entitled "Eco
nomics of Highway Grades," published by the Iowa Engineering Experi
ment Station.
Results of experiments indicate that, because of certain deficiencies
in the design of engines of motor vehicles, the cost of operation on mod
erate ascending gradients is no greater than on the level.
A recent paper by Dean Agg before the Highway Division, American
Society of Civil Engineers states as follows :
"I doubt if there is any more elusive problem in the field of highway
economics than that of estimating the potential saving that will result
from grade reductions. This problem is complicated because the operating
characteristics of the vehicles comprising highway traffic are so variable
that there is no such thing as a single economic grade. The engineer is
forced to compromise on grades that are feasible from the point of view
of topographical conditions. The following steps constitute a rational
approach to this problem:
1. Determine the total rise and total length (as shown by the survey
stationing) of the grade to be reduced. -
2. Determine the corresponding two factors for the proposed grade
improvement.
3. Assume 4 per cent as a safe coasting grade for the vehicles that
use the road, and determine the amount of rise in the proposed plan in
excess of that which would be provided by a 4 per cent grade of the same
length.
4. Estimate the annual tonnage of the traffic using the road. A con
version factor can be applied to the estimated volume of traffic to convert

it into tonnage. For most projects it is safe to assume that the traffic is
equally divided between the two directions.
"Suppose that a gallon of gasoline weighs 5.9 lb., that each pound
tests 19,000 B.t.u., that 1 B.t.u. is equivalent to 777 ft.-lb., and that the
average thermal efficiency of the automotive engine is 15 per cent. Then
the various relationships involved may be expressed, for computation pur
poses, in the form of an equation, in which,
H = height in feet of existing summit above the sag

Hl= height in feet of proposed summit above the sag
= height in feet of the summit of a 4 per cent grade of a length
equal to the proposed grade, as measured by the survey sta
tioning
M = low-gear factor for the existing grade
C = cost of gasoline in decimals of a dollar per gallon
R = annual saving by reducing the grade
T = annual tonnage of traffic over the highway
The equation will then be:
[y2T{MH— H^^/rTiH,— H2)\C

R = 2,000 =
19,000 X 777 X 0.15 X 5.9
0.00075 [(MH— H,) + (H— H2)]

"Ifthe grade reduction is accomplished by increasing the length of
the road, then the saving computed by this equation must be reduced by
the cost of the extra distance.
*'A word with reference to the factor M. If an existing grade were
such that a vehicle could ascend in low gear, there would be no economic
reason to change it unless the change resulted in a saving in transporta
tion cost. As a matter of fact, such a saving does result because of the
decreased time required for the ascent, and the decreased cost of vehicle
operation. Therefore the factor M represents the ratio of the cost of
ascending an existing grade, with the gear that would have to be used,
to the cost of making the ascent if it could be made in high gear, with
high-gear speed and high-gear operating efficiency."
Curvature is another factor that requires power expenditure. No data
are available on the cost of accelerating after rounding a curve, nr of lost
time caused by curvature. Hence, reference will be made here only to the
fact that it is an item in the economics of transportation. It is negligible
so far as low cost roads are concerned.
Stopping and starting because of delays due to the road or manage
ment of the road is a cost factor that we need not consider for low cost
roads. It is true that fuel and oil are consumed in accelerating to the
customary driving speed after making a stop and that when once travel
ing energy is absorbed by the brakes in stopping. Where traffic is heavy

this item has value but %is insignificant for our purposes.
The cost of operating a vehicle, per mile, is shown in tables below.
Highway traffic is so varied in the number and kind of vehicles which
it,
compose and operating costs are so different in different localities,
that the resistance values of rise and fall, curvatures, delays, etc., must
be worked out for each particular case and not only must experience and
;
judgment be employed in developing these data, but equal or even
greater experience and judgment must be used in determining the weight
to be given to these mathematical demonstrations of costs of resistance
to traffic and the local and other factors which may influence or determine
the improvement. In the general design of an improvement there true
is
a
economic proportion between the costs of its construction and costs of
operation of the vehicles which have to. use it.
Annual Cost. — Annual cost the criterion by which to determine
is
whether proposed highway improvement economically justified.
is
a
TABLE I
Table of Characteristics of the Composite Automobile*
Rez'iscd from "Economics of Highway Grades" for tow pressure typetires
Rolling Resistance in Pounds per Ton
Avg. Earth
Speed Range Tractive Effort on the Several Low Cost and l*n-
m Miles Gears in Pounds per Ton High Type Treated Sur- treated Sur-
per Hour High Second Low Roads face Roads face Roads
35 to 45 185 400 600 80 110 160
Relative fuel consumption in ton miles per gallon — high gear, 26; second gear, 20;
low gear. 14.
Relative average speeds on the several gears — high gear, 100; second gear, 65;
low gear, 35.
Relative fuel consumption corresponding to the speed range and tractive resistances
above — hightype roads, 1.00; low cost treated surfaces. 1.20; untreated and
earth surfaces, 1.50.
Relative tire wear on untreated surfaces double that of treated or high type
is
sur faces.
From bulletin just published by the Iowa Engineering Experiment

a
Station, we find that the composite Iowa automobile can be operated for
6.51 cts. per mile based on 7,000 miles of annual travel. This may be
classed as the cost of operating on fair condition low cost roads.
The development of this table quite involved and omitted. The
is
is
costs per vehicle mile are the important items for our use here.
In recent paper before the Highway Division of the American So
a
ciety of Civil Engineers, Dean Agg, Iowa State College, discussed operat
ing costs as given below.
Road Types Affect Operating Costs. — "Certain estimates of the rela
tive cost of vehicle operation were developed in 1928 as an outgrowth of
series of investigations of the various factors involved, and published as
a
•For data on the composite commercial vehicle see "The Economics of Highway Grades,"
a
bulletin by the Iowa Engineering Experiment Station.

Bulletin 91 of the Iowa Engineering Experiment Station. The significant

results are given in Table I-A. as follows :
TABLE I-A
Relative Cost of Operating an Imaginary "Average" Automobile
on Various Classes of Roads
Approximate Relative Cost of Operation in Cents Per
Mile on Three Types of Surfaces
a ,
Item of Cost High Type Intermediate Type Low Type
Gasoline 1.09 1.31 1.61
Oil 0.22 0.22 0.22
Tires and tubes 0.29 0.64 0.84
Maintenance 1.43 1.72 2.11
Depreciation 1.25 1.39 1.57
License 0.14 0.14 0.14
Garage at $4 per month 0.44 0.44 0.44
Interest at 6 per cent P.36 0.36 0.36
Insurance 0.21 0.21 0.21
Total cost 5.44 6.43 7.50

Relative cost 1.00 1.18 1.38
"From a recent examination of the data being developed at the Towa

Engineering Experiment Station, I have reached the conclusion that for
economic studies it is on the conservative side to assume that the change
from a lower type saves the automobile user about one-eighth of the
operating cost on that type. This amounts to 0.8 cent per mile of travel
for the 'composite average' automobile, on the basis of 1931 operating
costs. For other classes of vehicles, particularly trucks, it is necessary to
take into consideration the actual composition of the traffic. The data at
hand are too fragmentary to permit the drawing of any very positive con
clusions as to the saving to commercial vehicles effected by changing the
type of the road surface.
"It is believed that no serious error will result if economic compari
sons are based on the average operation cost of commercial vehicles, as
sumed as 22 cents per vehicle mile of travel, and on a saving in cost by a
change from an intermediate-type surface to a high type of 5 cents per
vehicle mile of travel. Commercial vehicles of less than one-ton capacity
should be counted as automobiles.
"In allowing for decreased operation costs, when a relocation shortens
the distance between objectives, account must be taken of the fact that
such shortening does not affect fixed charges. A study of Table 1-A would
indicate that, for distance, the cost is about 2j/ cents per mile on high-
type surfaces and 3 cents per mile on intermediate types, if it is assumed
that one-third of the depreciation is due to obsolescence and two-thirds to
mechanical deterioration. For commercial vehicles, the shortening of dis
tance also decreases the time of travel between objectives. It is believed
that a reasonable allowance for the shortening of a route would be 8 cents
per mile for a high-type surface and 13 cents per mile for an intermediate
type."
TABLE II
Cost of Operating the Composite* Iowa Automobile,
Basis of 1930 Registration
From "Automobile Operating Cost and Mileage Studies"
Iowa Engineering Experiment Station
Annual Mileage 3,000 5,000 7,000 9,000
Annual Cts. Annual Cts. Annual Cts. Annual Cts.
Cost, $ per Cost. $ per Cost, $ per Cost, S per
Cost Items per Car Mile per Car Mile per Car Mile per Car Mile
1. Gasoline, 20c per gal.... 38.10 1.27 63.50 1.27 88.00 1.27 114.30 1.27
2. Oil, 25c per qt 7.50 .25 12.50 .25 17.50 .25 22.50 .25
3. Tires and tubes 12.90 .43 21.50 .43 30.10 .43 38.70 .43
4. Maintenance 36.60 1.22 61.00 1.22 85.40 1.22 109.80 1.22
5. Depreciation 48.90 1.63 81.50 1.63 114.10 1.63 146.70 1.63
6. License, Iowa rate 15.63 .52 15.63 .31 15.63 .22 16.69 .17
7. Garage. $4 per mo 48.00 1.60 48.00 .96 48.00 .69 48.00 .53
8. Interest, 6 per cent 44.05 1.47 37.21 .74 33.12 .47 34.27 .38
9. Insurance. Ames rate.... 22.70 .76 22.70 .46 22.70 .33 23.31 .26
Total Cost 274738 9T5 36154 7.27 445.45 6iT 554.27 6.U
Annual Mileage 11.000 13.000 18.000 25,000
1. Gasoline, 20c per gal.... 139.70 1.27 165.10 1.27 228.60 1.27 317.50 1.27
2. Oil, 25c per qt 27.50 .25 32.50 .25 45.00 .25 62.50 .25
3. Tires and tubes 47.30 .43 55.90 .43 77.40 .43 107.50 .43
4. Maintenance 134.20 1.22 158.60 1.22 219.60 1.22 305.00 1.22
5. Depreciation 179.30 1.63 211.90 1.63 293.40 1.63 407.50 1.63
6. License, Iowa rate 17.38 .16 17.38 .13 17.38 .10 17.38 .07
7. Garage. ?4 per mo 48.00 .44 48.00 .37 48.00 .27 48.00 .19
8. Interest. 6 per cent 35.25 .32 36.23 .28 38.67 .21 42.10 .17
9. Insurance, Ames rate.... 23.79 .22 24.34 .19 25.02 .14 .K)
25J4
Total Cost 652.42 5.94 749.95 5.77 993.07 5.52 1333722 5.33
Prof. R. L. Morrison this problem differently but his statement

states
refers to high cost as well as low cost roads. His statement refers to the
economics of the whole problem of highway transport. He states, "The
total cost of transportation is the cost of the road itself plus the cost of
operating vehicles over it, and it is obvious that the most economical road
in any given location, will be one for which the sum of these two items
is the least." If a piece of road is worth a certain sum today, it will be
worth less a year from today because of depreciation. Another item of
it,
cost is interest on the money which is invested in the road to build

actual financing methods.
of
regardless
The next item of cost annual maintenance. The last vehicle opera
is
is
tion. usually the largest.

It
is
If we let represent annual cost. D depreciation, average interest,

C
M annual equated maintenance cost, and annual cost of vehicle opera

O
tion, then
C= + i+M +
D
Administration or highway operation sometimes included as

is
sep
a
*Composite car assumed to have the following characteristics: Factory list price, $767; Iowa
retail price. $905; weight, 2,350 lbs.; 15.75 miles per gallon of gasoline; and 102 miles per
quart of oil.
arate item but more often is apportioned between construction and main
tenance.
The total annual expenditure for construction and maintenance of
roads and streets in the United States is about $2,000,000,000, while the
annual cost of operating our 26,500,000 motor vehicles registered in 1930
must be in the neighborhood of $20,000,000,000 a year. This annual
operation cost is ten times the annual cost of the highways. This operat
ing cost is obtained by using recent figures of the Iowa Engineering
Experiment Station, Bulletin 106, on Automobile Operating Cost and
Mileage Studies, which gives the cost of the average passenger automobile
as 5.94 cents per mile with an annual mileage of 11,000. Commercial vehi
cle costs will run 15 cents per mile. The annual mileage of commercial
vehicles is not given in the bulletin so 15,000 has been assumed as the
average annual mileage. If through the improvement of highways, the
average vehicle operating costs can be reduced 10 per cent, then the annual
saving will equal the total annual cost of all the roads and streets, and
this is without giving any consideration at all to the immensely important
item of traveling time saved.
"Unfortunately," says Prof. Morrison, "it is impossible to proceed
entirely upon the basis of economic principles, even if political and legal
restrictions are disregarded, because, if any highway system is considered
as a whole, the expenditures economically justified would usually be far
beyond the practical limitations of available funds. In other words, it is
seldom possible to make all the improvements which would be sound
investments, but it seems evident that, in planning highway improvements,
the most important consideration is the resulting effect upon the cost of
vehicle operation.''
In any analysis of operating costs when comparing improved with
unimproved roads on an economic basis it is fair to assume that
Saz'ing of operating expenditures is the same as income.
Summary of Cost of Transportation

In any study of highway transportation costs there are two factors
that must always be considered. These are, first, the apportionment of the
annual road cost to the vehicles using the road ; and second, the annual
operating cost of these vehicles. The following formula, proposed by the
Committee on Highway Transportation of the Highway Research Board
in its report, gives the basis for determining the cost of highway transpor
tation per vehicle mile.
u
Annual Operating Cost per Mile
Highway Annual Cost of of Annual Traffic Less Contribu
Transportation Roads per Mile tions to Road Funds
Cost per
Annual Traffic
Vehicle Mile
ECONOMICS AMD PLANNING 15
Practical Example. — This formula has been used in determining

the cost of highway transportation on a Pennsylvania low-cost road.
Road Costs. — The annual road cost is made up of (1) the interest
1.
on the original investment, (2) the annual maintenance charges, and (3)
the annual charge for periodic maintenance. The annual road cost for
the highway under analysis is $3,191.82 per mile. The detailed develop
ment of this figure is taken up at the end of the section on "Economics of
Road Surfaces."
In making calculations when using this formula in the broad sense,
it must be remembered that the road cost includes all maintenance expen
ditures made for any purpose within the right-of-way. Snow removal,
weed cutting, ditch cleaning, guard rail repairs, culvert or bridge repairs,
as well as road surface maintenance are items to be included.
Vehicle Operating Costs. — For the purposes of this problem, vehicle

2.
operating costs have been taken from Bulletin 106 of the. Iowa Engineer
ing Experiment Station. This bulletin estimates that it costs 5.91 cents
to operate an "average" automobile, over one mile of good condition low
cost roads considering that the car travels 11,000 miles per year. With
an annual traffic of 250,000 vehicles per mile, it is evident that the annual
operating cost of this traffic is $14,775.00 per mile.
3. Contributions to Road Funds. — Contributions to road funds are ob

tained from two general sources: the gas tax and the license fee. Quite
naturally, several assumptions are necessary in calculating these con
tributions from a relatively small volume of traffic operating over one
mile of road. It is with this in mind that the following computations are
offered.
In the State of Pennsylvania, a 3 cent tax is levied upon every gallon
of gasoline sold.
As shown in the preceding table, 1.27 cents of the total operating cost
of the average automobile is attributed to the cost of gasoline.
With gasoline at 20 cents per gallon (as used in Bulletin 106) and
knowing that the 3 cent gas tax reverts to the road funds, the amount
which each vehicle contributes to the road funds through the gas tax is
3
—X 1-27 or .195 cents per mile of travel. Applving this amount to the
20
250,000 vehicles using each mile, the total contribution of this traffic to
the road funds through the gas tax is approximately $490.00.
In the same way the preceding table shows that 0.16 cents of the
total operating cost per mile of the "average" automobile is attributed to
the cost of license fees; With an annual traffic of 250,000 vehicles per
mile, the contribution of this traffic to the road funds through the license
fees is $400.00.
4. Highway Transportation Cost. — By substitution of the .values for

the annual road costs, the annual operating costs, the annual contributions
to road funds and the annual traffic, highway transportation cost is com
puted as follows:
Theoretical Cost of — 890)

3190+ (14,775
Highway Transportation
for Automobiles 250,000
= 6.83 cents per vehicle mile.
ECONOMICS OF ROAD SURFACES

This discussion is confined to an exposition of a method for compar
ing the costs of road surfaces, assuming that location, grading, and grades
are established. It is further assumed that the engineer has a record of
maintenance costs in his district on various types of surfaces. Maintenance
records are often loosely kept and not segregated as to type of surface.
Often the state or county owned trucks and other equipment are not
charged into the maintenance account. Before adopting figures to use
in the equation which follows, one should be careful to see that all proper
items are charged in the maintenance cost figures.
Two Cost Theories. — I. — We may look upon highway funds as

public contributions for road and street construction. In the final analysis
they are just that. Appropriations are made from non-interest-bearing
public funds by public officials for construction and maintenance of pub
lic thoroughfares. From the time public funds are collected until they
are expended, at no time are they invested in commercial ventures.
Accepting this theory of fund management we may state that the cost
of a road surface is
C = D + M
in which C is the annual cost in dollars, D is the accumulated annual
depreciation divided by the number of accumulated years, M is the aver
age annual maintenance cost obtained by dividing the total maintenance
charges incurred by the accumulated years.
II. — The present practice, however, is to consider that highway funds
could have been employed so as to net an interest return. In this case
we must consider annual interest, i, on the investment in first cost as a
part of the annual cost.
In this section two formulas in which interest appears are discussed.
While in the ultimate analysis they are identical, in appearance they
seem different. There are road improvement problems fpr which one
formula or the other is more nearly suited. In most low cost road prob
lems periodic reconstruction is not a factor, hence, the first formula is
more easily applied. Where periodic reconstruction and maintenance, and
general annual maintenance are separable in the cost records, and when
the cost is to be determined over a long period of time the second for
mula as used by Pennsylvania will be found suitable.
Accepted Practice. — In the economics of this book we employ
present practice. Hence, we state that the annual cost of a highway sur
face is the annual interest, i, on the original investment in the surface
plus the annual depreciation, D, calculated by a sinking fund method, plus
the annual equated cost of maintenance, M ;
C = i +D +M
This is true for any type of surfacing.
The people in general do not have more than a vague idea of the eco
nomic loss that they sustain from the lack of improved roads. If it were
possible for individuals to improve large mileages of our highway sys
tems each year with low cost roads in amounts equal to what states,
counties, and townships spend, i.e., $2,000,000,000, and make a charge
for toll just equal to the saving in the cost of operation of vehicles over
those highways the investor would recoup his investment within a few
years. Thereafter, he would enjoy tremendous profits.
Unit of Comparison. — In comparing the cost of one type of sur
facing with that of another, the comparison must be made on some stand
ard basis or unit of comparison. It is evidently unsound to compare the
cost of a 24-foot coarse aggregate bituminous surfacing carrying 500
vehicles an hour with the cost of a 10-foot single lane concrete road
carrying 10 vehicles an hour, unless we reduce the two conditions to com
parable units.
It is common practice to make comparisons of paving surfaces in this
country on two bases: (1) the square yard, (2) the mile. Both of these
units have their obvious shortcomings when analyzing total cost. For first
cost they have their proper places. For purposes of this discussion we
shall employ the mile. Because surfaces have varying widths it is neces
sary also to express the total cost in terms of cost per foot of width one
mile long. Likewise, traffic must be reduced to a comparable unit. Since
the roads are of varying widths, traffic density must be expressed in
density per foot of width. Traffic counts are usually taken on the num
ber of vehicles only. The designation between trucks and automobiles is
also taken. Beyond that there is seldom a further breakdown in the
average traffic count. It seems advisable to reduce traffic density, there
fore, to density of traffic per foot of width rather than per ton of traffic
per foot of width, in which case, if tonnage is desired, the correction
factor of the weight of the composite automobile and composite truck
can be applied. As an illustration of this point, the traffic density per
foot of width of 500 vehicles per day over an 18-foot coarse aggregate
500X250
road-mix surface for 250 days per year would be equals
18
approximately 7,000 vehicles per foot of width per year. We may now
express our unit of comparison, as Dean Agg does, as follows :
Unit of comparison for a highway surface cost analysis is the annual
cost per mile of surface I foot wide, per traffic density per foot of width.
Equated Annual Costs. — The cost to which we refer is not the
first cost of building the road but its equated annual cost. The process of
finding a true economic average annual cost is called equating the cost.
This can be done correctly only by a sinking fund method of calculating
wherever capital is susceptible ef being invested so as to yield interest.
We have already pointed out that in highway work it is questionable if
the capital employed for highway improvement is susceptible of being
invested so as to yield interest. Tax money from which this capital is
derived is a public fund and public funds are not invested in revenue or
interest producing properties. However, as stated before, since interest
calculations are employed by accepted practice we shall consider annual
cost in 'this light. Throughout the discussion on equated annual costs,
depreciation, etc., we have followed the principles expressed by H. P.
Gillette in his book on "Mechanical and Electrical Cost Data." Due credit
is hereby acknowledged to him for many statements made herein.
Before a rational comparison can be made between alternative types
of surfaces, or any types of plants, it is essential to express all costs either
as equated annual costs or as capitalized annual costs that have been
equated.
Maintenance. — When, for example, the cost of repairs or main
tenance is irregular, varying from year to year, no rational comparison of
repair costs, i.e., maintenance costs, can be made until they are equated to
an average annual amount. This cannot be accurately done by adding all
the annual repairs together for a term of years and dividing by the num
ber of years in the term. The correct process is as follows :
Calculate the total cost of repairs and maintenance of the first year
at compound interest up to the end of the last year of economic life of
the surfacing. Calculate similarly the cost of repairs and maintenance
of the second, the third, etc., years up to the end of the last year. Add all
these compounded costs together and multiply by the annual deposit in a
sinking fund which, started at the beginning of the life will redeem $1 at
the end of the life of the highway surface or plant unit. The product
is the equated annual cost of repairs and maintenance. Ordinary natural
depreciation is included in this cost because repairs bring the surface back
to a serviceable condition.
If the annual cost of repairs is actually uniform, year after year,
throughout the life of the surfacing, say $100, the equated cost rule gives
$100 as the result, thus checking the correctness of the rule.
If the repairs and maintenance all come at the very end of the life
of the surfacing, and thus constitute an entire renewal or reconstruction,
obviously the rule gives the correct answer, namely, the sinking fund
annuity required to redeem the investment at the end of the life of the
surfacing.
Depreciation. — Under this heading is discussed only functional
depreciation due to obsolescence or inadequacy. Natural depreciation is
cared for by repairs and is considered as part of the equated annual
maintenance cost. According to the sinking fund method of calculating
depreciation, it is assumed that the accrued depreciation of a highway
surface, bridge, or any plant unit, is the amount already accumulated in
a sinking fund that was begun when the highway surface, or any plant
unit, was first put into service, and whose annuities are such that at com
pound interest the amount at the end of the life of the surface, or plant
unit, will equal the first cost of same. For highway surfaces, bridges, or
other plant unit, it is the wearing value multiplied by an annuity which,
when deposited in a sinking fund will accumulate to $1.00 during the
term of years of functional life.
Investment is the total first cost of construction, including engineering,
bond, promotion, and other overhead.
Recovery value is the residual value in a surface that can be employed
in new construction or reconstruction without removal. It is the net value
remaining in a surface after the expiration of its natural (effective)
life. It is understood, of course, that we are now speaking of its life in its
particular place in the road under consideration. Recovery value is sal
vage value minus cost of removal.
There has been confusion in the past in the use of the term "salvage
value."
An illustration of recovery value is a case where a gravel road surface
is scarified just enough to make it possible to smooth the road with a
levelling machine and then have new material added and levelled for a
road-mix job. The old gravel surface, in this case, has a recovery value
dependent upon the particular conditions of the road improvement.
If the old gravel surface were entirely removed because of a grade
line change, it would have no recovery value, salvage value, or scrap
value.
This same old gravel surface would have salvage value if it were
scarified to its full depth, disced to break up the lumps, and formed in
a windrow down the center of the road to be re-used in making a new
surface by the bituminous paver method or for shoulders.
Individual judgment will have to be exercised on the individual case
to evaluate the old surface, bridge, or plant unit.
Wearing value, or service value, is the difference between the cost new
and the recovery value of a surface, bridge, or plant unit, in cases where
the residual value was utilized. In cases where salvage value obtains it
is the difference between the cost new and the salvage value. Therefore,
"wearing value" is the only part of the value that withstands functional
depreciation.
Scrap value is the selling price of an old surfacing or bridge that has
so depreciated as to be worthless for further service in any part of the
highway system until it has been remanufactured.
An illustration of this would be a narrow light weight bowstring
bridge, or metal culverts that have failed and have been replaced.
Salvage value is the selling price of an old surfacing, bridge unit,
or other plant unit, after its removal. It can never be less than its scrap
value, and may be considerably more if the surfacing, or plant unit, can
be used again in another surface or other plant without being entirely
re-manufactured.
Recovery value may be less than salvage value or even less than scrap
value, as happens when the cost of removing a surfacing or plant unit
is greater than the price for which it will sell as scrap. This is illustrated
in the case of a small pipe, the cost of excavating which may exceed its
scrap value. In paved streets, even fairly large pipes may at times have
little or no recovery value, because the cost of taking up and relaying
the pavement alone exceeds the salvage value. Of course, where a trench
for a new pipe is to be dug at the time of the abandonment of the old
pipe, the same trench may serve to rescue the old pipe and then its recov
ery value and salvage value may be almost identical. This is particularly
true where trenches are in rock, for it then is usually wise to re-use the
old trench for the new pipe.
Present worth of an annuity is the justifiable present expenditure to
save $1.00 for the term of years under consideration.
Sinking fund annuity is the deposit that must be annually placed in
a fund drawing compound interest to amount to $1.00 at the end of a
given term of years.
Tables of compound interest, annuities, sinking fund, and present
worth are given herein.
Equated Annual Cost Formula. — We are now ready to express
the annual cost of a surface, bridge, or other plant unit as a formula:
C = Ir + Wf + M
in which
C = total equated annual cost.
/ = total investment in surface,
r = annual rate of interest.
W = wearing value of surface.
/ = functional depreciation annuity rate, i.e., annuity deposit which
when placed annually in a sinking fund drawing compound
interest will amount to $1.00 at the end of the given term of
years.
M = equated annual maintenance cost, previously explained.
But W equals (7 — R), where R is the recovery value. Sometimes IV
equals (/ — S) where S is the salvage value. For this discussionwe shall
use R because low cost road surfaces are usually further utilized; i.e.,
there is a residual value that is used without removing the surface. Hence
C = Ir+(I — R)f + M
To use this formula the engineer must evaluate the recovery value of
the old surface.
There is one other factor of cost that should be included, viz., opera
tion of the road such as policing, collecting tolls, or caring for lights. For
low cost road problems it is omitted from the discussion.
The initial cost or investment can easily be obtained by adding to the
contract cost of the surface a percentage to cover engineering and adminis
tration. This percentage varies from 3 per cent for well handled high
way organizations to as high as 12 and 15 per cent for some highway dis
tricts and counties with small budgets. A fair average to use for low
cost road work would be from 6 to 7 per cent.
Modern traffic expects to use traffic lanes throughout the entire year.
To provide such service with safety and comfort, present day highways
must not only be constructed in accord with the latest and most approved
designs, but they must be maintained with a high degree of efficiency.
The following tabulation indicates recorded estimates of annual main
tenance expenditures by road type classification, based on local require
ments of the Arkansas Highway Department and substantiated by their
cost records. They do not include periodic reconstruction costs which
will be discussed later in the Pennsylvania practice of analyzing road
costs. The reader is urged to refer to the chapter on "Maintenance"
before using figures in any of these tables. For figures on Average Main
tenance Costs per Vehicle Mile see "Maintenance" chapter also.
TABLE III
Arkansas Annual Maintenance Costs by Road Types
632 Miles Unimproved Roads $ 100.00 $ 63.200.00

1.242 Miles Graded Earth Roads 200.00 310,500.00
1,775 Miles Light Traffic Gravel Roads 300.00 532,500.00
2.405 Miles Medium Traffic Gravel Roads 500.00 1,202.500.00
1.208 Miles Heavy Traffic Gravel Roads 1,500.00 1,812,000.00
280 Miles Asphaltic Type Roads 600.00 168,000.00
1,228 Miles Paved Roads 300.00 368,400.00
8.770 Miles Total— $4,457,100.00
Figures taken from the last annual report of the Indiana State High
way Department are given in Tables IV and V.
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TABLE V
Distribution of Average Maintenance Expenditures Per Mile in Indiana
for Fiscal Year Ending September 30, 1930
Miles on
Which Expend Struc-. Snow
Type of Surface iture is Based Surface Roadbed tures Removal Total
Brick 54.12 228.54 124.18 11.15 19.29 383.16
Cement Concrete 1,558.73 106.61 174.55 8.80 22.25 312.21
Rock Asphalt 93.84 36.61 191.93 23.73 12.94 265.21
12.21 741.07 200.04 18.34 11.18 970.63
136.64 425.17 147.24 10.74 21.01 604.16
Surface Treated Waterbound Macadam 21.10 453.22 294.19 2.24 4.98 754.63
Bituminous Retread Top .... 136.76 720.89 102.83 15.12 29.54 868.38
Bituminous Mulch Top 32.30 1.035.64 48.74 .94 4.48 1,089.80
Road Oil Mat Top 242.59 1,851.71 57.78 16.56 12.24 1,938.29
Oil Treated Surface 133.77 1,181.60 88.96 6.73 8.67 1,285.96
Stone Traffic and Waterbound Macadam 221.25 882.08 75.23 7.29 19.40 984.00
824.23 46.23 20.96 21.35 912.77
2,408.14 453.21 51.78 11.67 11.16 527.82
5,463.01 480.28 96.56 11.65 16.16 604.65
More detailed maintenance cost figures are included in the chapter on

"Maintenance."
Pennsylvania Method of Calculating Annual Cost. — The following
explanation by P. M. Tebbs, Assistant Chief Engineer, Pennsylvania
Department of Highways shows how this state handles maintenance and
depreciation charges.
In all phases of engineering, there is a critical relationship between
cause and effect. Thejjiaj[nitude_of total expenditures for_road improve
ment and maintenance and the close connection between adequate highway
faTjiTitfes'and public welfare impose upon the highway engineer due regard
for economy and efficiency. The need for highway improvement is so
extensive that consideration of ultimate costs is most serious even to the
wealthiest states. It is imperative that each project be planned carefully
not only as to first cost but with proper regard to depreciation and main
tenance.
On from current funds, actual road costs are
the basis of expenditure
chargeable Annual actual road charges
to depreciation and maintenance.
may be explained as average annual depreciation plus average annual main
tenance cost. For analysis or estimate of expenditures this simple method
of determination is sufficient. For an economic study, however, there is
significance in deferred expenditures, the best practice being to compute
average annual cost of deferred expenditures in terms of annuity with
the reciprocal of the formula
A =
t
Where A equals amount of annuity.
n
equals the number of periods,
j equals simple interest per period.
A formula recently developed by Dean Agg and Professor Breed in

committee for the Highway Research Board is as follows:
rC = r l\A + _
B
+
, E E'
[. etc.
1
I
L r (l+r)» — 1
1
(\ + r)n' — l J
in which
C = average annual road cost.
A = cost to construct.
B = annual maintenance cost (every year).
E = expenditures for periodic maintenance every n years.
E' = expenditures for periodic maintenance every w' years.
r = rate of interest prevailing in the current state financing.
Modified slightly to correspond with the practice of the Pennsylvania De
partment of Highways in computing depreciation and maintenance charges,
it is as follows:
*" _ i. °- £
i
f—
;|_ + ..— C—+
~- _. .... 1I t-E +
p
Where A is average annual depreciation and maintenance charge.
* is applicable annual interest rate.
B is cost of grading and structures.
m
is period of charging off cost of grading and structures in years.
C is cost of durable type surface or salvage value in surface.
n
is estimated life of durable type surface or term preceding re
surfacing in years.
D is cost of resurfacing (as appropriate).
p is
period of resurfacing in years.
E is actual annual general maintenance cost.
F is the total amount of periodic maintenance costs, preceding
resurfacing or between resurfacings.
P is the period, in years, connected with the expenditure F.
For the comparison of costs of different types of pavement, it is gen
erally considered proper to add, to the amount of the annual charges indi
cated above, the equivalent of interest on the initial investment at the rate
applicable to the agency responsible for financing.
The method that has been used for a number of years in the Penn
sylvania Department of Highways is based on the formula for the "an
nuity which one ( 1 ) will buy" and we have,
which combines annual interest with the reciprocal of the formula for
amount of annuity, the equivalents of this extended formula being di
rectly available in tabular form in Table VIII, included hereinafter.
The Pennsylvania formula with an example for illustration is as

follows :
A = Bb + Cc + Dd + M + N
where A is average annual total charge
Example, One Mile of Surface Treated Macadam
B is grading and drainage cost $10,000.00
i
b is
(I + i)B - 1
+ i for the period
off. ..07522 (4%%, 20 years)

and drainage cost is to be charged
of years in which the grading
C is cost of durable surface or salvage value anticipated in

type
temporary or semi-durable type surface $6,000.00
i
c is + » for the years of economic life of sur-
face 07522 (4#%, 20 years)

D is resurfacing cost $10,000.00
i
d is + t for the years period preceding resurfac-
(i + — i
ing 12483 (4*4%, 10 years)
M is average annual cost of general maintenance $500.00
AT is average annual cost of periodic maintenance $240.00
(3 retreatments at $800 in ten vears)
SlO.OOOx.07522 = $ 752.20
6,000x.07522 = 451.32
lO.OOOx. 12483
= 1,248.30
500.00
240.00
$3.191.82
— Total of average annual charge
In the example given above, grading and drainage, and resurfacing
costs are high because of Pennsylvania construction and conditions, and
yet we have a "Low-Cost" average annual charge.
DEPRECIATION AND ANNUITY TABLES

Continued development of highway construction and finance fosters
closer analyses of costs and engineering economics. Realizing this future
trend it was deemed advisable to include a discussion on depreciation and
annuity tables.
The accumulation of $1 for one year at an annual rate of interest r,
compounded t times per year would be —
' ^ ' ' ' 1

I F for one year.
When A = amount, or accumulation of $1 and interest during n years.

r = rate of interest, payments made at the end of each year.
t = number times quantity is compounded per year.
n = number of years.
for n years.
When interest is compounded annually then (1) A = (\ -f- r)n.

Table VI is calculated by formula (1). If the principal is $20, simply
multiply the amount found in Table VI by 20; and in like manner for any
other principal. It is convenient to bear in mind that money at compound
interest doubles itself in approximately the number of years obtained by
dividing 72 by the rate of interest. This is not strictly accurate, as may be
seen from Table VI, but, for the rough and ready estimates that an engi
neer is often called upon to make, it will generally suffice.
Table VI for many engineering purposes, less convenient than
is,
Table VII, which also compound interest table. The amounts given
is
in Table VII are the reciprocals of^the corresponding amounts in Table

VI. Table VII useful in determining the present value or present justi
is
fiable expenditure to secure a return $i at the end any number of

of
of
years.
To illustrate the use of Table VII, suppose it to be probable that the
traffic of projected change of highway will be double in ten years what
a
at present.
is
it
Suppose that present vehicle operating expenses can be reduced by

an improved location, and that the capitalized value of this saving
in present operating expenses $1. Then there certainly economic war
is
is
rant for spending that $1, but how much may be now spent to save another
$1 in operating expenses which will be effected by this improvement when
traffic shall have doubled 10 years hence?
Table VII gives the answer; for money can be borrowed at 5%, the
if
table shows that $0,614 may be spent now to secure betterment which
a
will yield capitalized value of $1 in reduced operating expenses 10 years

a
hence.
Therefore the total present justified expenditure becomes $1,614, of
which $1 the capitalized saving in present operating expense and $0,614
is
the capitalized saving in future operating expense when the traffic shall
have doubled.
As Wellington points out, this the maximum justifiable expenditure
is
to effect future saving in operating expense and, unless there assur

is
a
ance that these savings will occur and be sufficient to pay the interest upon
the increased obligations, danger of financial waste exists which may result
disastrously to the road tax budget and the engineer this plan were
if
carried on for any length of time as an administrative policy.

Table VII also gives present value of future annuity expressed as
a
a
t
percentage. Thus, if an annuity is to be made or set aside 6 years from

now and is supposed to redeem a certain sum, say $20 in 15 years from
that future date, the annuity at that time at a 5% interest rate would be
$20 X -481 = $9.62. The present value of that annuity from this same
table (six years before the annuity begins) would be 74.6% of $9.62 =
$7,176. In other words, if I want to set aside a certain sum now which
in six years from now is to be made into an annuity for some certain rea
son, that sum which I set aside now, namely $7.17, will amount to $9.62
at 5% compound interest in 6 years. The $9.62 can then be set aside as
an annuity to redeem a $20 account in 15 years at 5% compound interest.
Certain conditions or relations may exist at this time which would prevent
me from setting aside an annuity at this time to be used to redeem the $20
account. That is why this method must be used.
TABLE VI
Compound Interest Table
Amount of SI Placed at Compound Interest for a Term of Years

3 4 5 (, 7 8 9 10
Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per
Years Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent
1 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10
2 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.12 1.14 1.17 1.19 1.21
3 1.09 1.12 1.16 1.19 1.23 1.26 1.30 1.33
4 1.13 1.17 1.22 1.25 1.31 1.36 1.41 1.46
5 1.16 1.22 1.28 1.34 140 1.47 1.54 1.61
6 1.19 1.27 1.34 1.42 1.50 1.59 1.68 1.77
7 123 1.35 1.41 1.50 1.61 1.71 1.83 1.95
8 1.27 1 37 1.48 1.59 1.72 1.85 1.99 2.14
9 1.30 1.42 1.55 1.69 1.84 2.00 2.17 2.36
10 1.34 1.48 1.63 1.79 1.97 2.16 2.38 2.59
11 1.38 1.54 1.71 1.89 210 2.33 2.58 2.85

12 1.43 1.60 1.80 2.01 2.25 2.52 2.81 3.14
13 1.47 1.67 1.89 2.13 2.41 2.72 3.07 3.45
14 1.51 1.73 1.98 2.26 2.58 2.94 334 3.79
IS 1.56 1.80 2.08 2.40 2.76 3.17 3.64 4.17
16 1.60 1.87 2.18 2.54 2.95 3.43 3.97 4.60
17 1.65 1.95 2.29 2.69 3.16 3.70 4.33 5.05
18 1.70 2.03 2.41 2.85 3.38 4.00 4.72 5.55
19 175 2.11 2.53 3.03 3.62 4.31 5.14 6.11
20 1.81 2.19 2.65 3.21 3.87 4.66 5.60 6.72
21 1.86 2.28 2.79 3.40 4.14 5.03 6.11 7.39

22 1.92 2.37 2.93 3.60 4.43 5.44 6.66 8.13
23 1.97 2.45 3.07 3.82 474 5.87 7.26 8.9*
24 2.03 2.56 3.23 4.05 5.07 6.34 7.91 9.83
25 2.09 2.67 339 429 5.43 6.85 8.62 10.81
26 2.16 2.77 3.56 4.55 5.81 7.39 940 11.90
27 2.22 2.88 3.73 482 6.21 7.99 10.25 13.08
28 2.29 3.00 3 92 5.11 6.65 8.62 11.17 14.39
29 2.36 3.12 4.12 5 42 7.11 931 12.17 15.83
30 2.43 3.24 4.32 5.74 7.61 10.06 13.27 17.41

TABLE VI (Continued)
.; 4 s 6 7 8 9 10
31 2.50 3.37 4.54 6.09 8.15 10.86 14.46 19.15
32 2.58 3.51 4.76 6.45 8.72 11.74 15.76 21.06
33 2.65 3.65. 5.00 6.84 9.33 12.67 17.18 23.17
34 ....... 2.73 3.79 5.25 7.25 9.98 13.69 18.73 25.48
35 2.81 3.95 5.52 7.68 10.68 14.78 20.41 28.03
35 2.90 4.10 5.79 8.15 11.42 15.95 22.25 30.83
37 2.99 4.27 6.08 8.63 12.22 17.24 24.25 33.91
38 3.07 4.44 6.39 9.15 13.08 18.62 26.43 37.30
39 • 3.17 4.62 6.70 9.70 1399 20.11 28.82 41.02
40 3.26 4.80 7.04 10.28 1497 21.72 31.41 45.12
41 3.35 4.99 7.39 10 90 16.02 23.46 34.24 49.79

42 3.46 5.19 7.76 11.56 17.14 25.33 37.32 54.59
43 3.56 5.40 8.15 12.25 18 34 27.37 40.68 60.24
44 3.67 5.62 8.56 1298 19.63 29.54 44.34 65.04
45 3.78 5.84 8.99 13.76 21.00 31.92 48.33 72.89
45 3.90 6.07 9.43 14.59 22.47 34.46 52.68 79.90
47 4.01 6.32 9.91 15.47 24.04 37.23 57.42 88.20
48 4.13 6.57 10.40 16.39 25.73 40.21 62.59 95.67
49 4.26 6.83 10.92 17.38 27.53 43.43 68.22 106.72
50 4.38 7.11 11.47 18.42 29.46 46.88 74.36 117.00
TABLE VII
Compound Interest Table
Giving Sums Which at Compound Interest Will Amount to $1 in a
Given Number of Years
With Interest at —
4 5 <i 7 s 9 10
Years Cent Cent C-nt Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent
i 971 .951 .952 .943 .935 .926 .917 .909
2 943 .925 .907 .890 .873 .857 .842 .827
3 915 .889 .864 .840 .816 .794 .772 .751
4 888 .855 .823 .792 .763 .735 .708 .683
5 863 .822 .783 .747 .713 .681 .650 .621
6 837 .790 .746 .705 .666 .630 .595 .565
7 813 .760 .711 .655 .623 .584 .547 .513
8 789 .731 .677 .627 .582 .540 .502 .467
9 766 .703 .645 .592 .544 .500 .460 .424
10 744 .676 .614 .558 .508 .453 .422 .386
11 722 .650 .585 .527 .<75 .429 .388 .351

12 701 .625 .557 .497 .444 .397 .356 .319
13 681 .601 .530 .469 .415 .358 .326 .290
It 661 .577 .505 .442 .388 .340 .299 .264
15 642 .555 .481 .417 .362 .315 .275 .240
16 623 .534 .458 .394 .339 .292 .252 .218
17 605 .513 .436 .371 .317 .270 .231 .198
18 587 .494 .415 .350 .296 .250 .212 .180
19 570 .475 .395 .330 ,?76 .232 .194 .164
20 554 .456 .377 .312 .258 215 .178 .149
Years
3456789
Per
Cent
TABLE VII
Per
Cent
Per
Cent
(Continued)
Per
Cent
Per
Cent
Per
Cent
Per
Cent Cent
10
Per
21 537 .439 .359 .294 .241 .199 .164 .135

22 522 .422 .342 .277 .226 .184 .150 .123
23 507 .405 .326 .262 .211 .170 .138 .112
24 492 .390 .310 .247 .197 .158 .126 .102
25 478 .375 .295 .233 .184 .146 .116 .092
26 454 .351 .281 .220 .172 .135 .106 .084
27 450 .347 .268 .207 .161 .125 .098 .076
28 437 .333 .255 .195 .150 .116 .090 .069
29 424 .321 .243 .185 .141 .107 .082 .063
30 412 .308 .231 .174 .131 .099 .075 .057
31 400 295 .220 .164 .123 .092 .069 .052

32 388 .285 .210 .155 .115 .085 .053 .047
33 377 .274 .200 .145 .107 .079 .058 .043
34 366 .264 .190 .138 .100 .073 .053 .039
35 355 .253 .181 .130 .(94 .058 .049 .035
35 345 .244 .173 .123 .087 .063 .045 .032
37 335 .234 .164 .116 .082 .058 .041 .029
38 325 .225 .157 .109 .076 .054 .038 .027
39 316 .217 .149 .103 .071 .050 .035 .024
40 307 .208 .142 .097 .057 .046 .032 .022
41 298 .200 .135 .092 .052 .043 .029 .020

42 289 .193 .129 .086 .058 .038 .027 .018
43 281 .185 .123 .082 .055 .037 .025 .017
44 272 .178 .117 .077 .051 .034 .023 .015
45 264 .171 .111 .073 .048 .031 .021 .014
-'5 257 .165 .105 .058 .044 .029 .019 .013
47 249 .158 .101 .055 .042 .027 .017 .011
48 242 .152 .095 .061 .039 .025 .016 .010
49 235 .146 .092 .058 .035 .023 .015 .009
50 228 .141 .087 .054 .034 .021 .013 .009
TABLE VIII
Annual Deposit in Sinking Fund to Redeem $1 in 1 to 50 Veaks
— Rate of Interest, Per Cent, Compounded Annually —
i ears
to Run 3 A 5 * 7 8 9 10
1 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
2... 493 .'91 .488 .485 .483 .481 .478 .476
3 324 .320 .317 .314 .311 .308 .305 .302
4 239 .235 .232 .229 .2?5 .222 .219 .215
5 188 .185 .181 .177 .174 .170 .167 .164
" 155 .151 .147 .143 .TO .136 .133 .130
7 131 .127 .123 .119 .116 .112 .109 .105
8 112 .109 .105 .101 .P97 .094 .091 .087
9 098 .094 .091 .087 .083 .080 .077 .074
10 087 .083 .080 .076 .072 .069 .056 .053
TABLE VIII (Continued)

— Rate of Interest, Per Cent. Compounded Annually-
Years
to Run 3 4 s 6 7 8 9 10
11 078 .074 .070 .067 .063 060 .057 .054
12 070 .057 .063 .059 .056 053 .050 .047
13 ;.. 064 .060 .056 .053 .050 047 .044 .041
14 059 .055 .051 .048 .044 041 .038 .036
15 054 .050 .045 .043 .040 037 .034 .031
16 .050 .046 .042 .039 .036 033 .030 .028
17 045 .042 .039 .035 .032 030 .027 .025
18 043 .039 .035 .032 .029 027 .024 .022
19 040 .036 .033 .030 .027 024 .022 .020
20 037 .034 .030 .027 .024 022 .020 .017
21 035 .031 .028 .025 .022 020 .018 .016

22 033 .029 .026 .023 .020 018 .016 .014
23 031 .027 .024 .021 .019 016 .014 0.13
24 029 .026 .022 .020 .017 015 .013 .011
25 027 .024 .021 .018 .016 014 .012 .010
26 026 .023 .020 .017 .014 013 .011 .009
27 025 .021 .018 .016 .013 Oil .010 .008
28 023 .020 .017 .015 .012 010 .009 .007
29 022 .019 .016 .014 .011 010 .008 .007
30 021 .018 .015 .013 .011 009 .007 .006
31 020 .017 .014 .012 .010 008 .007 .005

32 019 .016 .013 .011 .009 .007 .005 .005
33 018 .015 .012 .010 .008 007 .006 .004
34 017 .014 .012 .010 .008 006 .005 .004
35 017 .014 .011 .009 .007 006 .005 .004
36 016 .013 .010 .008 .007 005 .004 .003
37 015 .012 .010 .008 .006 005 .004 .003

38 014 .012 .009 .007 .006 005 .004 .003
39 014 .011 .009 .007 .005 004 .003 .002
40 013 .011 .008 .006 .005 004 .003 .002
41 013 .010 .008 .006 .005 004 .003 .002

42 012 .010 .007 .006 .004 003 .002 .002
43 012 .009 .007 .005 .004 003 .002 .002
44 011 .009 .007 .005 .004 003 .002 .002
45 011 .008 .006 .005 .003 003 .002 .001
46 010 .008 .006 .004 .003 002 .002 .001
47 010 .008 .006 .004 .003 002 .002 .011
48 010 .007 .005 .004 .003 002 .001 .001
49 009 .007 .005 .004 .003 002 .001 .001
50 009 .007 .005 .003 .002 002 .001 .001
Sinking Fund Tables. — Table VIII

is a sinking- fund table, or an
nuity table, that gives the deposit that must be annually placed in a fund
drawing compound interest to amount to $1 at the end of a given term of
vears.
Let
dt = annuity, or sum deposited annually in a fund where the inter
est is compounded / times per year and which will amount
to $1 at the end of n years.
d = annuity, or sum deposited at the end of each year, which witf
amount to $1 in n years.
r = rate of interest, interest payments being made at the end of
each year, expressed as a decimal.
n = number of years.
Then
'
0+f )'
-
d
When t = 1, i.e., when the interest is compounded annually, we have
r
d =
(\ + r)»— 1
Table VIII gives the values for d, for any rate of interest (r) and any
term of years (w).
If it is desired to redeem an investment of, say. $1,200, at the end of
25 years, interest being 4%, Table VIII gives d = 0.02401, which would
redeem $1. Hence 0.02401 X $1,200 = $28,812, which is the annual de
posit in the sinking fund necessary to redeem the $1,200.
Table IX is also a sinking fund table, its values being the reciprocals
of the corresponding values in Table VIII. Table IX gives the accumu
lation of annual deposits of $1 at the end of each year and the interest on
-i4e same compounded annually. The use of this table involves the opera
tion of division, which is not ordinarily so rapid as the operation of mul
tiplication. To illustrate, let us assume the same problem as before : It is
desired to ascertain the annual deposit in a sinking fund necessary to
redeem $1,200 at the end of 25 years, interest being 4%. Table IX gives
the accumulation of $1 in 25 years at 4% as being $41.66. Hence
$1,200 -r- 41.66 = $28,805. This is not quite the same as the result se
cured with Table III, due to the fact that Table IX is not carried out to
as many decimal places.
1
Table IX =
Table VIII
Present Worth of an Annuity. — This is the sum which now
placed at compound interest will amount to the same total as an annuity
in a period of years. Employing this idea in road economics we may cite
an illustration of a justifiable present expenditure to save a certain sum

annually.
Let us assume that the saving to traffic (vehicle operating cost) by
improving a road will amount to $1,000 per mile per year. It is reason
able, also, to assume that this $1,000 annual saving can be used as an
annuity for retiring the investment, and reconstructing the improved road
surface. Since construction, if done now, must be paid for upon com
pletion, and not as an annuity over a period of years, it becomes necessary
for us to evaluate the present worth of the annuity. This will give us a
figure as to how much we can justifiably expend now to br.ing about
the $1,000 a year per mile saving to traffic. If current financing rates
are 5% and the surface must be reconstructetd every 5 years by reference
to Table X we find that the presnt worth of a $1 annuity for 5 years at
5% is $4.33. Hence, for a $1,000 annual saving we can make a justifiable
present expenditure of $4,330.
check our work we refer to Table VI, 5 years, 5% and get $1.28.
To
$4,330 X $1.28 = $5542, which is approximately (because of tabular
decimal differences) the same as the amount of the annuity as shown bv
Table IX.
TABLE IX
Sinkinc Fund
The amount (or accumulation) when $1 is deposited annually in a
fund whose interest is compounded.
At End —Rate of Interest, Per Cent —

of Year 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
2 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10
3 3.09 3.12 3.15 3.18 3.21 3.25 3.28 3.31
4 4.18 4.25 4.31 4.37 4.44 4.51 4.57 4.64
5 5.31 5.42 5.52 5.64 5.75 5.87 5.98 6.11
b 6.47 6.63 6.80 6.98 7.15 7.34 7.52 7.72
7 7.66 7.90 8.14 8.39 8.65 8.92 9.20 9.49
8 8.89 9.21 9.55 9.90 10.26 10.64 11.03 11.44
9 10.16 10.58 11.03 11.49 11.98 12.49 13.02 13.58
10 11.46 12.01 12.57 13.18 13.82 14.49 15.19 15.94
11 12.81 13.49 14.21 14.97 15.78 16.65 17.56 18.53

12 14.19 15.03 15.91 16.87 17.89 18.98 20.14 21.38
13 15.62 16.63 17.71 18.88 20.14 21.50 22.95 24.52
14 17.09 18.29 19.60 21.01 22.55 24.22 27.97
26.02
15 18.60 20.02 21.58 23.27 25.13 27.15 31.77
29.36 35.95
16 20.16 21.82 23.65 25.67 27.89 30.33
17 21.76 23.70 25.84 28.21 30.84 33.75 40.54
18 23.42 25.66 28.13 30.90 34.00 37.45
19 25.12 27.68 30.54 33.76 37.38 41.45
20 26.87 29.79 33.06 36.78 41.00 45.76 SI 27
TABLE IX (Continued)
At End — Rate of Interest, Per Cent—
of Year 3 4 5 0 7 8 9 10
21 . . , 28.68 31.93 35.72 39.99 44.86 50.43 56.76 64.00
22 30.54 34.26 38.50 43.39 49.01 55.46 62.87 71.40
23 32.46 36.63 41.43 46.99 53.44 60.90 69.53 79.54
24 34.43 39.10 44.50 50.81 58.18 66.77 76.79 88.50
25 ..... 41.66 47.72 54.86 63.25 73.11 84.70 98.35
26 38.56 44.33 51.11 59.15 68.68 79.96 93.32 109.18
27 40.71 47.10 54.66 63.70 74.48 87.35 102.72 121.10
28 42.93 49.98 58.39 68.52 80.70 95.34 112.97 134.21
29 4522 52.98 62.31 73.64 87.35 103.97 124.14 148.63
30 , . , 47.58 56.10 66.43 79.05 94.46 113.29 136.31 164.49
31 50.01 59.34 70.75 84.80 102.07 123.35 149.58 181.94

32 52.51 62.72 75.29 90.88 110.22 134.22 164.04 201.14
33 55.08 66.23 80.05 97.34 118.93 145.96 179.80 22225
34 57.73 69.88 85.05 104.18 128.26 158.63 196.98 245.48
35 60.46 73.67 90.31 111.43 138.24 172.32 215.71 271.02
36 63.28 77.62 95.82 119.11 148.91 187.11 236.12 299.13
37 66.18 81.72 101.61 127.26 160.34 203.08 258.38 330.04
38 69.16 85.99 107.69 135.90 172.56 220.33 282.63 364.04
39 72.24 90.43 114.08 145.05 185.64 238.95 309.07 401.45
40 75.40 95.05 120.78 154.75 199.63 259.07 337.88 442.59
41 78.67 99.85 127.82 165.04 214.61 280.79 36929 487.85

42 82.03 104.84 135.21 175.94 230.63 304.26 403.53 537.64
43 85.49 110.04 142.97 187.50 247.78 329.60 440.85 592.40
44 89.05 115.44 151.12 199.75 266.12 356.97 481.52 652.64
45 92.72 121.06 159.68 212.73 285.75 386.52 525.86 718.90
46 96.51 126.90 168.66 226.50 306.75 418.44 574.19 791.80
47 100.40 132.98 178.10 241.09 329.22 452.92 626.86 871.97
48 104.41 139.30 188.00 256.55 353.27 490.15 684.28 960.17
49 108.55 145.87 198.40 272.94 379.00 530.37 746.87 1057.19
50 , 112.80 152.70 209.32 290.32 406.54 573.80 815.08 1163.91
The present worth, W, of an annuity is given by the formula
w_ (l + r)«-l
(1+r)" r
Table X was calculated by this formula.
For the deduction of the formulas given in the preceding pages, con
sult any higher algebra, or Frye's "Civil Engineer's Pocketbook."
Table X is also useful to calculate the capitalized value of a saving in
operation or profit during the life of a motor-transport or other franchise.
Along with these thoughts it is proper to mention that this table would
be used to calculate the present worth of a future annual income, as
applied to gas taxes or bridge tolls, for instance.
TABLE X
Present Worth of Annuity
Showing Justifiable Present Expenditure to Save Per Year for
3456 789
$1
Various Terms of Years
Justifiable Present Expenditure with Interest at —
Term 10
oi Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per
1 $0.97 $0.96 $0.95 $0.94 $0.93 $0.93 $0.92 $0.91
2 1.91 1.89 1.86 1.83 1.81 1.78 1.76 1.74
3 2.83 2.78 2.72 2.67 2.62 2.58 2.53 2 49
4 3.72 3.63 3.55 3.47 3.39 3.31 3.24 3 17
5 4.58 4.45 4.33 421 4.10 3.99 3.89 3 79
6 5.42 5.24 5.08 4.92 4.77 4.62 4.49 4 36
7 6.23 6.00 5.79 5.58 5.39 5.21 5.03 4.87
8 7.02 6.73 6.46 6.21 5.97 5.75 5.53 5.34
9 7.79 7.44 7.11 6.80 6.52 6.25 6.00 5.76
10 8.53 8.11 7.72 7.36 7.02 6.71 6.42 6.14
11 9.25 8.76 8.31 7.89 7.50 7.14 6.81 6 50

12 9.95 9.39 8.86 8.38 7.94 7.54 7.16 6 81
13 10.64 9.99 9.39 8.85 8.36 7.90 7 49 7 10
14 11.30 10.56 9.90 9.30 8.75 8.24 7 79 7 37
15 11.94 11.12 10.38 9.71 9.11 8.56 8 06 7 61
16 12.56 11.65 10.84 10.11 9.45 8.85 8 31 7 82
17 13.17 12.17 11.27 10.48 9.76 9.12 8.54 8 02
18 13.75 12.66 11.69 10.83 10.06 9.37 8.76 8 20
19 14.32 13.13 12.09 11.16 10.34 9.60 8 95 8 37
20 14.88 13.50 12.46 11.47 10.59 9.82 9.13 8.51
21 15.42 14.03 12.82 11.76 10.84 10.02 9.29 8 65

22 15.94 14.45 13.16 12.04 11.06 10.20 9 44 8 77
23 16.44 14.86 13.49 12.30 11.27 10.37 9 58 8 88
24 16.94 15.25 13.80 12.55 11.47 10.53 9 71 8 99
25 17.41 15.62 14.09 12.78 11.65 10.67 9 82 9 08
26 17.88 15.98 14.38 13.00 11.83 10.81 9.93 9 16
27 18.33 16.33 14.64 13.21 11.99 10.94 10.03 9 24
28 17.76 16.66 14.90 13.41 12.14 11.05 1012 9 31
29 19.19 16.98 15.14 13.59 12.28 11.16 10 20 9 37
30 19.60 17.29 15.37 13.76 12.41 11.26 10.28 9.43
31 20.00 17.59 15.59 13.93 12.53 11.35 10 34 9 48

32 20.39 17.87 15.80 14.08 12.65 11.43 1041 9 53
33 20.77 18.15 16.00 14.23 12.75 11.51 1Q46 9 57
34 21.13 18.41 16.19 14.37 12.85 11.59 in> 9.61
35 21.49 18.67 16.37 14.50 12.95 11.65 ,« <1 9.64
18.91 16.55 14.62 9.68
36 21.83 13.04 11.72 \tf'<
37 22.17 19.14 16.71 14.74 13.12 11.78 9.7\
38 22.49 19.37 16.87 14.85 13.19 11 83 9.73
^
<,Q
39 22.98 19.58 17.02 14.95 13.26 11.88 9.76
40 23.12 19.79 17.16 15.05 13.33 11.93 ™

TA13LE X (Continued)
Justifiable Present Expenditure with Interest at —
Term 3 4 s 6 7 8 9 10
of Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per
41 23.41 19.99 17.29 15.14 13.39 11.97 10.79 9.80
42 2370 20.19 17.42 15.23 13.45 12.01 10.81 9.82
43 23.98 20.37 17.55 15.31 13.51 12.04 10.84 9.83
44 24.25 20.55 17.66 15.38 13.56 12.08 10.86 9.85
45 24.52 20.72 17.77 15.46 13.61 12.11 10.88 9.86
46 24.78 20.89 17.88 15.52 13.65 12.14 10.90 9.88
47 25.03 21.04 17.98 15.59 13.69 12.16 10.92 9.89
48 25.27 21.20 18.08 15.65 13.73 12.19 10.93 9.90
49 25.50 21.34 18.17 15.71 13.77 12.21 10.95 9.91
50 25.73 21.48 18.26 15.76 13.80 12.23 10|96 9.92
Interest Logarithms. — For convenience of anyone desiring to

compute a fractional interest rate and use the formulas Table XI is given.
TABLE XI
Tun-Place Logarithms of Interest Ratios*
Rate r Per Cent (1 + r) Log (1 -f r)
W 1.0175 0.0075344179
2 1.02 0.0086001718
2Y, 1.025 0.0107238554
3 1.03 0.0128372247
1.035 0.0149403498
4 1.04 0.0170333393
*A 1.045 0.0191162904
5 1.05 0.0211892991
sy* 1.055 0.0232524595
6 1.05 0.0253058553
<><■ 1.065 0.0273495078
7 1.07 0.0293837777
7'A 1.075 0.0143084543
8 1.08 0.0334237555
1.085 0.0354297382
9 1.09 0.0374264979
1.095 0.0394141 192
10 1.10 0.0413926852
EVALUATING BOND ISSUES

In valuing highway, utility, properties it often becomes
and industrial
necessary to evaluate Any discussion as to the
the outstanding securities.
characteristics of the various kinds of bonds would be irrelevant here.
If a more thorough understanding is desired the reader should refer to
Kent's "Mathematical Principles of Finance." Bonds are purchased prin
cipally as an investment for the income they will produce and if held until
they become due, market fluctuations have no bearing or effect upon
*This table was abstracted from table in book of Ten-Place Interest and Annuity Tables,
by Kent.
either principal or interest income except that the value of the dollar will
probably be different at maturity than when the bond was purchased.
That the value of the dollar fluctuates with fluctuation in price levels
is,
and hence the real value of dollar will be different at maturity of bond
a
than when the bond was purchased.
There are several things that cause bond to have different market
a
prices. They must all be recognized in evaluating or determining mar
a
ket price for the bond. In general, bond will sell (1) at discount,
if
a
a
the buyer to realize an income rate which higher than the rate named
is
is
in the bond; (2) at par, the buyer to realize an income rate which
if
is
the same as that named in the bond; (3) at premium, the buyer
is is
if
a
to realize an income rate which lower than the figure named in the
is
bond.
Value of Bond. — bond made up of two parts, (1) the prin
A
is
cipal; (2) the interest. The value of these two parts as of date certain
a
the present value made up of two amounts.
is
The present value of the price at which the bond to be called

1.
is
or redeemed (usually par).
The present value of an annuity made up of the interest or
2.
dividend payments on the par value of the bond.

These interest or dividend payments are specified in the bond and are
always calculated on the par value or value named in the bond.
Hence the present value would be X + W where

C
C
C
r
,
r)-
+
(1
the redemption price of the bond (par unless otherwise specified),
is
is
r
the rate of interest and IV the present worth of an annuity as previ
is
ously developed. More explicitly, the present value equals
_ (l+r)»—
C
-f-rC
,
(1+r)- (l+r)-r
The first part of this equation the present value of tthe redemption price,
is
the second part the present value of the interest coupons, assuming
is
they are placed out on interest as soon as clipped. This equation holds
for the case where bond interest payable annually and the nominal inter
is
est rate r, the effective income rate.

is
With most bonds, however, the interest payable more often than
is
once year, usually semi-annually. In this case the annuity payment

a
would be made twice year, say for general figures, times a year. The
a
rC
C
r
then would The present value of both and

C
be
is
annuity .
t
t
generally computed on the basis of nominal yield rate, convertible m

a
times vear.
a
Assume that the yield or return rate is a nominal rate k convertible

in times a year. Usually the converting time is the same as the period for
which the coupons draw interest, hence, m — t. Semi-annually being the
usual period it follows that m = t — 2.
With this information we can calculate the discount on bonds.
rC
('+-)"*-'
P„ ^ 1
= CX +
The above is the equation/ which naturally results and in which we

may substitute our values.
An illustrative problem follows:
The figures were chosen to show the method of attack and to avoid fractional percentages as
tnnch as possible. More complete tables of compound interest functions carry the figures to
greater accuracy.
A county advertised for county road improvement for

a bond letting
Jan. 1, The. successful buyer bought them at a discount such that
1920.
he would net 6% on the investment. The bonds were $100, 4%, 20-year
sinking fund security, interest payable Jan. 1 and July 1. How much
was the discount?
C = 100, n = 20, t = 2, from which tn = 40, r= .04, then
rC = 2, —= .03.
t t
Substituting in formula above and using Tables VII and X, we get
1 (1.03)*°— 1
Purchase Price = 100 X + 2
(1.03)40 (1.03)40 X.03
= 100 X .307 + 2X23.12
= 30.70 + 46.24
= 76.94
Subtracting $76.94 from $100 we find that the discount was $23.06
per $100 bond.
Yield or Income Rate Determined from Bond Tables. — Since a
bond often sells at a price different than par, and its market value is
different than par, the rate of interest received by the buyer is not the
nominal rate named in the bond. All of the characteristics of the bond
should be known so as to enter the tables.
Large banks and investment bankers use extended bond tables which
give results correct to the nearest cent on $1,000,000. If it is desired
to have results nearer correct than one one hundredth of one per cent,
these tables should be used.
Bond Tables cover the field very accurately. The

Sprague's Extended
following table was taken from this source. The illustrative example
shows how this table is used.
TABLE XII
Values, to the Nearest Cent, of a Bond for $1,000,000 at AYi%
Interest, Payable Semi-Annually
Net
Inc. 18 Years \%y, Years 19 Years 19# Years 20 Years
2.S0 $1,288,472.67 $1,294,787.83 $1,301,025.01 $1,307,185.20 $1,313,269.33
2.55 1,280,072.46 1,286,173.74 1,292,19821 1,298,146.84 1,304.020.58
2.60 1,271.740.13 1,277,630.93 1,283,446.13 1,289,186.70 1,294,853.60
2.65 1,263,475.09 1,269,158.74 1,274,768.06 1,280,304.03 1,285,767.61
2.70 1,255,276.76 1,260,756.55 1,266,163.34 1,271,498.12 1,276,761.83
275 1,247,144.54 1,252,423.72 1,257,631.29 1,262,768.23 1,267,835.49

2.80 1,239,077.87 1,244,159.63 1,249,171.23 1,254,113.64 1,258.987.81
2.85 1,231,076.15 1,235,963.67 1,240,782.52 1,245,533.66 1.250,218.06
2.90 1.223.138.83 1.227.835.22 1,232,464.49 1.237,027.59 1.241,525.47
2.95 1,215,265.35 1,219,773.68 1,224,216.49 1,228,594.72 1,232,909.31
3.00 1,207,455.13 1,211,778.46 1,216,037.89 1,220,234.37 1,224,368.84

3.05 1,199.707.64 1,203,848.94 1,207,928.04 1,211,945.86 1.215.903.34
3.10 1.192,022.31 1.195.984.55 1.199,886.32 1.203,728.52 1,207,512.09
3.15 1,184,398.62 1.188,184.71 1,191,912.10 1,195,581.68 1.199,194.37
3.20 1,176.836.02 1,180,448.83 1,184,004.76 1,187,504.68 1,190,949.49
3.25 1,169.333.97 1,172,776.35 1,176,163.69 1.179,496.87 1.182.776.75

3.30 1.161,891.95 1,165.166.70 1,168.388.29 1,171,557.59 1,174.675.45
3.35 1.154,509.44 1,157,619.31 1,160.677.96 1,163,686.21 1.166.644.91
3.40 1,147,185.91 1.150,133.64 1,153.032.09 1.155,882.10 1,158,684.46
3.45 1,139,920.85 1,142,709.12 1,145,450.11 1,148.144.61 1,150,793.43
3.50 1,132,713.76 1,135,345.22 1,137,931.42 1,140,473.14 1,142,971.15

3.55 1,125,564.13 1.128,041.40 1,130,475.46 1,132,867.07 1,135.216.97
3.60 1,118.471.46 1.120,797.11 1,123,081.64 1,125,325.78 1,127,530.23
3.65 1,111,435.25 1,113,611.83 1,115,749.41 1,117,848.67 1.119.910.31
3.70 1.104,455.01 1,106,485.04 1,108,478.19 1,110,435.14 1,112,356.55
3.75 1.097,530.27 1.099.416.21 1,101,267.45 1.103.084.61 1,104.868.33

3.80 1.090.660.52 1,092.404.83 1.094.116.61 1,095,796.48 1.097.455.02
385 1,083.845.30 1.085,450.38 1,087,025.15 1.088,570.17 1.090.086.02
3.90 1.077.084.14 1.078.552.37 1,079,992.51 1.081,405.12 1.082.790.70
3.95 1.070,376.56 1,071.710.28 1,073,018.18 1,074.300.74 1,075,558.46
400 1.063.722.11 1.064.923.63 1.066,101.60 1,067.256.47 1.068.388.70

4.05 1.057,120.31 1.058.191.92 1.059.242.27 1.050.271.76 1.061.280.83
4.10 1,050.570.72 1,051.514.67 1.052,439.66 1.053.346.06 1,054,234.26
4.15 1.044.072.88 1,044,891.39 1,045.693.25 1.046.478.82 1.047.248.41
4.20 1,037,626.35 1,038,321.60 1,039,002.54 1,039,669.48 1,040,322.71
TABLE XII (Continued)

Net
Inc. 18 Years 18J4 Years 19 Years 19^ Years 20 Years
4.25 1,031,230.68 1,031,804.83 1,032,367.03 1,032,917.53 1,033,456.58

4.30 1,024,885.43 1,025,340.61 1,025,786.20 1,026,222.42 1,026,649.46
4.35 1,018,590.17 1,018,928.47 1,019,259.58 1,019,583.63 1,019,900.79
4.40 1,012,344.46 1,012,567.96 1,012,786.66 1,013,000.64 1,013,210.02
4.45 1,006,147.88 1,006,258.62 1,006,366.96 1,006,472.94 1,006,576.61
4.50 1,000,000.00 1,000,000.00 1,000,000.00 1,000,000.00 1,000,000.00
4.55 993.900.41 993,791.65 993,685.30 993,581.33 993,479.67
4.60 987,848.68 987,633.12 987,422.40 987,216.42 987,015.08
4.65 981,844.41 981.523.97 981.210.82 980,904.79 980,605.70
4.70 975,887.18 975,463.78 975,050.10 974,645.92 974,251.02
4.75 969.976.59 969,452.11 968,939.79 968,439.35 967.950.53

4.80 964,112.25 963,488.52 962,879.42 962,284.59 961,703.70
4.85 958.29375 957.572.61 956,868.55 956,181.16 955.510.04
493 952,520.69 951,703 95 950,906.73 950,128.58 949,369.04
4.95 946,792.70 945,882.1 1 944,993.52 944,126.40 943,280.21
5.00 941,109.37 940,106.70 939,128.49 938,174.14 937,243.06
Illustrative Example. — A problem that occurs quite frequently is

one of determining the yield or income return on a bond that was sold
at a premium or a discount and has a certain period to run before ma
turity.
Obviously, solving for k in the formula used in the preceding prob
lem will give the desired result. This, however, is somewhat difficult,
requiring the use of logarithms, and may be more easily solved by the use
of a bond table — Table XII. Such a problem follows:
What rate of interest may an investor expect who pays 118^4 for a
4J^% bond maturing in \9y2 years?
Turn to the 4^4% table (in ;this case Table XII) in the column
headed 19J/2 years. Follow down the column until the value 118.75 is
reached. It will be found to be on the net income line of 3.20%. In other
words, a 4j4% bond bought at 118^ maturing in 19}4 years will yield
3.20% per annum on the investment.
When the value does not appear in the table an interpolation must
he made to determine it. What rate of interest may an investor expect
who pays $985 for a 4*4%, $1,000 bond, maturing in 20 years?
Turn to Table XII, the 4j/$% table, in the column headed 20 years.
You will notice that the figure 985 does not appear in that column exactly
but lies between the income rates of 4.60% and 4.65^.
4.60% 987.01508
4.65% 980.60570
6.40938
The difference between the price paid and the price at 4.60% is
987.01508
985.00000
2.01508
By proportion, 2.01508 : 6.40938 : : x : .05
.05 X 2.01508
6.40938
=
.0157% which is the amount to be added
to 4.60% to get yield rate.
4.60% + .02% = 4.62%. approximately.
AMORTIZED DEPRECIATION
The condition often obtains where a road is kept in service beyond
the limit of its economic life. Maintenance expenditures, in this case, are
such as to keep it in good condition for traffiic. Economic life is deter
mined by plotting annual cost per unit of road per unit of traffic as ordi-
nates against years as abscissa. The period of years from the beginning
of the curve to its lowest point will be the economic life. In other words,
when annual cost reaches a minimum the surface will have served its
economic life. After this time depreciation need not be considered as an
element of annual cost. Maintenance expenditures wiirbe the item respon
sible for the upward trend of the curve. This cost will prove so large
that it will be more economical to replace the surface than to continue
it at its maximum of serviceability. When this condition exists, interest
is calculated on the recovery value and the annual cost is:
C = Rr + M
C = equated annual cost
R = recovery value
M = equated annual maintenance cost
Even before the expiration of the economic life of a surface, the point
of view is often taken that maintenance can be of such character on low
cost road surfaces as to keep them in a condition of satisfactory service
ability equivalent to the surface when first constructed. In this case, the
recovery value is equal to the initial cost and the equation just given is
changed to
C= Ir + M
•• ' ECONOMICS AND PLANNING 41
ECONOMICS OF LOW COST SURFACES

In a previous section we stated that in the general design of an im
provement there is a true economic proportion between the costs of its
construction and costs of operation of the vehicles which have to use it.
This proportion may be defined as follows :
For pure economic studies a low cost road could be defined as a road
costing less per mile than the capitalized value of the saving effected
because of the improvement by owners of vehicles operating over it. For
example, if a road has a daily traffic of 500 vehicles and the construction
of a better type enabled a saving of 1 cent per mile per vehicle, the net
saving in a season of 250 days would be $1,250,007 This would pay the
annual interest on the investment, retire Hie principal in a few years, and
maintain a road costing $10,000 per mile and leave a balance of $200.00
per year. This would be a low cost road, whereas, one costing $15,000
per mile would be a high cost road.
Low Cost Roads Defined. — For the purpose of this book, low cost
roads may be defined as those whose surfaces show an initial cost less
than $10,000 per mile of 20-foot width of travelled roadway, whose drain
age structures_per . foot of span are not in excess of $50 per lin. ft. of
structure measured on the center line of the road, and whose alignment
and gradients conform to local standards and requirements ; which stand
ards are those recommended by the Committee on Design, of the Ameri
can Association of State Highway Officials, as shown in Table I, Chapter
III, for classes C, D, and E, or Table II, Classes II and III.
These classifications are shown in tabular form in the first pages of
Chapter III.
Low Cost Road Service. — Practical applications of the furnishing
of adequate service over thousands of miles of roads may be seen in the
field as demonstrations, but to illustrate their feasibility five tentative
charts of stage construction are presented. The materials costs and traffic
limitations are assumed for no particular piece of road but are based on
known conditions which exist in the field. They are selected typical
examples.
Figure 1 illustrates how a graded road is surfaced with sand clay,
clay gravel or similar material. Under maintenance it can be made to
serve daily up to 300 or 500 automobiles and light trucks. Later, by a
road-mix or a dual bituminous surface treatment, great traffic volume
may be carried and at the same time dust and loss of material will be
eliminated. Such surfaces reduce the hauling costs of materials for sub
sequent pavement construction because they are more serviceable than
ordinary earth subgrades. They have also proved valuable as subgrade
treatments.
Figure 2 shows how a graded road is improved by a compacted gravel
or macadam surface. Such surfaces are still being built but a large mile
age of them now in poor condition were inherited from the early days
of macadam construction.
Instead of tearing them up and wasting the materials and labor which
they represent as was the practice in certain localities they are now being
surfaced with bituminous materials. Modern methods of construction
increase their life and traffic capacity and greatly improve their riding
qualities.
Figure 3 illustrates the improvement of a gravel or macadam section
of modern construction. For this the depth and condition of the untreated
surface should be sufficient to warrant the addition of relatively expensive
types of bituminous surfaces. The cost of such bituminous surfaces is
near the upper limit for low cost improved roads.
Figure 4 illustrates the improvement of a graded road with a traffic
bound surface. Such surfaces represent a minimum initial investment.
The surfacing is gradually increased in thickness at periodic intervals to
meet increased traffic until a well compacted surface of appreciable thick
ness is obtained. The next step may be a treatment with calcium chloride
to reduce dust and loss of surfacing material. This step may or may not
be omitted before adding a road-mix or bituminous surface treatment.
Figure 5 illustrates the improvement of a graded road with single
lane concrete.
Concrete pavements have been built at costs varying from $1 to over
$2 per square yard, depending upon the cost of materials at the point of
construction. The average cost of concrete pavement 18 feet wide in
Illinois from 1922 to 1930, inclusive, was $22,381.34 per mile. Grading
averaged $3,464.55 per mile; bridges $2,944.46, and miscellaneous costs,
$1,141.26. This gives an average cost per mile complete, including all
drainage structures and grading of $29,931.61 per mile. Single track con
crete roads cost from $7,000 to $12,000 per mile, for surface prior to
1932. Average costs in 1932 were below $10,000 per mile.
At the end of 1931 a total of 32,550.5 miles of concrete pavement had
been built with the aid of Federal Aid on the Federal Aid highway system.
The average cost complete of this work, including all drainage structures
and grading was $35,859 per mile. The states invariably select projects
having heavy grading and numerous drainage structures for Federal Aid
to reduce the cost to the states as much as possible. This is illustrated by
the average cost of grading and drainage on 12,568.2 miles of Federal Aid
construction which was $9,796. This consideration brings the average
cost of concrete roads on Federal Aid construction well within the aver
age cost of such construction just cited for Illinois.
In estimating the costs of the road surfaces for the following examples
of stage construction, the cost of the first stage (the graded road) is not
included since the comparison is to be between surface types. Also, the
maintenance figure employed is the equated annual maintenance charge.
A further discussion of stage construction is included in Chapter IV.
Stage Construction
method I
Feather edge sand clay or clay gravel. Followed by a road-mix, fine
aggregate type, bituminous surface or by a dual bituminous surface treat
ment. Shown in Figure i.
Stage 2. It is assumed that the use of the sand-clay surface covers
three years before the bituminous surface is applied. The costs during
this period are estimated as follows:
Amount of
Maintenance in
Year Construction Maintenance 3 V'ears at -Ur
1 $1,500 $ 500 $ 562
2 500 500 541
3 1,000 1,040
$2,000 $2,143
The annual deposit necessary to accumulate $2,143 in three years is $686,
which is the average annual maintenance cost. Since the roadway is main
tained to keep it in the same condition each year the recovery or perma
nent value equals the amount spent for construction or $2,000.
Average Annual Cost = Ir -\- M = Rr -f- M
Average annual maintenance $685
Interest on 2,000 @ 4% '. 80
$766
If the average traffic during this period is 400 vehicles per day, the road
surface in cost per vehicle mile equals
$766 h- 400 X 365 = $.0051
Stage J. It is assumed that the road-mix bituminous surface will need
renewal every three years. It has therefore no permanent value, but the
recovery value of $2,000 of the sand-clay base still remains.
Amount of Expenditures at
Year Expenditures Etui of 3 Wars at 4f/c
1 $3,000 $3,375
-
2 1,000 1,082
3 500 520
$4,977
The annual deposit necessary to accumulate $4,977 in three years at 4 per
cent is $1,594.
Average Annual Cost
Average annual maintenance $1,594
Interest on $2,000 at 4% 80
$1,674
This would be the average annual cost so long as prices and traffic did
not change.
For a daily traffic of 1,000 vehicles the road surface cost per vehicle
mile would be $.0046.
Much of the material herein was published as a report to the Highway Research Board by
C. X. Conner.
/. Jtcnm
. jp-
M/nre/znj M /irm/a mrrr cvjr poo
jo'
MfttiMJ Jox/OytrOyS/B/e/ /mm #wr CCsr fjoo /o /too

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-Mo- Hon
tf/trtcus fax/fyftya/t <m/&/ w/rm wwr cosr jjoo * few

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OP
Mi> 8/ru/i//yous ji/erfice ret/!mmr
IC'orHi
\*
Sf/!rf£//kJ Am/arSfaemdM mtUMM/Wfr COST f/oo fo ftioo

ilHTMl COST f//oo fo fjooo seer/Cf goo /e /soo
Z /texffl /rat/cM)? m? /iw//4/Mi' or/nan/Max? au/o/~ v/ore/mr/
Fig. I
METHOD II
Untreated surface of gravel or macadam. Followed by road-mix bitu
minous surface, coarse aggregate, Type I or II. Shown in Figure 2.
Stage 2. The average annual cost of the gravel or macadam surface
would consist of the interest on the original cost ( = recovery value in
this case) plus the average annual maintenance, and if the yearly main
tenance costs are equal plus one year's interest on the maintenance cost.
Average Annual Cost
Average annual maintenance $ 800
Interest on $800 at 4% 32
$1,312
For a daily traffic of 700 vehicles the cost per vehicle mile would be
$.005.
Stage 3. Assuming that the road-mix bituminous surface would be
renewed at rive-year intervals the average annual cost would be as follows :
Amount of Expenditures in
Year Expenditure 5 Years at 4vo
1 $3,000 $3,651
2 500 585
3 500 5' .3
4 ...'..... 500 541
5 500 520
$5,860
The annual deposit necessary to accumulate $5,860 in five years at 4 per

cent would be $1,082.
Average Annual Cost
SI. 562
For a daily traffic of 1,500 vehicles the cost per vehicle mile would
be $.0031.
METHOD III
Bonded gravel or macadam. Folloivcd by one and one-half inch plant-
mix bituminous top, laid cold on prime coated base. Shown in Figure 5.
Stage 2. The annual cost of the gravel or macadam would be as follows
before treatment, yearly maintenance being equal :
Average Annual Cost
Annual maintenance $ 800
Interest on $800 at 4% 32
$1,312
For a dailv traffic of 800 vehicles the cost per vehicle mile would be
$.0045.
i mm jccr/ffh
30'
fnirm casr ssom

^ jeer/cf ten «u
#><>»
f trmttmEDJuernctorQMmoeMic/iDffl
mWM5 Snwr/orJfoe MM/M MM COST fjw to fern

/W7/V. COSr fjeoo tof/iooo J££tft? mo to too
Wo PO#D-M/X~8/WMIffOU5 JURfflCt-CMe5t AOOEtCfiTt Tfftl.
S»r//lt. COSr / mo /a fjoea Ster/Cf aoo tc /see
oe
Mb r OfiD- fi/x-d.rt/M/nou5 suemcE-cM&t metcm rrrt £.
//Y//7M COST //<*» kjisio JC&lfiC aee to tooo
JT. /tov/M> /ral/cM?//? mfo/ 'cos/ 'tr/w/?/f/M/7a

cas/ofa/Mrr/VM/
Awe After fatf '&? //fex- C£mwfa//&jfj
Fig. 2
Stage j. Assuming that the surface treatment would need renewal in

five-year cycles the average annual cost would be as follows:
Amount of Expenlitures in
Year Expenditures 5 Years at 4%
1 $12,000 $14,600
2 300 351
3 300 338
4 500 541
5 600 624
$16,454
The annual deposit necessary to accumulate $16,454 in five years would

be $3,027.
Average Annual Cost
Interest on $12,000 (value of base) at 4% 480
$3,507
For a daily traffic of 1,500 vehicles the cost per vehicle mile would be
$.0064.
METHOD IV
Traffic bound stone, slag or gravel. Followed by calcium chloride treat
ment; dual bituminous surface treatment; and by road-mix bituminous
surface, coarse aggregate Type II. Shown in Figure 4.
Stages 2 and J. This type of surface needs renewal every three to five
years. Using four years, the average annual cost would be as follows :
1 $2,300 $2,691
2 600 675
3 600 649
4 600 624
$4,639
The annual deposit necessary to accumulate $4,639 in four years at 4 per
cent would be $1,092, which is the average annual cost of the surface.
$.005.
Stage 4. The use of calcium chloride would tend to lessen the loss of
material and should therefore prolong the rebuilding cycle. An estimate
of cost is as follows :
1 $2,700 $3,286
2 600 702
3 600 675
4 600 649
5 600 624
$5,936
30'
AHffiBHtJ M mm fMIIII COST tm **/*>

fftffMt&ur fsooo fany* SO?r/Cf UnOm m
n. wm/iTro jue/wt or do/iott) cftvti oe /mam
AHW//ZJ fare/ or Sfat 4t0W/k WI/IT COST tJM to fooo

W/Mt COST fro* fo/tfoao SGB/TCt jet /o too
ffla. rWMBflFiAD COID /H'dinmOUS TOP on W/¥f CMrfD out
mrre/rtu jaw orjty *&/ tw/mm/tr cosr***,

*mi£ COST truth 4 vooo Jfle/Wf /ax> to isoo
oe
mmus jk*j&-M mrnmnr cosr uaMmtM

/ff/r/At COST jvooo /of 'am Jf&Tf ,000/0 zooo
IF Poss/6/e reat/cft//7 //? mHv/cos/ orp?a////e/x7t7ce cas/of enfre/ne/?/

Ante 'arJfcse
/ffe #fie» caqiMGtofAa&
Prem/xed is same as Plonf-m/x
Fig- 3
The annual deposit necessary to accumulate $5,936 in five years would

be $1,096, which would be the average annual cost of the surface including
the rebuilding of the original surface.
$.0038.
Stage 5. Assuming that this surface would need renewal in three years,
the average annual maintenance cost would be estimated as follows:
1 $3,000 $3,375
2 400 430
3 400 416
$4,221
The annual deposit necessary to accumulate $4,221 in three years would

be $1,352.
Average Annual Cost
Interest on $2,000 (recovery value of gravel base) at 4% 80
$1,432
$.0032.
Stage 6. This surface being heavier should last longer before retread
ing is necessary. Assuming five years, the average annual maintenance
cost is estimated as follows:
1 $5,000 $6,085
2 400 468
3 400 450
4 400 433
5 400 416
$7,852
The annual deposit necessary to accumulate $7,852 in five years would be

$1,450.
Average Annual Cost
Interest on $2,000 (recovery value of gravel base) at 4% 80
$1,530
$.0021. „
METHOD V
Single track concrete. Followed by construction of second lane. Shown
in Figure 5.
A fifth method of stage construction not covered in the foregoing is
the construction of one paved lane of concrete followed with the construe
x
50 LOW COST ROADS ASD BRIDGES
/mm/ mmm or {ffljWfrm

/. mm?
-JO'
W7F£MJ Joit MtfM M/tiT C03F fioc erx/w
J7. rear/c sot/w- /Jr roe -

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tf/?ffie//?/S 3/a>e,Jbftr6*»r/ /WW. HWtr Cffjr $soa
mref/MS Mar, Xyar Cwet ANNUM /WIT CBXr fsot

cosrrworireaej t**>s to /sooo êwct jooto soo
'/e'awa jx/tf/ict men mo csucmmo&ac
WrOFCmZt/VVCMfeee/oJaoo Jt&zr mo to aoo
twmems /mm m/ttrcajr //» to tm

//f/n/u casr tnoo to /moo seemr ax> a> wo
17 poaD-MM-B/rM/ffmj(/emc£-aMe5£ metfflreimii
7
MtfBefOtJ 5/mea*/&/mw WYM MMrftfjr tw to J rot
//y//7i%casrjwo /o/sooo to
M
ooo /m>
/tea/Mr rfdxr//07/j> /M/0/ca}/ar/m'j>/awtt ais/ofa /r/w/
Fig. 4
tioii of the second lane when traffic demands or finances permit. As in the
other examples, the cost of surfacing only is considered. This cost for
single track concrete construction will range from less than $7,000 per
mile to a maximum of about $12,000. An average cost of $11,000 will be
used although a much lower average prevailed in 1932.
Stage 2. The average annual cost of the single track concrete surface
would consist of the interest on the original cost plus the average annual
maintenance, and if yearly maintenace costs are equal plus one year's
interest on the maintenance cost, and the annual deposit necessary to
accumulate the replacement cost.
Average Annual Cost
Average annual maintenance (Est.) $ 80.00
Interest on $80 at 4% 3.20
Interest on $11,000 at 4% 440.00
Annual deposit for renewal 132.06
$655.26
The annual deposit covers the renewal charge ( resurfacing) that will
be necessary at the end of 25 years. It costs about 50% of the original
surfacing.
$0.0045. For 1.000 vehicles per day, it would be $0.0018.
Stage J. At some future time a second lane will be added at a cost
equal to the cost of the first lane.
Average Annual Cost
Average annual maintenance $ 150.00
Interest on $150 at 4% 6.00
Interest on $22,000 at 4% 880.00
Annual deposit 264.11
Total $1300.11
For a daily traffic of 1,000 vehicles the cost per vehicle mile would
be $0.0036. For 2,000 vehicles the cost per vehicle mile would be $0.0018.
These estimates of cost apply only for uniform traffic conditions.
With increase in traffic, maintenance costs for any of these types will
increase until either the annual cost becomes greater than that of the
next higher type, or until it becomes impossible to keep the road in a
satisfactory condition. In such cases we are not interested in the average
annual cost but in the actual cost from year to year.
The value of the surface as a subgrade treatment for a pavement type
has been demonstrated in the field.
If the gravel surface had a bituminous surface treatment the cost of
operation would be still further reduced. There is a value in time saved
by travel over a well-maintained surfaced highway compared with ordi
nary earth in a poor state of maintenance.
VLow cost improved roads are profitable investments provided they are
intelligently maintained and not overloaded by heavy trucks.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF STAGE CONSTRUCTION

METHOD 7
IOPADED SECTION
^1 30'
MATERIALS Soil ANNUAL MAIHTCOST *IOOandup

INITIAL COST *5.000 Average SERVICE Less than 100
U- SINGLE TQACK CONCRETE ROAD

9' WIDE. 9"- G"- 9 "CROSS SECTION
15' 9'
3Q'
T
MATERIALS Concrete ANNUAL MA/NT COST * 80
INITIAL COST * 7,000 to* 12.000 SERVICE 50 to 1000
M- TWO LANE CONCRETE ROAD

18' WIDE. 9'-6"-9" CROSS SECTION
9' i \m 9' . 6' r
id- 'I'rr *•* is-
» *
30-
MATERIALS Concrete ANNUAL MA INT. COST $150

INITIAL COST *l4,000to*24.000 SERVICE 500 to 10 000
Fig. 5
TRAFFIC SURVEYS
The primary purpose of highways is to carry traffic and accordingly
there can be no highway study of more fundamental importance than a
study of traffic. How else could we determine proper width, cross-section
design, surface type, finances involved, proper location, and numerous
other details? Traffic studies are basic in their nature.
The traffic survey should produce two kinds of data as indicated in
the following tabulation:1
1. Highway administration and engineering data:

a. — To determine daily, seasonal, and yearly traffic density and dis
tribution on state, county, or regional highway systems.
b. — To estimate future traffic on state highway systems.
c. — To determine
the relation of traffic density to the factors respon
sible for the growth of traffic, such as motor vehicle registration, produc
tion, and population.
d. — To classify
highways as industrial, high-type, or low cost traffic
routes, and determine design requirements based on (1) passenger car
and motor truck density, and (2) motor truck capacities, gross loads and
prevailing wheel loads.
e. — To determine highway width in proportion to traffic.
/. — To
estimate the extent to which the improvement of old, or the
opening of new traffic routes is economically justified.
<;.—To correlate traffic loads and density on the highways with high
way construction and maintenance costs.
h. — To determine the type and volume of traffic on the highways as
an index to the allocation of highway construction and maintenance funds.
i. — To determine the amount and frequency of motor truck over
loading.
— To compare
the cost of various types of highway improvements,
;'.
such as relocations, grade reductions, elimination of grade crossings (both

rail and highway), traffic, "bottle-necks," with the estimated saving in
transportation costs resulting from such improvements.
— To compare
the earning value of the highway system (based on
k.
passenger miles and freight ton-miles) with the present worth of the
highway system using replacement value minus depreciation as the basis
of computing present worth.
Highway economic data:
2.
a. — To
obtain highway transportation information concerning the vol
ume of tonnage shipped
by motor truck and the relation of highway
transportation to the other types of transportation.
'Where italics appear in this tabulation w<- have changed the wording from what was in
it
Highway Transportation," by G. McKiY, in Ameiuan lliiihtvays, Jan., 1925.

'
J.
b. — To determine the mileage zones of motor truck haulage.

c. — To determine
the situs of ownership of passenger cars and motor
trucks operating over the highway systems.
d. — To estimate the value of motor truck net tonnage hauled over the
highway systems.
e. — To
determine the type of origin and destination as well as the
origin and destination of net tonnage of commodities transported by motor
truck over the highway systems.
/. — To estimate passenger car business and non-business usage of
highways.
g.-
— To determine the proportion of farm traffic on the highways.
In planning a traffic survey it is essential that there shall be a clear
understanding of the methods to be employed in converting the basic data
to the solution of the various problems. Otherwise essential data may not
be obtained, and much gathered that is later found to be useless. The
methods employed must be carefully designed to supply a maximum of
information, of precisely the kind required, at a minimum of expense.
Selection of Station Locations.1 — It is advisable to divide the ter

ritory into homogeneous areas to provide a stable basis for the computa
tion of various transportation averages — averages of trip mileage, weights
of vehicles, weights of loads, numbers of vehicles passing a given point,
etc. Comparison of averages between two areas have meaning only when
there is reasonable homogeneity in each. If, for example, average weights
of loads are being compared for two areas, neither area should contain
much admixture of industrial and agricultural sections. It is best to put
all the agricultural sections into one area and all the industrial sections
into another. Comparison of net loads may then be made as between
agricultural and industrial regions.
The selection of station locations is affected considerably by the char
acter of the data to be secured and the objectives of the survey. If the
primary objective is that of measuring annual use of various road systems
— i. e., federal-aid routes, United States highway routes, state routes,
county routes, etc. — stations must be so located as to provide a represen
tative sample of traffic upon each. If the comparison is between sections
of the state, each section must be assigned a number of stations sufficiently
large to give a fair sample. If it is desired to measure the average lengths
of trip, stations should be located so as to get lengths of trip near large
cities, in agricultural areas, and in summer-resort areas. The average trip
length may vary as between interconnecting routes — viz., United States
highways and county routes.
Measurement of the use of highway systems by "foreign" (out of
1 Abstracted from March, 1929, issue of the official publication of the U. S. Bureau of Public
Roads, "Public Roads."
Fig. 6. — Map Showing Average Daily Density of Motor-Vehicle Traffic

on the State Highway System of Ohio
State) cars is often an objective of the survey. In this case stations should
be located so that traffic is measured both at state borders and in the
interior.
If relocations or reconstruction are to be based upon traffic data, sta
tions should be very carefully located and with as much preliminary
knowledge of traffic conditions as possible. For example, if two alternate
routes of different length between two cities exist, one in good condition
and one in poor condition, stations should be placed upon each route and
the origin and destination of vehicles ascertained. This will usually dis
close that improvement or relocation of one of the routes will result in
its exclusive use except for purely local travel. It should also be stated
now that traffic counts made on a surfaced road when compared with
Fig. 7.
— Location of Traffic Survey Stations in Ohio
traffic counts on a paralleling or near-by unsur faced road is not indicative

that the motorist prefers the location of the surfaced road; rather it
indicates that the motorist prefers a surfaced road. In other words, in the
case of unimproved roads, a traffic census is a poor indication of possible
future traffic that road would carry were it to be surfaced. The argu
ments relating to the selection of homogeneous areas apply in part 'to the
problem of station location. The variability in traffic is considerably dif
ferent in urban1 and rural areas, and stations should be so located as to
measure accurately these differences. Usually this may be done by desig
nating as "urban" those areas within lb miles of the larger cities, and
considering all other territory as "rural." A check up as the traffic analy
sis proceeds will determine whether the division between urban and rural
has been made correctly.
Key stations are those at which traffic information is most important.

They are usually located at the intersections of all main routes, and the
information obtained at them should be the most complete from 'the stand
point of the amount and detail of the data secured, and from the stand
point of duration of observation. Blanket-count stations are those at
which only the most important data are taken (viz., number of vehicles)
and which may be operated by inexperienced personnel. These stations
are usually operated a smaller number of times and are located upon the
relatively unimportant routes, or at intermediate points between key sta
tions on the main routes where a closer measure of variability in traffic
density is desired.
The key stations are divided into two classes — weight stations and
recording stations. Examination of the forms accompanying this text
will disclose the differences in the types of information secured at each.
The main difference is that at weight stations trucks are actually weighed
on loadometer or pit scales.
The number and location of weight stations are governed by many con
siderations, such as variations in loading practices, care to secure repre
sentative samples, the desire to measure the extent of overloading, the
greater expense of operation of a weight party, the availability of scales,
if pit scales are used, the interruption and delay of traffic by reason of
stoppage for weighing, and the physical surroundings.
Fig. 8. — Typical Forms Used to Record Data in the Field

RECORDER FORM
WASHINGTON, D. C, REGIONAL AREA SURVEY
Station No Weather Date _ Day— •
Route No _ to._ Direction from Station

FOREIGNVEHICLES
HOURS PASSBNCEBCARS TRUCKS BUSSRS
PASSENGERCARS TRUCKS BUSSRS
6-2
2-10
10-6
Route No. to .... Direction from Station _
POREIGN VEHICLES
HOURS rASSRKGERCARS TRUCKS | BUSSES "
PASSENCERCARS TRUCKS | BUSSRS
6-2
2-10
10-6
Route No to Direction from Station
POREICi VEHICLES
HOURS PASSENGERCARS TRUCKS BUSSES —
PASSENCKRCARS TRUCKS "BUSSES
6-2
2-10
10-6
Route No. L - to _ Direction from Station
HOURS PASSENGERCARS TRUCKS BURSES POREICN VEHICLES —

PASSENGERCARS TRUCKS BUSSRS'
6-2
2-10
10-6
Total number of solid Signed _ —

.. ,
tire .vehicles
Recorder
Fig. p. — Sample Data Sheet
Data secured at recording stations cover the same subjects as at weight

stations, except that no trucks are weighed. Passenger-car data forms,
similar to the one shown, are filled out at both weight and recording
stations.
The key stations — both weight and recording — should be allocated
upon primary, secondary, and third-class highway systems in accordance
with the importance of these systems; and the same rule should govern
the allocation of blanket-count stations.
The distance between stations is governed largely by the shape of the
highway network. Junctions should be covered as completely as possible,
and distance between key stations should rarely exceed 20 or 25 miles,
otherwise some cars will not be picked up.
Scheduling. — Schedules of station operation should provide for
more frequent operation at key stations and should furnish information
as to variability of traffic throughout the year. Best results will be obtained
when the schedule of key-station operation is .elastic enough to cover
peak-traffic and minimum-traffic periods. Representative samples of traffic
in urban and rural areas are required. The number of counts at a station
must be great enough to provide accuracy, and night operations should be
in the ratio of at least one to five-day operations. Day and night counts
should be of 12 hours' duration, beginning and ending usually at 6 a. m.
and 6 p. m. Satisfactory results are not likely to be obtained from counts
on three or four days distributed throughout the year. A count taken 1
week day. 1 Saturday, and 1 Sunday at intervals of 3 months will give
results accurate enough for many purposes, although a schedule provid
ing for operation of key stations every 13 days is much to be preferred.
Information at a large number of ''blanket-count" stations operated but
two or three days per year may be readily tied in with the more complete
results of key-station operation.
Two mistakes in scheduling party operations at key stations should
be guarded against : ( 1 ) Selecting for operation on successive days sta
tions that are located too far apart (20 to 25 miles is suggested as a limit) ;
and (2), simultaneous operation of two stations so close together that
there is danger of taking data from the same vehicle twice on a single
trip. The first error results in parties reaching the station later than
scheduled, or reaching the station without sufficient rest. The second error
is more serious on main routes and, if it occurs, tends to distort the
results, particularly for average trip mileage per vehicle. Since density
information only is normally recorded at blanket-count stations, the
warnings just given do not apply.
Character of the Traffic Data. — The amount of detail in collection
of the traffic data depends upon the results sought. Vehicles should cer
tainly be separated into passenger cars, trucks, busses, and horse-drawn.
Foreign vehicles should be tabulated separately, and the separation of
trucks by capacity classes is very desirable. Weather conditions, date,
and hours of operation should be noted.
Other less important information that may be collected includes, for
passenger cars : Number of passengers, city or farm ownership, purpose
of trip (whether for business or pleasure), origin and destination; for
trucks: Make, capacity, body type, origin and destination, commodity,
weight (loaded and empty).
Sheets containing the data secured in the field should be signed by

the party chief, who is held strictly accountable for their accuracy, and
forwarded daily to headquarters for analysis. At headquarters they are
received by the official in charge of traffic information. This official is
responsible for the operation of stations according to schedule, for the
completeness of the data, and for its analysis.
The analysis is greatly facilitated by the use of punching and tabulat
ing machines. Codes are assigned for each type of data, which is punched
on tabulating cards similar to that shown. The tabulating machines pro
vide for the rapid and .economical analysis of each type of information
at each station, for any area, any season of the year, any type of vehicle,
etc. Analysis of data for individual stations should be so planned that
6AM TOI0A.M. I0AM.T0 »P.M. 4P.M.T0BPM 8PM.T0 6AM.
Fig. 10. — Hourly Variation in Passenger-Car Traffic at Urban Stations

in Ohio, December to May
the results may be properly combined with those of other stations to give
homogeneous samples for any route, any section of the state, or the whole
state. Failure to this provision frequently produces results that
observe
are incorrect, 'difficult to interpret, or misleading, and usually results in
loss of time.
One of the primary factors in determining the average annual density
of motor vehicles at a given location is that of the variation in the num
ber of vehicles passing during the 24 hours of the day. Accuracy of the
density figures is considerably improved if most of the observations are
made during the hours of heaviest traffic. The counts already made by
the Bureau of Public Roads indicate roughly the general laws of traffic
flow in various sections of the United States; and these will be helpful
to others in planning their surveys.
Analysis of Data. — As stated previously, homogeneous areas are

to be desired ; and as an example for detailed analysis, passenger car
density at 112 urban- stations in the State of Ohio will be taken.
Urban stations were those located within 10 miles of the limits of a
population of 25,000 or more. Winter operations (December to May)
and summer operations (June to November) for periods of the 24-hour
day are stated separately in Table XIII. Figure 10 shows the data graphi
cally for the December-May period. The winter period includes both
160
120
<
o
u
o
< 80
or
Id
60
z
UJ
o 20
cr
UJ
a
MON. TUES WCD. THUR FRI SAT SUN
Fig. II. —Daily Variation in Passenyer-Car Traffic at Urban Stations in Ohio
December and May ; the summer period includes both June and November.
Summer passenger-car traffic, as the table shows, is much greater than
winter traffic. The traffic in winter is but 56 per cent of that in the sum
mer on week days, 53 per cent on Saturdays, and 46 per cent on Sundays.
Traffic in Ohio was not taken by individual hours but by the periods
shown in Table XIII. As a result, hourly variation can not be shown
directly, but hourly variation will be taken up in detail in the discussion
of results in other States.
Traffic variation at urban stations by days of the week is presented in
Table XIV and Figure 11. The data are given as the number of passen
ger cars per day and as a ratio to the average day of the week.
The days from Monday to Friday show little variation, traffic for all
being a little above 80 per cent of that of the average day. Saturday
TABLE XIII
Hourly Variation in Passenger-Car Traffic, 112 Urban Stations, Ohio
number of cars
December-May June-November
2 °
& H
5s!
% 5* 53 *2 2=
j*- „.e, ..< ■< <°- .-a. «l
3
s
<S
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<="* fc<»
tj- ^-o
oo S«
H <2
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ov
i-i ■*■ oo
oK
H
Week day 251 447 433 204 1,335 406 681 744 561 2,392
Saturday 241 670 530 337 1,778 491 1,137 914 804 3,346
Sunday 144 1,027 1,089 348 2,608 449 1,898 2,318 1,005 5,670
PER CENT OF 24-HOUR DAY

Week day 18.8 33.5 32.4 15.3 100.0 17.0 28.5 31.1 23.4 100.0
Saturday 13.6 37.7 29.8 18.9 100.0 14.7 34.0 27.3 24.0 100.0
Sunday 5.5 39.4 41.8 13.3 100.0 7.9 33.5 40.9 17.7 100.0
TABLE XIV
Daily Variation in Passenger-Car Traffic. 112 Urban Stations, Ohio
(Average day = 100 per cent)
Day Number of Cars Index

Per Cent
Monday 43,554 84.6
Tuesday 41,673 81.0
Wednesday 41,764 81.2
Thursday 42,151 81.9
Fridav 42,230 82.1
Saturday 56,459 109
7
Sunday 92,328 179.4
traffic about 10 per cent higher than that of the average day, while
is
Sunday traffic nearly 80 per cent greater than that of the average day.
is
The reason for relating the day's traffic to that of the average day will
be apparent as the analysis proceeds. One obvious advantage in so stating
traffic that permits easy comparison of rates of traffic flow in areas
is
it
with widely differing numbers of vehicles.
TRUCK TRAFFIC CENSUS

BUREAU OP PUBLIC ROAOS
OVERLOAD
St*wo
I
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3
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5
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9
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6
6
6
6
6
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6
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6
6
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777
7
7
7
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7
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8
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Fig. 11a. — Tabulating Card

a 160
3
AVERAGE -j
-I 100
7
O
5 eo —
i.i
|
UJ
60
u. 40
<0
< 20
1-
— --
?
a. 0
JAN. FEB. MAO. APRIL MAI JUNE JULY AUG SEPT. OCT NOV OEC
Fig. 12. — Seasonal Variation in Passenger-Car Traffic at Urban Station in Ohio
TABLE XV
Seasonal Variation in Passenger-Car Traffic. 112 Urban Stations, Ohio
(Average month = 100 per cent)
Month Number of Cars Index
Per Cent
January 17,100 55.5
February 21,176 68.7
March 25,338 82.4
April 29,355 95.3
May 32,866 106.7
June 36,325 117.9

July 38,829 126.1
August 44,551 144.6
September 37,458 121.6

October 34.547 112.1
November 29,138 94.6
December 22,940 74.5
Seasonal variation in passenger-car traffic at urban stations in terms

of passenger cars per month and as a ratio to the average month is shown
in Table XV and Figure 12.
As shown by this table, traffic increases from a low of 56 per cent
of the average, month in January to a maximum of 145 per cent of the
average month in August. These figures differ from measurements in
rural areas, and this phase of the analysis will be discussed later.
Obtaining Station Averages. — Having obtained measures of the
principal factors affecting passenger car traffic flow in urban areas, we
are in position to apply these factors to traffic observed at individual
stations. In other words, we can correct an individual station's 'records
of short duration by applying factors obtained from averages of the entire
112 stations observed. Passenger-car traffic observed at station 313 and

the corrections for hourly, daily, and seasonal variation are tabulated in
Table XVI. This station is between Mansfield and Lexington, Ohio, on
United States Route 42. The date, day, and hours of observation are
stated in the first three columns; the number of passenger cars observed
in the fourth column.
TABLE XVI
Passenger-Car Density, Station 313, Ohio
Corrected to —
Average Average
Date Day Hours Observed 24-Hour Week Day Month
Dec. 15 6-4 455 870 1,028 1,380
Jan. 16 10-8 533 809 985 1,775
Feb. 14 6-4 544 1,062 969 1,411
Mar. 17 10-8 542 822 1,015 1,232

Apr. IS 6-4 514 983 1,212 1,271
May 17 10-8 1,619 2,178 1,213 1,137
6-4 1,119 2,300 2,098 1,779

July 14 10-8 863 1,448 1,788 1,418
Aug. 13 6-4 783 1,723 2,104 1,456
Sept. 14 10-8 971 1.629 1.925 1,582

Oct. IS 6-4 630 1,387 1,694 1.511
Nov. 11 10-8 994 1,508 1,859 1.965
Total 17,917
Average for year 1,493
In the fifth column the observed passenger cars are raised to a 24-hour
basis. From Table 1 the percentage of the 24-hour day from 6 a. m.
to 4 p. m. on week days is 18.8 + 33.5, or 52.3. The observed passenger
cars on December 15 are 455, and dividing by 0.523, the 24-hour figure
of 870 is obtained. On February 14 the. observed passenger cars totaled
544. The percentage of 24-hour traffic from Table XIII
for Saturdays,
6 a. m. to 4 p. m., is 13.6 + 37.7, or 51.3. Dividing by 0.513 the 24-hour
figure of 1,062 is 'obtained. The number of decimal points actually car
ried in the analysis was beyond that shown in Table XIII, with resulting
differences of one or two vehicles.
In column six the 24-hour figures are corrected for daily variation.
(Table XIV.) The 24-hour figure of 870 for Monday, December 15,
obtained as explained in the preceding paragraph, is divided by 0.846, the
ratio of Monday to an average day, with a resultant figure of 1,028 pas
senger cars. The 24-hour figure of 1,062 for Saturday, February 14, is
divided by 1 ,097, the ratio of Saturday to an average day, with a resultant
figure of 969 passenger cars.
Finally, the figures obtained as explained in the preceding paragraph
are divided by their seasonal factors (Table XV) ; 1.028-^0.745
= 1.380;
MOO
2200 j
2000
.1.
n
1
to
<g 1200 4-
° 1000
5 800 |
AVERAGE O .
*O0
INDIVIDUAL OBSERVATIONX
200
' ' '

0 ' 1
OBSERVED TWENTY-FOUR AVERAGE AVEBAflE
HOUR WEEK OAY MONTH
Fig. ij. — Graphical Representation of Data Shown in Table XVII

969 -r- 0.687 = 1,411. Thus, 1,380 and 1,411 are each a measure of the
probable number of passenger cars passing station 313 during 24 hours
of an average day of the year. Each observation establishes such a figure.
There remains a certain amount of variation due to factors unmeasured
or not completely measured in the analysis. The mean of these "probable
densities" is 1,493, the best measure of the number of passenger cars
passing station 313 during '24 hours of an average day of the year.
Measuring Accuracy. — The improvement in accuracy resulting
from the analysis can be measured in several ways. As an example, take
the two Monday operations at station 313. On the first Monday, Decem
ber' 15, the station was operated from 6 a. m. to 4 p. m., with 455 pas
senger cars observed. On the second Monday, September '14, 971 cars
were observed from 10 a. m. to 8 p. m. The number of cars observed
on the 'second Monday was 113 per cent greater than the number observed
on the first Monday. The final densities for these two Mondays are 1,380
and 1,582, a variation of less than 15 per cent. The results are much
the same when the two Saturday observations, February 14 and June 13,
are compared. A complete comparison of results is given in Table XVII.
Figure 13 shows the same data graphically. In this table are computed
the range in observed and corrected traffic and the range in percentage
of the mean.
Broadly stated, the 'results of the analysis are to raise the mean from
797 to 1,493 and to decrease the dispersion from 146 per cent to 55 per
TABLE XVII
Analysis of Passenger-Car Data, Station 313, Ohio
Number Range in
of Vehicles Percentage
Type of Data Range in Range Mean of Mean
Per Cent
Observed 455-1,619 1,164 797 146
Computed 24 hour 809-2,300 1,491 1,393 107
Average week day 969-2,104 1,135 1,491 76
Average month1 1,137-1,965 828 1,493 55
1
If_ the Nov. 11 observation be omitted, the range in percentage of the mean for the final
correction is but 44.
TABLE XVIII
Comparison of the Results of Operation by Density Party and
by Traffic Survey Party in Vermont
Average Motor- Average Motor-
Vehicle Density Vehicle Density
Density- Staggered- Density- Staggered-
Party Count Party Count
Station No. Operation Operation Station No. Operation Operation
Is 2,319 1,898 369 299
le 861 729 55 se 84 84
lw 3,039 2,576 444 389
5n 1.347 1,277 60 w 1,151 1,089
5s 1,832 1,755 oOe 725 613
538 524 60s 1,064 991
15s 2,826 2.294 72 n 376 3.35
15 n 1,541 1,134 72 s 179 144
I5nw 1,462 1,284 72e 201 207
17 1,121 1,203 72 vv 150 155
cent, with a final density that is much more stable and less affected by
chance variation. Detection of chance variation in the observed data is
virtually impossible because such variation is smothered vby the normal
hourly, daily, and seasonal variations. Detection of chance variation in
the corrected data is not difficult when local conditions are known. In
computing final densities, clearly abnormal traffic observations should be
rejected.
Another check upon the accuracy of the results is obtained by comput
ing from the data of Tables XIV and XV
the maximum daily traffic at
the 105 stations that were operated on Sunday in either July, August, or
September. The computed density for an August Sunday at these stations
totaled 242,028 vehicles. Reference to the observed traffic showed that
281,594 vehicles were actually recorded on the maximum days. Thus,
the computed figures are conservative, being exceeded by the observed
maximum vehicles by about 16 per cent. The measurement of traffic varia
tion permits the computation of maximum traffic at stations where no ob
servation was scheduled during the period of maximum traffic. Obviously
not all stations could be operated at their periods of maximum traffic
except at great expense.
Still another check resulted from the manner of scheduling party op

erations in Vermont. In that state the survey was for a period of but
three months. Two observations per month were made at each station.
In addition to these observations a "density party" counted vehicles for
an entire week at certain stations. The final densities computed in one
case from the "density-party" counts and in the second case from the
usual staggered operation extending throughout the three months are tab
ulated by stations in Table XVIII. Taking into account the relatively
light traffic at most of these stations, with consequent high variation during
short periods of observation, the agreement in final density is good.
A check may be made upon the method of securing hourly variation
by the use of complete 24-hour counts — i e., by combining night and day
observations in all cases where a day operation is followed or preceded
by a night operation. Table XIX compares the results of the two methods
"
used in Pennsylvania, where traffic was recorded by hours instead of by

totals for parts of the day. In column two, Table XIX, the variation in
hourly flow of traffic is taken from the staggered operation, while in
column three the results of over 100 complete 24-hour cycles are tabulated.
The results are shown graphically in Figure XVII, in which the close
correspondence in results may readily be seen.
There were 12 observation periods of 10 hours each at Ohio station
313, but the foregoing checks upon the method indicate that it may be
used in cases where the time of the period of observation is much shorter.
TABLE XIX
Hourly Variation in Truck Traffic, Division 1, Pennsylvania
(Average hour in each case = 100 per cent)
Staggered- 24-Hour Staggered- 24-Hour

Count Cycle Count; Cycle
Hour Operation Operation Hour Operation Operation
Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent
1- 2 a. m 12 12 1-2 p. m 186 197
2- 3 a. m 14 14 2-3 p. m 185 182
3- 4 a. m 22 21 3-4 p. m 189 186
4- 5 a. m 31 32 4-5 p. m 157 168
5- 6 a. m 60 56 5-6 p. m Ill 121
6- 7 a. m 119 125 6-7 p. m 70 65
7- 8 a. m 174 170 7-8 p. m 45 45
8-9 a. m 180 189 8-9 p. m 20 20
9- 10 a. m 196 186 9-10 p. m 24 23
10- 11 a. m 204 195 10-11 p. m 15 16
11- 12a.m 188 173 ll-12p.m 13 15
12- 1 p. m 175 179 12-1 a. m 11 12
For instance, at station 388, located on United States route 20 in North

Kingsville, Ohio, at the intersection with a county road, the observation
period was for but six hours, 10 a. m. to 4 p. m. on Monday, April 13.
This station was operated by Boy Scouts as a blanket-count station. Dur
BASED ON STAGGERCOCOUNT ACTUAL COUNT24 -HOURCYCLES

220
200
<
or 160
UJ
UJ
o
< 120
z
UJ
a '00
Q-
O 80
u.
u.
< 60
h-
t:
U 40
(I
20
AM
'3579 HIJS79II P.M
Fig. 14. — Hourly Variation in Truck Traffic, Division 1, Pennsylvania
ing the six hours on April 13 there passed 620 passenger cars and 94
trucks traveling west on United States route 20. If the factors explained
in the foregoing analysis are applied, the 'average annual density at station
388 (west) becomes 2,213 passenger cars and 180 trucks, a total of
2,393 motor vehicles. Station 4 was operated for twelve 10-hour periods
throughout the year and is located about 3 miles west of station 388 on
United States route '20. There are no important intersections between
the two stations. The final density at station 4 (east) was 1,969 passenger
cars and 148 trucks, a total of 2,117 motor vehicles.
Thus, the final density at station 388, operated for but six hours, is
but 13 per cent greater than the density at station 4, which was operated
twelve 10-hour periods throughout the year. Such agreement in density
between blanket-count and key stations occurs frequently ; in fact it is the
usual' thing, although there is always the danger of picking up abnormal
traffic during so short an observation period as six hours. Traffic at blan
ket-count stations should be observed at least four times, preferably at
intervals of three months.
Comparison at Urban and Rural Stations. — Passenger-car traffic at
112 urban stations, as tabulated in Table XIII, and at 242 rural stations
in Ohio are compared graphically in Figure 15. Since the hourly periods
into which the day is divided are of different length, the results in "Figure
15 are presented in terms of the percentage per hour of 'the total daily
traffic by days of the week. The differences between urban and rural
a AM. TO 10A.M. 10A.M. TO * CM. 4 PM. TO 8 PM. 6 P.M. TO 6 A.M.
Fig. /> — Hourly Variation in Passenger-Car Traffic at Urban and Rural

Stations in Ohio-
traffic flow are marked. For instance, on Sunday morning the rate of
traffic flow during the 6 a. m. to 10 a. m. period is about 30 per cent
higher in the rural areas. On Sunday afternoon the situation is reversed,
urban traffic flow being about 11 per cent higher than that in rural areas
between 4 p. m. and' 8 p. m. In fact, on all days of the week traffic flow
in urban areas is at a higher rate than in rural areas between 4 p. m. and
8 p. m.
The comparison between urban and rural areas in traffic flow by days
of the week shows the great similarity in truck movement, but there is
relatively a much greater movement of passenger cars on Saturdays and
a smaller movement on Sundays in rural 'areas. The figures are tabulated
in Table XX. Sunday, as will be seen, is the day of heaviest passenger-car
traffic and lightest truck traffic in both urban and rural areas.
Seasonal variation does not differ sharply between urban and rural
areas. The maximum month for passenger-car traffic flow is August ; for
truck traffic, September. The relation of maximum to average month is
higher in the rural areas, about 10 per cent for passenger-cars and 7 per
cent for trucks. 'There is a tendency in urban areas for both passenger-
car and truck traffic 'to hold up better during the winter months. The
results are given in detail in Table XXI. Passenger-car traffic in both
urban and rural areas, as will be noted, varies within a much wider range
from January to December than truck traffic.
TABLE XX
Daily Motor Traffic Variation, Ohio
(Average day = 100 per cent)
Traffic in Percentage of Average Day

Trucks _ Passenger Cars
Day Urban Rural Urban Rural
Per Cent er Cent Per Cent Per Cent
Monday 113 113 85 83
Tuesday 117 118 81 79
Wednesday 115 120 81 80
Thursday Ill 110 82 81
Friday 115 113 82 88
Saturday 102 101 110 128
Sunday 26 26 179 162
TABLE XXI
Seasonal Motor Traffic Variation, Ohio
(Average month = 100 per cent)
Traffic in Percentage of Average Month
a
Trucks Passent jer Cars
Month Urban Rural Urban Rural
Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent
January 80 77 56 59
February 80 79 69 67
March 88 85 82 SI
April 93 91 95 92
May 101 92 107 96
June 100 101 118 116
July 102 108 126 128
August 114 116 145 158
September 1 18 126 122 122
October 113 118 112 109
November 107 113 95 94
December 100 93 74 78
Some Uses of Data. — Since maintenance costs are so large a factor

in total highway costs over a period of years, the economic selection of a
suitable type of highway depends to a large extent upon variation in main
"
tenance costs under varying traffic densities. Climatic conditions, soil
types, drainage conditions, and many other factors so complicate main
tenance-cost analysis that unless accurate traffic data are available, mis
leading conclusions may easily be reached.
The usefulness of accurate traffic data in problems of design is obvious.
The variation in traffic during different periods of the year and the density
of large-capacity truck 'traffic should not be overlooked in this connection,
especially in the selection of proper highway widths and design near large
cities.
The validity of many conclusions resulting from the study of highway
problems depends vitally upon the accuracy of the traffic data underlying
such conclusions. Haphazard methods and fragmentary traffic data lead to
economic and engineering errors. Reliable data result from careful plan
ning and complete understanding of the objectives of the traffic survey.
Many of the highway problems are extremely complicated ; one factor,
traffic, may be accurately obtained without tremendous expenditure. In
the sea of evidence affecting 'the solution of a difficult problem the traffic
factor may be used with some assurance of reliability. An error of a few
vehicles in the traffic evidence has no engineering significance, and the ac
curacy resulting from continuous observation at a great number of sta
tions, is not worth the cost. On the other hand, traffic evidence obtained
by going out on the highway for a few hours at any time of the year
is worth very little to the serious investigator.
Prof. Bruce D. Greenshields, Denison University, states as follows in
Civil Engineering for January, 1932:
In general, an analysis of the data gathered in this way will show:
1. Population and motor vehicle registration trends in each area.
2. Amount, weight, and characteristics of passenger and cargo traffic
over at least a year's time, so as to bring out peak and seasonal variations.
3. Origin and destination of individual motor vehicles.
'
4. Condition of existing highways, including type of surface and
width.
5. Relative use of roads by urban 'and rural vehicles.
6. Possible future effect of the unusual development of industrial or
natural resources.
7. Sources and amounts of highway income.
By intelligent use of these data it is possible to diagnose such high
way problems as: (1) where to build roads; (2) when to build roads;
(3) how to build roads; and (4) how to justify expenditures or methods
of procedure in the face of political pressure or change.
For the sake 'of simplicity, each of these problems will be considered
separately, in the order given, but it should be understood that no part of
the study can "be made intelligently without an understanding of the
problem as a whole.
Where to Build Roads. — In order to know where to build roads

best to serve traffic, it is necessary not only to learn the present distribu
tion of motor vehicle traffic as to type and volume, but also to estimate
future traffic, for that is what the road is constructed to serve. Transport
surveys that have been completed show certain general underlying prin
ciples that can be applied in estimating future traffic :
1. Traffic volume is largely proportional to population and to motor
vehicle registration. This last relationship is shown in Figure 16, taken
from the Report of a Survey of Transportation on the State Highways
of Pennsylvania, 1928. The vertical plotting is on a logarithmic scale and
the curves for traffic and registration have been moved into contact in
each case, for purposes of comparison.
2. Traffic is essentially local.

3. Highway utilization (vehicle and tonnage miles) varies with high
way classification 'and regional features, such as agricultural, industrial,
urban, and suburban characteristics.
4. Truck hauling is limited to short distances. The length of a profit
able trip is, however, increasing.
5. Foreign traffic is usually a small part of the total traffic but may
in certain cases become a large percentage.
6. Highway 'utilization is increasing absolutely, that is, faster than
registration.
A Practical Example from California. — The method of applying
these principles of highway transportation is well illustrated in a Report
on the Orderly Addition of New Roads to the California State Highway
System, 1930, by T. H. Dennis, Maintenance Engineer, California State
Highway Department. For example, he analyzes Route L, from Riverside
to San Diego, shown in Figure 17.
Local traffic is expected to increase as the tributary farming area is
more intensively cultivated. Through traffic will increase in proportion
as the distance from Riverside to' San Diego, and from Los Angeles via
Pomona and Elsinore to San Diego, is shortened by relocation and im
provement, for this route is a logical alternate to relieve heavy traffic
on the Coast route, as well as the most direct line from the San Ber
nardino and Riverside areas to San Diego and the south.
Traffic will also be greatly increased by construction on a more direct
connection from Pomona. Assume that such improvements are made dur
ing !the next four years. The problem is to estimate traffic in 1940. Motor
vehicle registrations for the years 1927 and 1929 for Los Angeles, Riv
erside, Orange, and San Diego counties show an annual increase of 9.5
per cent, but this is probably excessive. Basing the population increase
on the traffic census for 1910 and 1920 and projecting ahead to 1940 at
the same rate, and assuming that there will be one vehicle registered for
every two and a half people in 1940, the increase is found to be 6 per
cent each year. This seems reasonable. For a 12-hour period the traffic
may then be found as follows:
Traffic Sunday Week-day
Present traffic (average) 1,450 820
Normal increase by 1940, at 6 per cent per year 870 480
Increase of through traffic on account of Pomona to
Corona connections, 25 per cent of the through
traffic on the Coast route 2,000 1.000
Total estimate for 1940 4,320 2,300
Such use of traffic data is not confined to 'California. Letters from

state highway engineers in 41 states show that 31 of these states now
use to a 'greater or less extent the results of traffic counts or of transpor
tation surveys in planning highway improvements.
When to Build Roads. — The answer to the question "when to build

roads" is based on the economic principle that whether a highway should
be improved now or later depends on whether the annual saving in trans
portation costs will more than equal the annual cost of the improvement.
The survey should show the extent to which the improvement of 'old, or
the opening of new, traffic routes is economically justified. This is found
by comparing the earning value of a state highway system (based on pas
senger miles and freight ton miles) with its present worth — replacement
value minus depreciation. It should also estimate or show the cost of
accidents preventable by highway improvement.
For local roads, as shown in Chapter I, other considerations and values
than the purely economic values enter into a determination or analysis of a
project. Traffic surveys must, however, be carefully conducted and an
alyzed.
This question of "when" is closely connected with the previous one
of "where." Under most conditions there is a greater demand for eco
nomically justified improvements than the available funds will cover.
Then a highway transport survey will show which jobs should be done
immediately and which can be deferred.
How to Build Roads. — To throw light on the best type of road for
a given location, a survey should provide the following data:
1. Present, and probable future, daily, seasonal, and yearly traffic
flow and its distribution on the highway system.
2. Maximum loading and frequency of such loads as an index of the
proper pavement width and design for highways contiguous to large cen
ters of population.
3. Cost of vehicle operation over various types of roads. Aside from
traffic, many physical problems affect the selection of pavement types but
such problems will not be considered here. From the traffic point of view
certain general principles are being established that may be used in select
ing the proper type and width of paving. For example, a certain high
way route is estimated to have an average daily traffic of 1.500 vehicles
for the next ten years. Should it be paved with a heavy type of surface,
such as concrete or brick, or with a medium type — a bituminous macadam
or its equivalent? Assume that the annual costs for these two types of
surfacing are as follows :
For Heavy Traffic Type:
Interest . . . $2,000
Depreciation 2,000
Maintenance 350
Total $4,350
For Medium Traffic Type:
Interest $1,250
Depreciation 1,000
Maintenance 1,000
Total $3,250
a/a
o / o °
/
/G*
/ //
Fig. 18. — Logarithmic Chart Relating Clearance

of Vehicles to Their Velocity
Taking the average difference in vehicle operating cost as one-half cent

a mile, the justifiable annual expenditure for the costlier pavement can
then be computed as follows:
1,500 X 365 X $0,005 = $2,737.50
This is more than the annual difference in cost of the two types, and the
higher type is justified provided that the assumed figures of cost are cor
rect. It is thus seen to be the purpose of the traffic survey to supply ac
curate data on operating costs and to assist in forecasting future traffic
conditions.
Traffic Speeds and Road Capacity Related. — As to the question of
the traffic capacities of different widths of paving, there is no very definite
answer. For conditions on main arterial highways in California, Mr.
Dennis is using the following ultimate safe capacities for computing width
of pavement for the estimated traffic in 1940.
Type Number of Vehicles

Two-lane roadway . vehicles
700 per hour
Three-lane roadway 2,000 vehicles per hour
Four-lane roadway. 3,200 vehicles per hour
For this volume, fast traffic traveling at 40 miles per hour must be
permitted to pass the slower. A safety factor of about 30 per cent is also
included, that is, traffic on a two-lane roadway could be increased to 1,000
vehicles per hour without resulting in serious delays.
From the results of an aerial survey of highway traffic between Balti
MMlmum 345 Milt« p«»Hour
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Valocitjin Mills perHour
Fig. iff, — Relation of Discharge to Velocity of Vehicles
more and Washington, D. C, Dean A. N. Johnson derives a formula for

the theoretical discharge of a two-lane highway, which he explained in an
article in the Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Meeting of the Highway-
Research Board, 1928. The number of vehicles per hour, N, passing a
given point at a velocity of V miles per hour, with an average car length
of 15 ft., is as follows:
5,280 V
N -
C4- 15
in which C, in feet, is the clearance between the cars. The observed clear
ance, Figure 18, is seen to vary approximately as the 4 3 power of the
velocity.
If we introduce this value of C in the formula, we have the discharge
per hour for a single line as:
n = —5,280 :
V
0.5 V 3
+ 15
Results are shown by the curve plotted in Figure 19.

Application to Multiple Lanes. — In order to keep the motorist to
his proper lane so as to permit unobstructed passing, Massachusetts has
introduced the dual-type highway, in which the center lanes are paved
with a rougher, less attractive paving. Traffic is automatically kept to the
outside so that passing may be made on the inside lanes in safety. From
the fact that the annual cost of traffic accidents in the nation as a whole
is estimated at one billion dollars, the matter of safety is seen to be of
utmost importance.
Under conditions of free passing, the actual capacity of a four-lane
road will exceed but little the theoretical capacity of a two-lane route. A
highway should not only permit maximum traffic but it should permit it
unobstructed. This means that free passing should be available at all

times. This can be accomplished by permitting on the inner lane only
cars traveling at such a speed that they are potentially passing the cars on
the outer lane. This, in effect, is to provide unobstructed travel in one
lane each way.
Political Pressure. — Those responsible for the location, building,
and maintenance of highways often find it necessary to justify their actions
to politicians and the public in general. Specific, detailed information
such as that supplied by a traffic survey is the best means available. High
way officials are not slow to emphasize the value of this phase of the
traffic survey.
Political changes in highway departments constantly menace efficient
administration. An extended program based on the results of a trans
portation study is the most efficient means of showing the value of a per
manent staff. A long-time budget set up to meet a definite plan of opera
tions over a considerable period is the best possible defense against the
tendency to divert the gas tax from the control of the state highway
department.
For example, the Department of Public Works of California has pre
pared a report setting forth a 10-year budget for the state legislature.
This plan received the endorsement of the engineering staff and also that
of the state administration, with the comment that the policy adopted must
be based on traffic and not on political pressure.
What Surveys Will Accomplish. — Traffic surveys must necessarily
form the basis of all computations concerning traffic. A traffic survey,
however, is no more than a record of conditions at the time the census
is taken. In itself it gives no indication of the future. Of the 41
highway officials who expressed their opinions on the questions which
have been discussed above, several in widely separated states declared
that a traffic survey was not necessary for predicting future traffic and
that, owing to detours and other road conditions, it might give a very
wrong picture. Sound engineering principles must still be the guide in
road building.
By means of past records, certain underlying principles can be estab
lished ; and a continued record will make these and other principles and
the trend in traffic movements more apparent. State highway engineers
are finding periodic traffic surveys of great value for determining the
suitability of certain types of, surfaces for a given amount of traffic — in
brief, for solving the problem of what type of road is best or most eco
nomical to serve the expected traffic with the money available.
Specific, detailed data supplied by traffic surveys are the most effective
means of justifying highway expenditures to legislative bodies or the
general public. Backed by indisputable facts, highway departments mav
secure, execute, and plan long-time programs, thus securing the maximum
return for highway expenditures.
78 LOW COST ROADS A.\D BRIDGES
PLANNING
Constructive planning involves investigating, analyzing, and interpret
ing facts concerning the following points, from which results the develop
ment of the plan itself followed by the practical application :
Population trend ; automobile registration ; status and condition of
existing highways and parkways ; highway traffic ; taxation and wealth ;
climate ; topography and geology ; agricultural conditions and possibilities
by cost; industrial investment and cost of manufactured products; survey
of available local road building materials ; indebtedness ; school-bus and
mail routes ; and similar data.*
The preparation of a plan for a highway system and a program of
improvement extending over a period of years, five years is recommended,
should develop a financial plan that is adequate and economical. To keep
expenditures to a minimum we must attempt three things :
1. To select the right roads to be improved;
2. To determine the correct types to build at any time ; and,
3. To build progressively, but so that all work done may be recovered
or salvaged in future work.
Laying Out System. — With the completion of the collection, tab

ulation, and graphic presentation (maps are indispensable) of the in
formation previously described, the work of actually laying out a system
may proceed.
Nostate or county has an entirely free hand in laying out a highway
system. Aside from the topographic influences, the major drainage chan
nels and the effects of climate, there is always a network of existing
roads and trails to be considered. Fortunately, these existing roads have
developed naturally to meet growing demands and they usually are located
so that they can advantageously be brought into a scientific system of
highways. But such routes have grown up under the law of least resist
ance, and frequently have local defects that must be changed and im
proved. The most common defects are excess curvature and consequent
length resulting from insufficient grading; excess gradients resulting from
the same cause; and not infrequently too many lines of travel developed,
because in the past it was just as easy to take one bad road as another.
On a map having the various condensed information plotted as a basis
the layout should be made. Supplementary maps show the information
in more detail. For the purpose of this first layout important points, such
as cities and towns, should be connected with straght lines. The selec
tions should be made in accordance with their relative importance, as
indicated by available traffic data, laying out the most important road
first and numbering same for future convenience. Traffic data should be
* Material in this section is based on Among them are, E. W. James, U. S.
several sources.
Bureau of Public Roads; Committee Report of the American Road Builders' Association; and
Planning Manual of the National County Roads Planning Commission.
tabulated in summary form for various routes ; and diagrammatic presen

tation of the density and type of traffic should be shown on a suitable
map. Having done this, a study of the location of the present roads should
be made in relation to the diagrammatic layout. This will suggest certain
relocations that should be given consideration when a detailed survey of
the projects are made. Also a study of the diagrammatic map will indicate
the location of the least important roads. Further studies may indicate
methods of consolidating traffic on the more important of these and pres
ent possibilities of abandoning the important ones. The abandoning
less
of public highways, however, is an extremely difficult thing to accomplish
in a manner satisfying legal requirements.
Aerial mapping of areas requiring special study will be found to be
a quick, economical, and satisfactory method.
In studying and laying out the system a straight line, diagrammatic
method has been recommended. As soon as the layout is completed the
next step is to select the roads that such lines of communication shall
follow. There will always be trails, wagon roads or maybe some highway
improvements existing when the general plan is undertaken. In most cases
there will be no difficulty in determining what actual road or trail is to be
selected as the physical counterpart of the schematic route appearing on
the map. The traffic surveys, taken on the existing roads, will always
serve to show what roads should ordinarily be followed where alterna
tives exist. There may be necessary departure from such old roads when
construction surveys are made, but in most instances, such differences
will be local and incident to the correction of alignment and grade. If,
however, little used or entirely new routes with greatly superior physical
characteristics exist, the engineer should give them careful study at the
proper time.
We can now transfer our schematic map to a road map of the area
(state, county, or region), usually taking the area in sections and on a
larger scale. This new map will constitute the base map for legislative
or other authoritative action promulgating the system.
It will be desirable in some cases, even when so little as 4 or 5 per
cent of the total computed mileage is worked into the system, to divide
the whole plan into two general divisions, such as primary and secondary
roads. The recommended classification is that in which the primary roads
are continuous as a kind of backbone or skeleton for the whole body of
roads, and the secondary classification then becomes discontinuous as a
group of appendages to the primary system.
When the two classes are based entirely on types of construction, cer
tain higher types are classed as primary and roads destined to be of such
types in the initial construction program are made primary. Others are
secondary and of lower types of construction. This method produces a
system of discontinuous primary roads as well as discontinuous secondary
routes and leads to endless confusion in general discussions. This method

of classification is very unsatisfactory.
Some students of highway economics prefer not to attempt any classi
fication into primary roads on a basis of importance of the routes. They
adopt a division into priority groups, those to be built first, generally
within a certain period ; those to be built next ; and finally a last group
that can be economically postponed.
As a matter of fact, the primary and secondary classification based on
relative importance of routes is more or less artificial, and is entirely per
functory so far as the early construction program is concerned. It is im
possible to confine construction to the primary roads until these are com
pleted, because what are important as routes, frequently have unimport
ant sections which must be delayed.
Order of Improvement. — With the system now planned and base
Fig. zo
maps prepared, it is possible to decide on types and attempt a first period

of construction. The first road to be built should be the most important
section existing in the system. It may be 5 miles or 100 miles in length,
but it demands first construction. This is the simple and universal rule to
follow from the point of view of the engineer and economist. However,
it is quite common as a matter of political expediency to make a distribu
tion of funds by political subdivisions-; and to build for instance the ten
roads of greatest importance in each of ten districts, rather than the ten
roads of greatest importance in the whole area. The latter method might
result in the construction of ten roads all in one section geographically
much restricted.
The types to be built will depend largely on traffic. The order of their
construction should be set up, an estimate made of the cost of the con
struction of each project, and, with a knowledge in hand of the annual
funds available, it requires only a simple calculation to determine how
many and which projects can be improved each year.
THEORETICAL DIAGRAM
roa
COUNTY HIGHWAY SYSTEM
/
MORRIS COUNTY. NJ. '
Fig. zi
The question of methods of financing programs of highway improve

ments is one on which much has been said and written. The pay-as-you-go
plan has its advocates, and others insist that the only satisfactory method
of providing funds is to issue bonds to cover the cost of improvements.
In the case of the counties, a study of a county's highway problems will
provide facts necessary in reaching a conclusion as to the kind of financial
plan that should be adopted. Thus it is evident that the management of a
county's highway affairs is first of all a business and economic matter.
Perhaps the most difficult and important item to be considered in the
preparation of a program of highway development is the selection of
types. It is a simple matter to build types that will stand up under the
demands of traffic by building expensive heavy duty roads, but to select
such types that will prove adequate and economical and the least ex
pensive in first cost and that will give satisfactory results under the pre
vailing conditions requires a thorough knowledge of the subject. Care
should be exercised in selecting types that will lend themselves to future
utilization under what has come to be known as the progressive plan of
road construction.
In general the following table compiled by E. W. James, Chief, Di

vision of Highway Transport, U. S. Bureau of Public Roads, will serve as
a guide in the selection of types :
Proposed Types for Initial Construction Based on Average

Daily Traffic Count
0 to 100 vehicles Karth.
100 to 300 vehicles Selected materials, sand-clay, top-soil, etc.
3'!0 to 500 vehicles Gravel.
500 to 1,500 vehicles Surface treated gravel, macadam, bituminous
macadam and other intermediate types.
More than 1,500 vehicles Bituminous concrete, brick, Portland cement
concrete and other pavement types.
These proposed types of construction may be shown in the working
maps for demonstration purposes. They will, however, have to be changed
as traffic changes. It is seldom of advantage to plan actual types much
ahead of the financial program.
The types as selected for the first period of construction may be en
tered on the map by appropriate symbols or legends and so far as con
cerns the general control which is exercised by a highway system over
the construction program our first problem is finished.
Planning Studies. — The National County Roads Planning Com
mission in collaboration with the County Officials Division of the Amer
ican Road Builders' Association are developing a manual on county
planning. When completed this manual will have covered the field of
planning very satisfactorily. County planning in California is progressing
rapidly under the cooperative guidance of the California County Planning
Commissioners' Association. Studies of a typical rural county, Prince
William County, Virginia, and a typically suburban county, Morris County,
New Jersey, have been made by the National County Roads Planning
Commission.
Many regional areas are planning with exceptional results. Some states
have made plans but not complete planning surveys.
Organization and Legislation for County Planning.* — County plan
ning springs full-fledged from the accumulated planning experience of the
past quarter century. The county as a planning unit has evident natural
advantages. Only seven of the forty-eight states have anything approach
ing general county enabling acts.
The greater advantages of the county as a planning unit brieflly lie
in its inclusiveness because of size and because it covers the area where
most new growth is taking place. Occasionally the county comprises the
whole natural and logical region of a city, which, from every social and
economic point of view, should be treated and planned as one community.
By cooperation between neighboring counties, under the guidance of dis
trict plans, official or otherwise, growth of whole metropolitan areas may
be directed and properly coordinated.
•From Russell Van Nest Black, Planning Consultant.

The principle of county planning is applicable in every county; rural,

suburban or urban, where money is being spent or is to be spent upon
construction or reconstruction of public works. Only the problems and its
approach vary, and these according to the individuality and peculiar re
quirements of the county concerned.
Mounting public debt, the increasing scrutiny of public expenditures
and the present reaction against excessive taxation are drawing the cur
tain against costly and wasteful development by political expediency and
without foresight. Business-like procedure by all government will be the
order of the coming decades. Limited public treasuries will not permit
of : excessive road mileage, roads useless because of bad location, correc
tion of avoidable mistakes, or the premature obsolescence of roads, bridges,
buildings and other public works. Unless the taxpayer can feel he is
getting his money's worth he will deny himself needed public improve
ments for which actually he can well afford to pay. Wealth-bringing in
dustries and citizens will demand transportation conveniences and liabil
ity. Present day mobility of these interests will stimulate increasing com
petition among cities, counties and regions for good and profitable new
growth, a competition that will be won or lost largely by the degree to
which communities are able to supply service, convenience, and agreeable
environment at reasonable cost. Planning, perhaps above all, county plan
ning, is the logical point of departure toward square facing of these re
sponsibilities.
The first step toward county planning is the enactment of good enab
ling legislation and the perfecting of existing inadequate acts. Legislation
must be framed with the purposes and essential machinery of county plan
ning clearly in view.
The making of a workable long period plan is no simple task to be
handled as incidental to routine county engineering. It takes money and
organization. Both must be provided for by legislation. Cost of plan
making is not great. It is insignificant compared with the job involved
and with the savings possible through planning, but the legislative body
must be authorized to spend money for these purposes. Necessary or
ganization for plan making is simple but highly important. It seems most
consistent without form of government to do this work through an official
planning commission as free as possible from the fluctuations and influ
ence of politics. The county planning commission is likely to be most
effective if limited to from five to nine members serving without pay and
comprised of a majority of lay citizens, without other county office, and
two or three ex-officio representatives of the county administration, with
equal voting power. Size and character of staff organization must de
pend upon extent of work and size of county. It should be placed in the
department of public works as a separate division or not, as conditions
may warrant, and should function under the general supervision of the
county engineer, but under the immediate direction of the planning com
mission, and within an appropriation assigned to the use of the commis

sion. Personnel of the staff should be as well trained and experienced in
the immediate field of planning as funds and availability of men permit.
The plan will be successful in proportion to the amount of experienced
judgment applied to its making. In setting up the planning organization
it should be borne in mind that planning is a continuous job. A so-called
master plan may be produced in three years or in six months but it is
never finished. It is forever subject to change and adjustment in adapta
tion to unforeseeable changing requirements of a growing community.
There is no merit in a plan except as it may be accomplished either in
projects built or by control and direction of development. To insure ac
complishment the plan must be given a certain amount of legal protection.
This protection should be vested in the plan itself through a measure of
official status and should be given the force of supplementary authority
vested in the planning commission and in the county legislative body.
Perhaps the most important of needed supplementary powers are those of :
control of land subdivision, fixing of highway lines for purposes of future
widening, and zoning.
By subdivision control, master plan projects may be protected; free
dedication of extensive road mileage in right location and of adequate
width may be obtained ; and much haphazard land development may be
stopped and generally improved in character.
County zoning is still another means to stabilization of plan. Whether
or not this can be made a function of county government will depend upon
type of state organization with respect to status of municipalities. Certain
of the eastern states, notably New York and New Jersey, with county
government already complicated by the present of townships, have vested
in townships all the authority of municipal planning law including zoning,
which power naturally may not again be delegated to an overlapping au
thority.
This brings us to the relation of county planning to the planning of
other governmental units, which must be recognized in enabling legisla
tion. The scale of the county plan should be consistent with the county's
function in administration. This will vary in different states. No attempt
should be made by a county plan to solve the detailed problems which
are the natural obligation of local municipalities. The county plan does
not relieve the city, borough or township of the need of a local plan. The
function of the county plan should be to coordinate local plans. It should
be drawn in cognizance of existing regional or state plans and should be
adjusted to their larger framework or offer suggestion as to adaptation of
these super-projects to county conditions and requirements.
The planning operation falls naturally into three stages: the compila
tion and analysis of all obtainable factual data which may have bearing
upon the future development and needs of the county; preparation of the
master plan ; and adoption of the master plan in whole or in part, by the
legislative body, as, the official county map. Data to be compiled and the
procedure of its analysis is covered in preceding sections. The chief
function of the master plan is that of a long visioned guide. It should
be kept elastic and easy of change. For that reason it should be held
as the instrument of the planning commission without official status
beyond that necessary to permit its use as an effective guide to the county
administration, to private land developers and to local municipalities. The
third phase, adoption of the official county map, is by action of the legis
lative body. The official county map should show existing development plus
those features of the master plan most imminently needed and probable of
construction within a comparatively short time, probably five or ten years.
It should be possible to change the official county map after adoption, but
with much less ease than should be true of the master plan. Both master
plan and official county map should remain simultaneously in effect, the
first serving as a reservoir of projects and as a guide for the other.
It must be recognized that effectiveness of plan will depend appreciably
upon the degree to which it is acceptable to private interests and to local
municipalities concerned. These interests and these municipalities should
he given every opportunity to submit their respective views and to make
their criticisms and comment during the course of plan making. A friendly
spirit of cooperation and open-mindedness to suggestion should be evi
denced throughout the course of plan study and administration. No op
portunity should be lost for educating the public. Reports should be
printed and widely distributed. Plan maps and planning studies should
he drawn and presented attractively in form and popularly as well as
technically intelligible.
By no means the least value of a county plan is the opportunity it af
fords the county administration intelligently to prepare and to proceed
in accordance with a long term improvement program and capital budget.
Such program and budget probably should not extend beyond a period of
five years. Both program and budget might be divided somewhat as fol
lows: detailed projects and cost estimates for projects to be accomplished
in each of the remaining years in the first five year period ; grouped list
ing of and general cost estimates for projects assigned to the second five
year period. By annual adjustment and one year extension this balance
of programmed projects and expenditures may be maintained indefinitely.
The comprehensive plan indicates the relative importance and need of
various projects in point of time, giving sound basis for the formulation
of the work program. The capital budget insures a more balanced expen
diture of public funds both in years and in kind of facilities provided.
In one way or another most of the above procedure is dependent upon
enabling legislation. Where there is a will to do so, it may be possible for
counties in some states which have no specific enabling acts to draw here
and there from their general legislative authority to make some progress
on comprehensive plans. But such procedure is always subject to the
upset of shifting interpretation of legal phraseology by courts and by

changing administrations. A specific county planning enabling act is al
ways to be recommended.
This throws a heavy responsibility upon the county planning interests
of the country. As suggested above and according to the latest report
of the United States Department of Commerce, only seven states have
general planning enabling acts and some of these are inadequate. These
seven states are Illinois, California, Ohio, Pennsylvania (second class
counties only), Michigan, Wisconsin, and New Jersey. Four other states —
Georgia, Maryland, New York, and Delaware —have county planning
laws applicable only to specifically named counties in each instance. For
all practical purposes three states have eliminated the necessity for county
planning since these states are doing the road work for the roads in the
counties. They are North Carolina, Virginia, and Pennsylvania.
There is no uniformity in existing county planning laws either as to
extent of application or in methods of operation. For instance, California
and Wisconsin give counties full zoning and platting control authority.
The New Jersey Act gives neither. The former acts provide detailed ma
chinery for organization and for procedure with plan administration. The
New Jersey Act provides simply for the appointment of a commission
with a most general suggestion as to its duties. Some acts give the Plan
ning Commission considerable power in protecting the plan, others none.
In some instances support of the planning commission is assured by author
ity to levy a special tax for this purpose. Others make no financial pro
vision other than appropriation from general county funds.
It is true that the county planning law of each state must be adjusted
to that state's individual background of law and peculiar system of inter
locking governments, but objects to be attained and principles to be ob
served are sufficiently alike throughout the country to suggest the need
and possibility of an approach to standardization.
A standard planning act applicable to counties was prepared some
years ago by Mr. Hoover's Committee of the Department of Commerce.
Subsequent experience has shown this act to be faulty in many respects
and probably not to be adopted without much revision and adaptation.
Acts of the above mentioned states and a new act now being drawn for
New Jersey will offer much valuable suggestion.
Principles to be observed in framing new legislation for county plan
ning may be summarized as follows :
1. The act should be enabling rather than mandatory.
2. County planning legislation should be carefully adjusted to other
existing planning law.
3. Definite provision should be made for the appointment and per
sonnel of the planning commission. The commission should be con
tinuous with not more than a third of its members retiring in any
one year, and should serve without pay. Five to nine members
should be sufficient and these should be comprised of a majority

of lay citizens not holding other county office and two or three
ex-officio representatives of the county administration, with full
voting power.
4. The planning commission should be assigned the duties of :
a. Preparing and adopting a county master plan showing exist
ing and proposed highways, parks, parkways and other rec
reation places, county public buildings, aviation fields, and all
other development projects within or likely to come within
the province of county administration.
b. Holding public hearings upon the plan before adoption and
certifying copies of the adopted master plan to all local mu
nicipalities within the county.
c. Adopting necessary rules and regulations governing the sub
division of land in specified portions of the county and exer
cising given authority in the control and direction of land
subdivision activity.
d. In appropriate instances, preparing a comprehensive zone plan
of the county and assisting in the administration thereof.
5. Nothing in the law should take from the master plan its desirable
elasticity and ease of adjustment and change.
6. Provision should be made for adequate financing of the planning
commission and to permit the commission to employ necessary ex
pert assistance.
7. Provision should be made to permit the county legislative body,
after public hearings, to adopt the master plan in whole or in part
as the official county map with provision that thereafter no expendi
tures shall be made except in accordance therewith. The legislative
body should have the further authority to change or amend the
official county map at any time after public hearings and after
reference to the planning commission and report therefrom.
8. Care should be taken that the master plan of item No. 4 and the
official county map of item No. 7 are kept distinct in their definition
and operation. The master plan is a guide, unofficial except within
the power and authority of the planning commission. The official
county map is the actual working plan officially adopted by the
legislative body. No project can be undertaken without first being
incorporated in the official county map.
9. Special provisions for plan administration should include :
a. Authority vested in the legislative body to establish ultimate
street widths in advance of widening and in accordance with
the master plan and recommendations of the planning com
mission. To insure the smooth operation of this provision,
it may be found advisable to provide for the creation of a
board of appeals, possibly three in number, to adjust cases of
unnecessary hardship to individual property owners.

b. Authority vested in the planning commission to control the
subdivision of land in specified county territory, supplemented
by provisions requiring the individual land owner to submit
his plat to the planning commission for approval, directing
the register of deeds or county recorder to refuse to record
subdivision plats not so approved, and providing penalties for
violations.
10. Where county zoning is applicable and desired, legislation to ac
complish this purpose .probably should follow closely the state zon
ing enabling act, making' special provision only that the county
planning commission shall act as the zoning commission.
This covers only the more general points to be regarded in framing
new county planning legislation. A workable act for any particular state
must be the product of careful framing by men familiar with local law,
with local county problems and with local planning activity and experience.
CHAPTER III J
LOCATION, DESIGN, AND GRADING
purpose of this chapter is to formulate such theories and prin
THE ciples as are essential to the solution of highway location1, design,

and grading problems. These subjects are discussed here because,
as has been stated before, location is about the most permanent part of a
road. Many state highways must necessarily employ low cost surfaces
while at the same time the location and gradient must be such as to make
it possible to utilize a higher type road as traffic conditions may warrant.
At first thought, the material in this chapter may seem out of place in
a book of this kind but since stage construction and pay-as-you-go policies
are widely employed and since many trunk line state and federal highways
must be initially designed for future high type surfacing while tempo
rarily employing low cost surfacing, this chapter is a justifiable discus
sion in this place. It emphasizes several principles which are believed to
be of major importance. In the developmental stage of our highway sys
tems little consideration was given to the economic principles involved.
Legislation in most of the states has prevented any extensive improvement
in methods of location, however, this is changing and highway engineers
are being given greater discretionary powers.
The undue influence of the old road in determining the location of the
new highway is the chief cause of poorly located modern highways. It
will be found to be impossible to formulate any specific rule regarding
location even after consideration of the relative cost of construction, main
tenance, replacement, and saving of distance, without a study of the type
and character of the traffic in the area. To illustrate a special case : Let
it be assumed that a highway is to connect two points. A, and C, 10 miles
apart ; and that this highway can be located through another point, B, by
increasing the distance one mile. In addition to the consideration of the
relative cost, the service which will be rendered by the alternate lines
must be closely studied if the greater part of the traffic is local. Saving
of distance for those who travel from A to C is no more important than
saving of distance for those who travel from B to other points. For local
highways much emphasis should be placed upon the destination of traffic.
This chapter also discusses ways and means for cutting costs of grading
1 The bulk of this material was abstracted from the annual proceedings of tbe American Road
Builders' Association.
90
LOCATION, DESIGN, AND GRADING 91
by using standards of design and construction that are lower than those
used for high type, heavy traffic roads.
The cost of grading rural highways in level and rolling country is a
relatively small part of the total cost of furnishing an all-weather road.
In hilly and mountainous country the proportionate cost of grading in
creases until it becomes a major item. Regardless of topography, the vol
ume of traffic and available funds are factors which have a vital effect
on the road grade which will be built.
Topography, traffic, and funds differ greatly throughout our country,
so that a low-cost road grade under one combination of these three vari
ables may be considered high in cost vinder others. It follows that the
cost of any proposed road bed mav be reduced by modifications of grade,
alignment, or specifications. To what extent standards should be lowered
will depend on present and future traffic requirements, but it is well to use
the best standards that funds available will permit.
ROAD STANDARDS
Standards should be set to secure the required service at a minimum
cost. In such a short period as the last six years developments of the mo
tor vehicle have made necessary wider and smoother roads, easier, wider
and more highly superelevated curves, more extensive and longer vertical
curves, and greater sight distance on both vertical and horizontal curves.
Steep grades are not as formidable as they once were to the motor vehicle,
but crooked alignment constitutes a growing menace to all traffic.
The traffic to be served by any road is the primary factor in determin
ing standards. These standards will be modified by the difficulties of con
Fig. l. — This Road Has Good Possibilities for Improvement

at Low Cost
struction, and the same standards as to alignment, grade and cross-section

can not be maintained in mountain location as in level country.
In considering the design of low-cost roads it is well to separate them
into two groups.
1. Those roads which at present and for many years to come will
carry only a very limited volume and weight of traffic.
2. Those roads which must have a low-cost surfacing for the present,
but which will eventually have sufficient traffic to require a more expen
sive paving.
On the roads of the first group the standards of design may be con
siderably inferior to best present practice. The location, grade, and align
ment of the second group should be carefully considered because the pres
ent improvement is only the first stage of development, and unless this
first stage is wisely designed the initial investment will be mostly wasted
and can never be utilized as a proper foundation for the successive stages
of improvement.
When used for developing a thinly populated country, pioneer roads
of group 1 should be low in cost. Their standards may also be low, pro
vided objectives are connected by a serviceable highway and provided
funds for more expensive construction are not sufficient to complete a
highway between these objectives for a number of years. Later the growth
of a locality may indicate the advisability of abandoning parts of the
development roads, but if these roads have made possible the localities
prosperity, they can be justified even though changed conditions have ren
dered them obsolete.
The First Groups — Discussion of the first group must consider both
alignment and width. Grade is coordinate with alignment.
Alignment and Grade. — On the roads in Croup 1, grades as steep as 10
per cent and curves as sharp as 100-foot radius may properly be used.
Whenever the topography permits it. gently rolling grades should be used
with very little cutting off of knolls or filling up long hollows. Low-cost
road untreated surfacings will not shed water like hard pavements, and
therefore absolutely level grades should be avoided whenever possible.
In hillside locations the contours should in general be followed, but suffi
cient study should be made to determine the relative cost of cutting
through the slopes. Changes in grade should not be too abrupt and should
always be rounded off with a vertical curve of sufficient length to give a
sight distance of at least 200 feet. Grades of over 5 per cent on sharp
curves may be compensated somewhat to facilitate upward-bound traffic
and reduce the danger to downward-bound traffic. A reduction in grade
of 1 per cent for each 50 feet in radius shorter than 200 feet will usually
be sufficient compensation. Whenever possible the road should be kept
off boggy soil, but locations involving excessive hard rock excavation
should be avoided also. In general, in the North preference should be
given to southern and western exposures in hillside locations and snow
conditions should be studied in order to avoid locations particularly sus

ceptible to bad drifts, and especially drifts that stay late in the spring.
Width. — The width of the road will depend somewhat on the na
ture of the topography, but in general the travel way of the first group
need not be more than 18 feet with 3-foot shoulders, making 24 feet from
ditch to ditch. The width of roadway should be increased from 2 to 4
feet on curves, and superelevation should be provided even where no
surfacing is to be placed.
The Second Group. — We may take up the same subjects for the
second group.
Alignment and Grade. — Roads in the second group — that is, those
which will later carry considerable traffic — should be laid out and graded
with considerable care. The location should be reasonably direct, but
long, straight grades and tangents are not necessary or desirable except
in level country. Gently rolling grades should be used, and in general
the maximum grade should not exceed 7 per cent ; but to avoid sharp
curvature grades as steep as 9 per cent may properly be used. The mini
mum radius of curves should be 500 feet, except in mountain location,
whmr 100- foot radius may be used for inside curves, and 200 feet for
outside or blind curves. The sight distance at horizontal curves should
not be less than 300 feet and bench cutting or "day lighting" should be
resorted to where necessary to obtain proper view.
Vertical curves should be used at all breaks in grade over 1 per cent
and sufficient length of vertical curve used to insure a clear sight dis
tance over the hills of at least 350 feet. Grades over 5 per cent on curves_
of less than 500-toot radius shoulcTTje compensated. All curves of less
than 1,000- foot radius should be widened, and all curves of less than
2.000-foot radius should be superelevated. At the present time it is cus
tomary to use a maximum superelevation of 1 inch per foot width of
roadway for curves up to 1,003-foot radius and about one-half inch per
foot for those of 2,000 feet.
Width. — On roads in this group a width of roadway of 28 feet, ditch
to ditch, will ordinarily be sufficient for m-iny years to come, but in flat
country wider sections are low in cost. The 28-foot width will permit
20-foot surfacing with 4-foot shoulders. The embankment slopes should
preferably be as flat as 3 to 1 in order to encourage the growth of grass
which will protect the slopes from erosion. Ditch bottoms and shoulder
lines should he rounded to facilitate mowing weeds. The shoulders should
be seeded and mowed to protect them from wash due to rain and flood.
Railroad Crossings. — Relocations to avoid railroad grade crossings
should be made whenever feasible. Relocations should also be made to
obtain advantageous overpass or underpass sites for railroad grade cross
ing eliminations. "Railroads on the one hand, and public service commis
sions on the other, usually have standards of practice required at grade
crossings.
Alignment and Grade in General. — The alignment standard in

rough- country is most important in affecting cost of grading. Cost m-
creases rapidly with increase in radii of curves and the longest radius
should be consistent with the justifiable expenditure and service to be
rendered.
Expensive fills should be avoided without making alignment too crook
ed. Crooked alignment should not be used to reduce grades below the
maximum accepted for the project.
Curves adjacent to bridges should be avoided, and tangents used at
least for a short distance each side of the bridge.
The lowest cost profile can be obtained by the use of the "rolling
grade." It is also pleasing in. appearance if not carried to extremes, but
safe sight distance must not be sacrificed.
The top or weathered zone in many soil types is more stable than
certain of the unweathered zones, and subgrades close to the original
ground surface are likely to be more stable than those in deep cuts and
fills; rolling grades when cuts are shallow permit the use of such soils as
subgrades.
Mistakes to be avoided are: Excessive reduction of intermediate
grade ; extra expense to get long straight grades ; and too few relocations
to secure reasonable maximum grades.
In mountain road location, it may be economical to use short stretches
of grade steeper than the long ruling grade, thus avoiding expense and
dangerous alignment.
Any excessive grade should be so compensated or so located as to
permit its future reduction. For example, a 9 or 10 per cent grade may
be used for a short distance to reduce the cost of initial construction where
higher standards are later contemplated. Allowance in grade should be
such that on the reconstructed location the maximum will not exceed
7 per cent.
Classification. — The first step in highway location is to determine

the classification of the road to be improved. The volume of traffic to be
considered in this respect for the purpose of determining the standards of
design should represent the approximate average daily 24-hour traffic
during the heavy part of the season, giving due consideration to peak-
traffic conditions and probable increase in traffic following the completion
of the contemplated improvement.
Considering the volume of traffic on this basis, Table T. following,
of classification of roads as to traffic density and standards of design for
each class of highway are recommended by the American Association of
State Highway Officials. The general distinction of low cost roads will
be classes "C," "D," and "E." shown in bold face type in Table I.
The suggested minimum requirements shown in Table II are recom
mended for varying topographical conditions.
LOCATiaN, DESIGN, AND GRADING
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2
US
Right of Way. — The most difficult and annoying subject with

which nearly all highway engineers have had to deal is "Right of Way."
The primitive policy of obtaining only sufficient widths on which to con
struct the road has, to a large extent, been- abandoned. Experience has
caused the majority of states to adopt certain minimum standard right-
of-way widths ; more than has been needed for immediate construction in
order to provide for future widening of the road. Such a policy is com
mendable, because it is difficult and expensive to secure additional right
of way at any time after the initial construction has been started, the costs
mounting as the years roll by. Counties, however, have usually had right-
of-way widths established by law on existing roads, but for new location,
provision for extra width is commendable, if necessary. Several states
and counties have wisely adopted the plan of widening right-of-way at
railroad crossings and road intersections.
These minimum standard widths of the various states vary from 80
to 100 feet for main trunk highways and from 60 to 80 feet for county
or secondary roads, with widths varying from 100 to 150 feet for super
highways. These adopted minimum standard widths appear adequate for
any widths of road that present or future traffic might require, except
near a very few industrial sections which have an enormous volume of
traffic over short stretches.
The acquisition of right of way and subsequent damage which may
result to the property owner shouJd~be given careful consideration to the
end that both the property owper and state or county are properly pro
tected in their rights. In the past cases have arisen in which the property
owners have been paid unreasonable prices for their land by the counties
or states ; prices which states or counties were unable to afford and which
worked a hardship on them. On the other hand, public-spirited property
owners have deeded the right of way, free of charge, and been unable
to obtain redress for damages which their property has subsequently
suffered due to certain construction conditions. These conditions can be
remedied by enactment ofl the necessary laws and their proper adminis
tration. The following is suggested as a means of obtaining necessary
rights of way after approval of the route by the Board of County Su
pervisors :
1. That the right of way be acquired by the county in which the
rights of way lie, except that the counties must not be expected to pur
chase all rights-of-way for state highways, particularly where the origin
and destination of the traffic are outside of the county.
2. That the value placed on each piece of property bear some direct
relation to the assessed value.
3. That highway departments include as a bid item the removal of
fences and obstructions from the limits of the right of way, and the re
building of the fences from salvaged material, and the construction of a
standard type of right-of-way fence where necessary. If the property
owner desires a better type of fence than that constructed by the highway
department, then the property owner may construct his own fence at his
entire expense.
4. That the highway department provide suitable passage onto the
new road for the property owners, at least as good as that existing be
fore the improvement, and if the highway is on entirely new location suit
able passage shall be provided.
5. That the highway department will so handle the construction as
to cause no damage to the property owner, and will construct such re
taining walls, etc., as may be necessary for protection of his property.
VISIBILITY
Good visibility or safe sight distance, like many other features of mod
ern highway design, has been developed by experience with a view to
accident prevention, or for convenience of higher speed traffic. Present
practices reflect largely the sum of individual ideas of highway engineers
and this practice will always prevail. Good visibility must be provided for
vehicles moving above the present legal speed limits. Automotive engi
neers are designing vehicles to operate safely at speeds of 75 to 90 miles
per hour. Sharp changes from tangents to short radius curves, or from
long radius to short radius curves should be avoided. As a general rule,
long tangents should be joined by long radius curves, and in level coun
try this can be done at little extra cost.
LENGTH
OfARCSUBTENDED
OBCLEAR
SI6NT
DISTANCE
MEASURED
AL0N6 LINEOFHIGHWAY
CENTER CURVE
SISnT DISTANCEONHORIZONTAL
CURVES
LENGTHSOFARCSSUBTENOEO CURVESOF0 ■5*TO0 ■30'rVITHMIDDLEORDINATES
ONCIRCULAR OF10TO50
DIVISION
orDESIGN
"■"""■■»■»
Fig. 2
LOCATION, DESIGN, AND GRADING
Charts for superelevation and sight distances are shown in J'iguies 2,

3, 4, and 5.
Slight changes in direction for the sake of appearance should be made
on summits rather than in valleys.
Sharp horizontal and vertical curvature should be avoided. Where this
is unavoidable on summits, the horizontal curve should extend if possible,
beyond the ends of the vertical to call attention to the change in alignment.
The Pennsylvania Department of Highways, in studying this subject,
has made tests to determine the distances required to bring a car to a
stop for various speeds on grades varying from level to 8 per cent, on a
SIGHT DISTANCE CURVES
n w —i i/
in
f
d ,
if ft
LtMCTH
OfVERTICAL
Cimvt(FCET)
DIVISION
OFDtSK*
Fig- 3
dry concrete surface. The table which they prepared from these tests
indicates that for a speed of 60 miles per hour on a level grade, a car
equipped with four-wheel brakes requires at least 216 feet to be brought
to a stop.
If two drivers are approaching each other in the same traffic lane at
this speed they must be able to see each other from a distance of at least
432 feet in order to bring their cars to a stop to prevent collision. This
is assuming that the occasion is an emergency where neither car can turn
from the lane. It is also assumed that the surface conditions of the road
are good, that the braking equipment of both cars is in good condition,
and it is of the utmost importance that both drivers react immediately
to the emergency.
Since a vehicle moving at 60 miles an hour travels 88 feet per second,
it is evident that provision must be made to allow for the distance trav
eled at this speed during the time that the driver reacts to the emergency,
and to allow for defective braking equipment and for possible unfavorable
road conditions. Assuming that an allowance of 1 second should be made
for each driver. In terms of distance this amounts to 176 feet which,
added to the actual minimum braking distance, gives 608 feet.
Therefore, the minimum clear vision distance that should be used on

all highways carrying a daily average of 1,000 cars or more should be
approximately 600 feet. This should be applied to both horizontal and
vertical curves.
Three-Lane Highways. — If a three-lane highway is being consid
ered, it is more important that clear sight distances are provided than for
a two-lane road. With three lanes the center is used for passing, and
there is an increased hazard because it is encroached upon by drivers
from each outside lane, where traffic is moving in opposite directions.
On principal highways the greater portion of traffic travels at approxi
mately 45 miles an hour, while a small portion moves at 35 to 40 miles
per hour. The balance, usually a small portion, travels even faster.
From actual tests made on the road, a car traveling at 30 miles an

hour, passing a car at rest, will require^jl/^jeet to turn-off the traffic
line and return to it. Assuming the same proportionate distance to hold
true for various speeds, a car traveling at 60 miles an hour passing a car
traveling at 45 miles an hour will encroach upon the left lane or center
lane as the case may be, for a distance of 468 feet. Therefore, on three-
lane highways where passing is encouraged safe sight distances, especially
on vertical curves, should be at least 936 feet, to permit passing in either
direction. Unless this is done, the effectiveness or efficiency of a three-
SUHMICVATIOX ANDWIKMM
Fig. 5
lane road is lost. Unless there is ample visibility, traffic immediately begins
to collect in the outer lanes and the third lane is a wasted investment.
From this determination a minimum visibility distance of 1,000 feet
is recommended on three-lane highways. Since there is greater pavement
width and generally better conditions in which to meet emergency condi
tions under average speeds, the safety factor as used for a two-lane road
need not be applied to the actual required sight distance for a three-lane
highway. \/
Maximum Safe Speed for Various Degrees of Horiztontal Curva
ture. — Another element to be considered in this problem is the max
imum safe speed on various degrees of horizontal curvature, and horizon
tal curves should be constructed so that the minimum sight distance is
greater than the braking distance for the maximum safe speed for the
curve. For example, from tests made it is estimated that the maximum
Fig. 6. — Sight Distance and Curvature Increased at Lozu Cost on Turn

Above McConnellsburg. P ennsyh'ania
safe speed on a 16-degree curve, superelevated }4 of an inch per foot,

is 46 miles an hour. The braking distance for 46 miles an hour with
four-wheel brakes is 126 feet. Therefore, the minimum clear sight dis
tance should not be less than 252 feet. To meet other conditions of road
surface, poor brakes, and less skillful drivers, the safety factor of 50
per cent referred to above should be added. The sight distance for a 16-
degree horizontal curve should then be at least 378 feet, or in even figures,
approximately 400 feet. For curves exceeding 8 degrees, an extra width
must be added to the pavement width to facilitate the movement of vehicles
on the turn and provide safer clearance distances.
Fig. 6a. — Poor Visibility Both in Horizontal and Vertical Curvature

on iS-Foot Gravel Road
Visibility on Vertical Curves. — Greater consideration must be

given to providing clear vision distances on vertical curves than on hori
zontal curves at the time of construction. Grade line revisions cannot be
accomplished after construction without the interruption of highway
service, whereas those obstacles that are located off the traveled way, if
permitted to remain at the time of construction, may be taken care of at a
later date, even though this frequently entails much added expense. An
added reason for the importance of good visibility on vertical curves is
the fact that the driver cannot see low objects on the road, such as chil
dren and animals.
COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA
DEPARTMENT OF HIGHWAYS
METHODOF DETERMININGLOCATIONANDLENGTH
or TBArric line
ONHORIZONTALANDVERTICALCURVES
Jt of JSSO.
factor lott. Lengthof this lint hi bo lengthof tirnplQCurve from
PC. to RT plut 50 foot beyondP,C.and SOfoot beyondPT.On
superetevated and widenedcorves withtpirolt the lengthof
tpiral it not H»bj considered
VieneM. Cuovt«
Plat*traffic lineon curvet where cleor tight dltfoncecan
not b* obtainedfrom a point * I faet on onetide of thetummit
toa point 2SC-feet on the other tide of the eumiriitat a htfoht
of 5 feet abovethe center lino elevation.Traffic line toextend
25Vfeet oneachtide of the tummit era totol lengthof Sooftet.
Fig. J. — Traffic Line Chart
On highways carrying 1,000 vehicles or more a day where the align

ment is generallywinding and the curves close together, even if the
profile is uniform, it is especially important to provide the recommended
minimum clear vision distance of 600 feet to facilitate traffic movement,
so that full efficiency of the highway may be available. Unless this dis
tance is provided, where traffic is heavy, a slow moving vehicle or truck
causes the accumulation of vehicles in a long procession, and opportunity
is not afforded for the faster moving vehicles to clear themselves. Fur
ther, where the alignment is generally straight for long distances, a spe
cial effort should be made to provide at least the minimum clear vision
distance of 600 feet except under special conditions. On long stretches
10-1 LOW COST ROADS AXD BRIDGES
a radius ixh thai /•

's a chord of 100' in length
Degree of Cone
Rod/us
Length
Tangent
Central or Deflection Angle
External
Mid Ordinate
Long Chord
Tangent Offset
Subtanqent
£ex sec ka
T tang £a
Z versnehu
0' R-(Zcosa) - gversmea' ■

R(l-casa')
Fig. 8. — Circular Curve Formula of Missouri Standards
of highway which are generally straight, drivers accustomed to

become
expecting safe conditions and blind spots are the cause of frequent acci
dents.
Special attention should be given to the elimination of blind spots that
occur by a combination of horizontal and vertical curves. Each of these
classes of curves may meet acceptable standards for clear vision distances,
but a combination of the two may give a most unsatisfactory design.
Visibility at Intersections. — i Road intersections present another
phase of the subject of visibility. Where road crossings are controlled by
police officers or traffic lights, long sight distances are not so necessary,
but in open areas where there is an opportunity for the free flow of vehi
cles crossing or turning in the intersection, good visibility must be pro
vided. The same general rules for safe sight distances on tangent lines
of highway should be applied to intersections when possible, where there
is any considerable volume of cross traffic. The widening of approaches
is desirable; that is, on an intersection where paved surfaces are 20 feet
wide, an additional lane should be provided on each side, making a total
width of 40 feet back from the intersection for 150 feet to 200 feet.
Visibility at railroad grade crossings is another important problem.
formula A
d • Hgtbrux DiflertncrfahMil/t.
8
d • Offset at opei
6>.fy • Grades expressed in feel
per 100', plus or minus
b • length of Curve expressed
in nop stations
formula B
din1 m rthkh
tangent offset at
intermediate Hint
tangent
Subtonqenf
Example
d tetH-aq *i lisp
B
d' i US* 50* 0 31
ft
Ji> J' /zs-so1 OH ft
100'
Fig. p. — Vertical Curve Formulae — Missouri Standards
Cooperation between railroad companies and governmental agencies in the

appropriation of visibility rights over private property with due compen
sation should be encouraged.
Danger Warnings ; Roadside Obstructions. — There are many
points on highways where the desired visibility cannot be obtained by re
location without great expense. These points often present danger hazards
with frequent accidents. Such cases must be handled by ample and un
mistakable warning signs. On curves, both horizontal and vertical, where
visibility is restricted, traffic lines should be painted on the pavement
surface. Advance warnings, with appropriate wording, placed at conspicu
ous locations, should be provided. For night drivers, warning signs of the
reflector type should be placed at sharp curves, road intersections, and
other dangerous points.
Advertising signs that obstruct clear vision for the minimum safe sight
distances should not be permitted on or along highways, or at intersec
tions. In many states there is now effective or in preparation, legislation
regulating the placing of billboards that obstruct view. In Pennsylvania,
for example, there is a law known as the Safe Sight Distance Act, which
gives authority to the state, or any municipality, to condemn for clear
vision any areas at intersections or along the highways where view is

obstructed by buildings, trees, high grain, or large signs.
Roadside trees and thick undergrowth should be trimmed out where
clear view is obstructed. This feature may be carried out without de
stroying the natural beauty of wooded areas.
SELECTION OF TYPICAL CROSS SECTION

The principal features of a typical cross section for roadway surfacing
are width, thickness at various points, and crown.
These must be suitable for the materials used, and for the methods of
construction and maintenance. Alignment, traffic, and weather conditions
must also be considered.
Untreated Surfaces. — Such surfaces as sand clay, gravel fine
crushed stone, and other materials which are maintained by constant blad
ing, are commonly built from out to out of shoulder or within 3 feet of
each shoulder edge. The total surfaced width is seldom less than 24 feet
on state highways where the feather edge section is used.
The feather edge section has its greatest depth at the road center and
tapers to 1 inch or less at the outer edges. The center depth is usually
from 4 to 9 inches. The crown is from ]4 to ]A inch per foot with a
tendency toward the lower limits in dry weather and the higher in wet
weather. On super-elevated and widened curves a uniform depth section
with no crown is used.
I5'to
unw U I TO%
Z'T06'WHtn
IA0 A3I C0UC5C
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nmtvm xenon
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combination recncH m ftmte coct

■SECTION
Fig. 10. — TheThree Principal Cross Sections Used for Untreated Surfaces.
Except for the Trench Section They Arc Commonly Maintained
by Blading and Dragging
Such surfaces as macadam, lime rock, gravel, chert and other ma

terials which are compacted by rolling during construction and which are
not easily maintained by blading or dragging are commonly built in widths
of from 15 to 20 feet. The trench section is commonly used with a uni
form thickness of from 4 to 8 inches.
A few cross sections show an increased edge thickness, the center
being 6 inches and the outer edges 8 inches. The stepped section is also
used, that is, one in which the lower courses are wider than those above.
The offsets at each edge vary from 3 to 12 inches for the cases studied.
Florida shows 12 inches and Ohio 3 inches. One section showed a
thickened edge and offsets. The crown is seldom less than }4 inch to the
foot and seldom more than inch. From to inch general prac
Y%
is
%
l/2
tise for the cross sections studied.
Treated Surfaces. — Surfaces treated with such materials as calcium
chloride, single or dual bituminous applications, and the bituminous road-
mix types which utilize the aggregates in the roadway surface may extend
from out to out of shoulder, the existing surfacing aggregates have
if
that width. Commonly, however, they are not less than 17 or 18 feet wide
nor more than 24 or 26 feet. The intention to secure uniform depth
is
a
of treated surface of from to inches.
l/2
The crown that of the surface being treated usually from to
}4
Yi
is
inch per foot, with preference shown for to inch.

J4
}&
Surface Courses. — Such surfaces as bituminous macadam and all

plant-mixed bituminous types have width equal to or less than the base
a
on which they are laid. Their thickness uniform for the entire width
is
of surface and seldom less than inch nor more than inches for one
is
3
1
course construction. Thickened edge designs are unusual.

Width. — Untreated surfaces with the feather edge section are com
monly built to greater width than trench or stepped sections. Wide sec
a
tions from shoulder to shoulder are desirable because of easier maintenance

with blade and drag, wider distribution of traffic. less tendency to form
a
or travel in ruts and less undesirable shoulder material such as sand or clay
becomes mixed with the selected surfacing aggregates.
Surface treatments and surface courses of the bituminous types when
built with uniform depth of section and less than 18 feet in width, show
a
tendency to break clown or become displaced vertically and laterally near

a
their edges. This due to wheel concentrations. Width greater than 18

is
feet tends to reduce such breakage and displacement.
Crown. — Crowns of more than J^-inch to the foot are rare in mod
ern surfacing of any type. Steep crowns are dangerous to traffic; they
create tendency to formation of ruts. Distribution of traffic over the
a
entire surface unusual on roadways having steep crowns.

is
Greater erosion occurs with steep crowns on untreated surfaces and

skidding on treated surfaces more frequent.
is
I
LOW COST ROADS AXD BRIDGES
UHmPiKD 5URtfltf5 ADAPTABLE TO
BITUMIN0U5 5U£fflCe 1WMEI1D ot> 5U£fflCf
lO'TOto
T2EHCH 5tCTI0h
idro to'
THICKENED mt 5fCri0rt
5TtPPtd SfCTlOM
THICKENED EDGE and STEPPED 5ECTI0H
Fig.11. — Sections Which Arc Consolidated by Rolling and Are Commonly

Used as Bases for Bituminous Surface Treatments and Surface Courses
Crowns of J4 to jHi-inch to the foot have proved sufficient for surface

drainage ; they are less easily eroded and more easily maintained. The
riding qualities and distribution of traffic are better with the lower crowns.
Thickness. — The factor of safety for recent designs in concrete
pavements is about 2 ; that is, the strength of the pavement under maxi
mum probable loading conditions is designed to be two times the internal
stress created by that loading.
The factor of safety for all other types, except for a few pavements,
has not been determined by controlled tests or by sustained theory. It has
been accepted within wide limits of thickness by usage only. In general,
TiMeee HeADKx stno asphat MAMMM STEPPED SECTKJfl F0KE5T SERVICE(*<VTl TYPE
CONCRETEHEADER BIT TOP HUE ROCKBASE portuno cement conccfTt
BATES SECTION
rough hefloee 3to« -lean concrete finley peoc»5 bit nuruet PEN °»MI«tD MUMMM
Fig. is. — Various Methods Used to Prevent Edge Breakage Under Traffic
the thickness of untreated surfaces, surface treatments and bituminous

surface courses is such that it will not show excessive failure under the
expected loads, or, if it does fail, repairs may be made without serious
traffic interruption or expense.
The compacted thickness of untreated surfaces of the traffic bound
stone or gravel type is sometimes as low as 2 inches. If the traffic is light
this may be sufficient.
On the other hand, common practice in the New England States calls
for a sub-base of gravel or stone which may be from 2 to 12 inches in
depth, before even a gravel surface of 4 to 6-inch thickness is laid.
There appear to be two tentative theories, one in which a fairly narrow

trench section of uniform depth or a thickened edge section of 15 to 18
feet is used with a depth of from 6 to 12 inches ; and the other in which
a feather edge or uniform depth section of 20 to 30 feet width is used
with an average depth of from 2 to 7 inches. The volume of material
may be about the same for each case. Apparently the thought is to pre
vent wheel concentrations by using the wide sections which are of shallow
depth in the one case or by using a thick but narrower section (or one
with a thickened edge) to absorb the stress of wheel concentrations in the
other. In other words, it is a case of lateral or vertical distribution of the
effects of traffic.
Edge Strengthening. — Edge strengthening by various methods is
illustrated in Figure 12.
The possible value of the strengthened edge designs for other than
concrete roads is attracting deserved attention.
An ideal section is one whose width, thickness and crown are of such
dimensions that all portions of the section transmit external loads to the
subgrade without the internal resistance of these portions being exceeded.
These conditions are fairly well met by sections wider than 20 feet which
are of uniform thickness or of the feather edge type, and, for narrower
sections, by those which have suitable edge strengthening. Flat crowns of
Va to %-inch per foot should not be exceeded in either case.
Cross Section of Slopes. — American practice indicates a marked
preference for the 2-lane road. Side slopes are frequently 1 to 1 in cut
and lyi to 1 in fill. It may be better to have 3 to 1 in fill for safety and
J4 to 1 in cut for economy, where material will stand.
The most economical design on side hill location is where the method
of cast-over construction can be used, that is. the excavated material
makes the side fill. In a country of steep side slopes, the main oppor
tunity for initial economy is in width of roadway.
As\ a general rule excavated earth will not stay in place on side hills
over 35 degrees (74 per cent) slope. Excavated solid rock will remain on
slopes up to 40 degrees (84 per cent) if handled carefully.
Recommended Cut and Fill Slopes. —

Fills, Earth— Never less than 1J4 :1.
Fills, Rock— 1:1.
Cuts, Earth— ^:1 to y2 :1.
Cuts, Rock— 14 :1 to %:\.
Where there is much sloughing in earth cuts, it may be necessary to
use lyi to 1 or flatter. It is poor economy to build slopes flatter than nec
essary for a whole section just because one place requires that slope.
Traffic Capacity. — The number of lanes for accommodating traffic
has been determined by Dean A. N. Johnson as reported to the Highway
Research Board. This, of course, affects the cross section. For low cost
■si
•U l T0l«_L
(-top i "w y
Lfl'TO l£-
ZD'
munmmi 5\xroct TetflTMenr by zom-rm
rMTHCe EDGE GWVEL oe 5AI1D CLAY
BITI/MM0U5 3ueMCE7
- -TOWNEM by fcOAD-MX
fLOeiDfl LIMCeOCK oe MACADAM -TKNCH SECTION
mmsfmrm of old macadam andmoemig
Br addition of concmt shqulvezs
Fig- 13
roads, however, it is not a factor, except for the establishment of the

figure representing the upper limit of two-lane capacity.
The following conclusions were drawn from the Traffic Capacity Sur
vey conducted by Dean Johnson. In this analysis "Congestion is consid
ered to occur on a road when the number of vehicles reaches a total great
enough to fill the road and make turning out impracticable ; this condition
to last a sufficient length of time to be noticeable, the minimum amount of
time being one minute.
"When congestion occurs, reduction in speed will be noticed, along
/WT/ie 6KAPC
giMfiririrsceMn/reomomeorreosecT/o*
solio u»e snom ptmiMeosecrio/i
fills to o'huh, use j.islo.
v
in focf cuts. eicAtATt salio aocf
aeuow fwofilf SAApe aho FILLS TO4'HIM. FFWTH0* AVAOWAYm
'ILLS 4' TOO'HHSH. -
FTIOTHOF AOAOIFTAV
J
Sacf-fill mrjr juiTASLf HtAreAiAL •
FILLS OFF* W'W&M.LVIOTHOF AOAOFTAr
ON TAN6ENT
ON CURVE
IT IN IAATh tUTS-
L/hT UFpH WHICH

secrion shall ar quilt —*p
no** wmifm—.*/ FFOFILF&FADF

LIN£ UPOHWHICH-
OUAHTlTlF! rVFFe COMFUTFO
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10"BCLOIVFnOFiLF &/We AHO
OACFFULWITHStUTAgLCMATS/HAL
GUTTER SECTION
Fig. 14.
— Parabolic Section for jo Ft. Graded Earth—Missouri Standards
with the tendency for drivers to crowd one another." Using this defini
tion, the two-lane road is practically free from congestion up to 1,000
vehicles per hour.
The three-lane road is practically free from congestion up to 1,600
vehicles per hour, and is congested not to exceed one-fifth of the time
up to 1,900 vehicles per hour.
With further increase in the number of vehicles per hour, congestion
increases at a more rapid rate on a two-lane road than on a three-lane
road.
When four-fifths or more of the traffic is in one direction, the two-

lane road is practically free from congestion up to 1,300 vehicles per
hour, and the three-lane road up to 2,300 vehicles per hour.
From these conclusions it is observed that a two-lane road will always
be a satisfactory width for a low cost road.
Drainage. — Drainage is always important. In level country, the
problem is to get water away from the road as quickly as possible. In
hilly and mountainous country, the problem is to prevent swift running
water from destroying the road and its structures.
Proper road crown, adequate side ditches and culverts are the most
A unform Undents* of 2'shattbe sftead

oversuigrode from a mmrowon one
Shoulderto a point 4 'from/he opposite
shoJder and shall be bkxkd and
montaincd daily fret from holes,
nits or bumps, otupense of con
tractor until final occephnce of
work Uponfinal acceptor*cf work,
amountof grortl or chats not
necessary to spread or maintain£
r thickness Shall be Itfl by
Contractoron oneshoulder in a yj
*
j
neat and symmetrical mnrow Jpr
^— r ■
f
i
/J\ - '
'Jj
as sloe pile \yr Profile Orade_
In rock cuts, eicavale solid rock 0' bet*
withsuitablematerial
subfrade and backfill
fills to 4fl height,use 3 1slope, am- 4 use IK 7 slope
fills 4'lof high,nidlhof roadway 33.*'
Over 8'hjjh, width of roadway 3ft>'
Section on Tongenfs
This Section requires ZOcuyds of surfacing per ih
All grovel shall be
dumped and the nm-
row kft on high Side
Of curve
this point 2 ft be/on I Profile Orade\ \ This poml Z' ft below

profile grade | Pivot 6uo£itterv Profile erode
Jection on Curves
411superelevationshall bo constructed in grading operation,
ttote us shownfor placing cf Oravetor Chats on tangents Shalt apply on alt
curves, enceptall onavel or chats placed in winnowas stockpile shall be
on high side cf curve-
Fig. 75.
— Gravel or Chats Surfacing — Missouri Standards
important drainage requirements. Placing the road on a fill is the best

method of overcoming bad drainage conditions in flat country.
Carrying ditch water too far along the road without pipe culverts is
a frequent cause of erosion in' ditches. Where this is unavoidable, weirs
or dams of local stone or timber, or paved gutters can be used.
A paper prepared by C. A. Hogentogler, Senior Highway Engineer,
Henry Aaron, Junior Civil Engineer, and F. A. Robeson, Junior Highway
Engineer, all of the U. S. Bureau of Public Roads, and published in
PRAIRIE SECTION
Fig. 16. — Missouri Standard g-Ft. Concrete Surface
Roads and Streets, relating to fundamental facts with respect to design

of drainage systems is reprinted below.
Movement of Water in Soils. — In the design of the road drainage sys
tem certain fundamental facts should be remembered. They are:
1. Soil moisture may be of two kinds: (a) capillary moisture or that
forced through the soil due to the surface tension of water, and (b)
gravitational water or that which flows through the soil due to the
force of gravity.
2. Drains serve to remove only the gravitational water from soils.
3. To completely intercept seepage in a porous soil layer the drains
must extend in depth to the impervious under soil.
4. No flow of capillary moisture occurs in soils unless the capillary
equilibrium is destroyed.
5. Water can not enter soil pores containing air until the air is forced
out.
"Relative Amounts of Water Removable and Not Removable by Drain
age. — Figure 17 shows the relative amounts of soil, gravitational water and
capillary moisture apt to be contained in a 4-ft. depth of four different
soils at maximum saturation.
LOCATION, DESIGN, AND GRADING 115 )
GBOUND SURFACE • BRtAKS
SAND SILT CLAY ,
Ir/iTf B I IftT B»MO\ AM r RY MJMNAAP / S f S / /////////

PIKVIOU3
Ki
mz. SOII.
Fhj. iS. — Movement of Water Through

Soil, According to W. J. Schlick
mioium pstssua.
MtWUM nSOTANCt
HIGH PRtMURt
low pkuv.rc Vtn WGNtWSTMO
low resbtanu.
OHOUNO WATCR tLLVATION '
Fig. ij. — Relative Amounts of Water
Which May and May Not Be Re
moved by Drainage in Different
Soils
CA >ILLARY FRW Gt
Right. — The notations "100 sq. ft.," "1 acre"
and "20 acres" referred to indicate the sur
face area of 1 cubic foot of spherical par
ticles havinq diameters of 1 mm., 0.02 mm.,
and 0.001 mm., respectively. These Hqures 1MM O.OZMM aOOIMM
serve to illustrate the great differences in the K>0SO. FT. sqooosaFT IpOOOOO SO. FT
surface areas of sand, silt and smalt clay 1 ACM CO ACRES
particles.
Fig. — Relative Height of Capillary
i<).
Fringe in Different Soils
According to this figure, drains which serve to lower the ground water
elevation from the surface of the ground to a depth 4 ft. below the ground
surface, serve to take out most of the water contained in the sand, slightly
less than one-half of the water contained by the silt and but a small pro
portion of the water contained by either clay or muck.
Movement of Water. — Figure 18 illustrates that particles of water
which enter the ground surface do not flow diagonally toward the drain but
drop down vertically, until they meet the ground water1 flowing along the
impervious soil layer. This shows why a drain to intercept seepage must
•extend in depth to the impervious layer ; otherwise the water is apt to skim
under the drain, making the drain ineffective.
Detrimental Capillary Rise. — Figure 19 illustrates why detrimental cap
illary rise is especially important in silts. This capillary rise is dependent
upon two factors : the capillary pressure, which tends to force the water up
into the soil and the frictional resistance offered by the soil pores to the
flow of water. That pressure and also the resistance to flow increase as the
size of the soil particles decreases. Consequently the maximum detri
mental rise is caused by a proper combination of these two forces. In
sand both the capillary pressure and the resistance to flow are low, in clay
in contrast both force and resistance are high. Silts possess the proper
combination of force and resistance to flow productive of detrimental
rise. Detrimental frost heave therefore is confined primarily to silts.
Softening of consolidated clays is apt to be due to water entering the
top of the subgrade and not from the bottom.
Conditions Affecting Capillary Rise. — Figure 20 illustrates factors
which influence the rate of flow of capillary moisture. Capillary equilibrium
tVAPORATION
FtOMVtMYMTIOM Ijiill
''W
<womviTO
(VAPOOATICM CWPORJfflM
tcx crystals ! i I j i I FALLING RAIN j j i j ;
nm svtfAte. outko*
si
COMUMUWH
& WATE.R ENTERS HERE
V7777777777777/
MOUND WMTIR ILtVATlON
GROUND WATER E.LEVATION
Fig. zo. — Conditions Affecting
Capillary Flow
Fig. 21. — Effect Entrapped Air on

of
Ground Water Measurements
must be disturbed before flow occurs. This equilibrium may be disturbed

by evaporation, frost action, the presence of vegetation and change in
a
ground water elevation.

Air on Flow Moisture. — Figure 21 illustrates how the
of
of
Influence
presence of air influences the flow of moisture in soils. On the left the
falling rain causes the entrapped air to be forced out through the drain
as the rain water enters the ground surface.
On the right entrapped air under an impervious soil covering may

interfere with the rise of capillary moisture. Also air escaping through
the drain on the right may permit capillary moisture to enter that side
more rapidly than on the left where there is no drain. This does not
mean that drains are not effective for increasing the stability of subgrades.
By intercepting seepage and disposing of water during thaws they are
effective for preventing complete loss of stability in the subgrade. Never
theless a slightly higher moisture content might occur where drains exist
than where they do not.
Subgrade Treatment. — The effect of trapped water is disclosed by F. V.
Reagel, who found that gravel pavements 6 inches thick when constructed
according to the feather edge method were equal in service to gravel pave
ments 10 inches thick when constructed by the trench method. Thus 4
inches of gravel were required to compensate for the additional wetting
of the subgrade due to water trapped in the trench construction.
How Entrapped Water Causes Damage. — Figure 22 shows how en
trapped water is apt to cause both macadam foundations and base courses
to fail. Above is shown the newly constructed base course. In the middle
is shown water collecting in the pores of the base course. Below is shown
the soil penetrating the base course and the stones of the base course
sinking into the soil. The cause of stone particles working down into the
soil has generally been attributed to pressure, wheel loads, etc., exerted
on top of the pavement. Evidence is now available, however, that the
stone fragments due to their own weight may settle down into the sub-
grade soil during thaws. A porous base course, you understand, will not
Fig. 22.—Porous Base Course Settling Fi9- 2J— Drainage in Sags

into Soft Soil
heave due to frost action ; the difficulty is to keep that base course from
settling into the undersoil. :
Bituminous Treatment of Snbgratic—A gravel road on a gumbo soil

in Western Minnesota breaks up during the spring thaw. Particles of the
gravel surfacing have been found to penetrate the soil as much as 3 feet
maximum and commonly to a depth of 18 to 24 inches.
The same type of gumbo soil in the same location and at the same
season as referred to above remains firm, but in this case the soil has re
ceived a bituminous treatment and then been covered with a thin layer of
crushed gravel. The effective thickness of this surface during the first
winter would not be more than about 1 inch. Because of the remarkable
performance of this blotter type of construction on highly plastic gumbo
soils under the worst conditions of freezing suffered in the United States,
we believe that treating the soil with bituminous material and covering
with a thin layer of granular material as shown in Figure 23 will serve
to prevent the failure of both porous base courses and macadam founda
tions laid as clay soils. In addition all sags should be drained as sug
gested by Figure 24.
In silt soils water rising from below due to frost action is apt to prove
troublesome, therefore the treatment discussed above must be supple
mented with drainage to either lower the ground water elevation or to
dispose of water liberated by thaws.
Drainage for Frost Boil Areas. — Figure 25 shows the type of drainage
used with good effect in Minnesota. Due to the presence of snow on the
shoulders and in the field adjacent to the road and its absence on the road
Fig. 26. — Side Trench for Intercepting

Hydrostatic Water
surface and to possibly other factors related to the road surface, the frost
is apt to penetrate deepest under the road surface. Also, during thaws,
water is apt to be liberated first under the center of the road surface.
This water cannot penetrate the frozen soil to reach side trenches. A
center trench, however, serves to reduce the moisture content of the soil
before freezing and provides an unfrozen channel through which water
liberated by thaws may reach the unfrozen and porous under soil. It is
possible that either very deep side trenches or thick base courses are apt
to prove more beneficial for preventing cracking in concrete pavements
than any system requiring narrow drains to be placed under the pavement
proper.
Figure 26 suggests a scheme for intercepting hydrostatic water and
Figure 27 suggests a scheme for draining water pockets.
mnatf—i
PLAN FOR STAND DITCH SECTION PLAN OF VARIABLE OITCH SECTION

Nortr
fill eerticel boerdi to be driven in piece. J
rW timber to be ereojotad eceerd/nes to the AnSJeuri standard Specifications
fill timber to be dressed 4S.
in ease jo/l conditions ere atieJi that contractor is not eb/e to dnre the ditch
Choctt, he w-/// Or a/lowed to place them.
BILL OF MATERIAL BILL OF MATERIAL (APPRO')
FOR STAND TIMBER PITCH CHECKS FOR VARIABLE TIMBER OITCH CHECKS
CI Hert/ce/Piece* ^•■r6'-jl 63 am
1 tfonfOnfa/ Piece e'sz'-t'e," ^t2Bn1
Slender Z'Hf-6' f ant
Header ««■-<' 4 e.M
ror/tt- 7f>ieM
Naits ÔD
NOTE: for each additional vertical board
over It odd Jf^bd ft. to the total quantity.
0,/e/i C/reok
ffitcJr Check
PROFILE- SECTION OF SPACING
Fig. 28. — Timber Ditch Dikes—Missouri Standard

Conditions for Good Drainage. — 1. Have offtake and outlet ditches
of sufficient size, depth and fall to quickly carry away from the roadbed
all water brought to them.
2. Have side ditches of ample size with width, depth and fall suffi
cient to quickly carry the water collected in them to drainage structure,
or to outlet ditch and at same time have sufficient depth to keep the water
level well below the subgrade.
3.Have all drainage structures crossing the roadbed of sufficient size

to permit free flow of water through them without retarding volume.
4. Roadbed should have just sufficient crown to quickly shed the
water into side ditches without erosion of surface or discomfort to traffic.
5. All springs and underground sources of water must be tapped
and the water led off by subdrains. This particularly applies to the road
ditches on the upper side of a roadbed built on a side hill. A waterlogged
~"
ditch is little better than no ditch at all.
Where natural drainage is towards the road from the side it is good
practice to construct a wide ditch or ditches paralleling the road and out
side the limits of the roadway to intercept the surface water and carry-
it to a proper outlet. This ditch or ditches should be in addition to the
regular roadside ditch.
Allowable Gradient for Highways.1 — To more or less extent as local
conditions present them, the principal features desirable on proper grade
designs are economy in construction costs, safety and visibility, economy
irx_car operation and satisfactory drainage. Since alignment also considers
the above features as controls in standards, the balanced design resolves
into weighting values for both factors. The location problem is most
simple where conditions permit of high standards for both grade and
alignment. Invariably the necessity for decreasing one standard, involves
necessity for decreasing the other, until, for economy, the critical balanced
design is reached. The skilled locator's and designer's sense of proportion,
gained from comprehensive knowledge of general values essential on a
project, establishes a standard within certain limits. More detailed study
on the design entails weighing theoretical economic values, some of which
are none too accurately defined by research and for which no engineer
has been able as yet to set close rules for the exact guidance of the man
in the field. There is probably more indecision at present in grade design
than on any other particular factor of design, and this is becoming so
apparent that the next few years may accomplish more in arriving at
definite conclusions on allowable grades than decades of past experience
in highway location.
In some respects the tardiness of the profession in accepting the im
portance of evaluating highway location factors has had its benefits.
Without the greater assurance of the present day in forecasting the re
quirements of the future, the limits upon expected highway demands that
would have been set a comparatively few years ago in establishing positive
values would not have served present-day purposes in many instances.
It is true, of course, that present responsibility in design faces a similar
outlook, but automotive design has become more stabilized, traffic de
mands are more clearly conceived and present standards are more flexible
for a wider range of use, for instance, in speed.
1 Abstracted from 1931 Convention Proceedings, American Road Builders' Association.
The restrictions which limitations on allowable maximum grades im

poses on traffic nowadays are different than could formerly be ascribed to
them. For level and minor grades conditions are not so dissimilar.
Drainage Factor. — Level grades are allowable when drainage can
be carried from the roadway by the transverse slope of the latter and the
roadway section is unaffected by side drainage ditching. An example of
such a condition occurs on a raised embankment from which precipita
tion can pass directly over the shoulders.
When the roadway is through cuts absence of at least a light gradient
necessitates special design of the roadway ditch to carry side drainage.
In very light country fitted by level or nearly level grade, the special road
way ditch may be designed on a wide turnpike section. Economy and
consideration of adjacent property may dictate uniform depth of side
ditches, in which case roadway grade elevation will be controlled by side
drainage. Five-tenths per cent minimum grade for drainage is usually
required. One per cent is preferable.
Highway Grades as Related to Cost of Vehicle Operation. — Ex
tending the use of rolling or undulating grades to cover more appreciable
variations in elevation than the foregoing is a very effective method of
reducing construction costs in country lending itself to that play in grade
design. Experiment upholds the contention that the cost of operation over
rolling grades due to grade resistance only is not more than on the average
grade between the same elevations, unless the length and rate of any of
the component grade breaks reach limits that would show economic dis
advantages if each break is considered as an individual proposition. For
example : On a rolling grade composed of 3 per cent undulations the
amount of fuel used on ascents is recovered on the descents and no braking
is necessary and uniform speeds can be maintained. If, however, an undu
lation includes a long stretch of 7 per cent grade, that stretch, although
it might equalize fuel consumption over all, would, for certain vehicles,
limit uniform speed, overtax high gear operation, require braking on
descent, and increase driving hazards. These disadvantages would be
assigned to the individual grade section and only in that respect affect
the value of the series of undulations.
The car operation cost on undulations must include all classes of
vehicles, light and heavy. Herein lies one reason for limiting the length
and rate of an undulation. It does not require that rate of grades be
limited to the maximum at which trucks would operate as economically
as on the substitute average grade, but the economic loss for trucking
operation must be brought into the equation.
That an undulating grade is equally desirable to a uniform grade for
car operation cost does not necessarily permit its adoption on an equal
basis. With construction cost equal, the uniform grade would be pre
ferred for other reasons — vertical curvature, the relation of grade to
curvature, if the latter is involved, and uniformity in speed.
The critical grades that affect fuel consumption start from those
gradients that influence efficiency in high gear. The length of grade and
the class of vehicle operating thereon set the grade rate below which fuel
consumption is not appreciably lowered at normal speeds. The economi
cal grade for up-going cars will be different than for descending vehicles.
On the latter use of brakes and safety of speed are prime factors. 'The
length of grade assumes greater importance in relation to economy of
operation as grade rates increase.
Maximum Grade Limits. — Under normal conditions high gear will
efficiently carry heavy trucks up maximum sustained grades of about 3
per cent. Automobiles will similarly operate up about 7 per cent sus
tained maximum grade. Reduction of sustained grades less than 3 per
cent is seldom justified by fuel economies on the composite vehicle. Be
tween 3 per cent and 7 per cent, heavy trucks suffer losses in lower gears
and lost time which the lighter automobiles do not incur. For the automo
bile only, reduction in grade below maximum 7 per cent is justified by
other considerations more tiian by fuel consumption. Grades in excess of
7 per cent become disadvantageous to all vehicles for so many other rea
sons than fuel consumption that 7 per cent appears to be a conservative
allowable maximum for highway practice. Six per cent is a preferable
maximum for general use and for sustained grades.
Maintenance of uniform safe speed is a convenient measure of the
desirable grade, supplying reasons for reducing the maximum below that
allowable on a basis of fuel consumption only. This leads to considering
5 per cent grade desirable maximum on first class roads, particularly when
curvature is not excellent.
It eliminates many of the grade disadvantages noted in the following:
Loss of time through speed reduction on steep grades is, in many in
stances, an item of operating expense for the commercial vehicle, although
it is too often overcapitalized. For other vehicles it is a minor factor.
When, at a sacrifice in distance, grade is lowered below maximum at which
high gear work is efficient, the distance adds more to loss of time than
grade reduction saves.
Where composite vehicles ply steep grades the slow-moving vehicle
may retard the fast, as when the latter tries to pass. This may lower the
speed necessary for efficient operation in high gear, requires acceleration
after slowing on ascending grades or braking on descending grades. On
heavily traveled roads it multiplies the points of congestion, lowers the
apparent capacity of width, increases hazards. This hazard in passing
increases when curvature limits sight distance.
When altitude reduces power a reduction in normal allowable maxi
mum grade must be made if high gear efficiency is to be maintained.
Only ascending vehicles, or half total traffic volume, enter into capitalized
values on this power consideration. Roadbed conditions due to snow, ice,
sleet or fog will decrease effective traction and braking. Five per cent
LOCATION. DESIGN, AND GRADING 123
maximum under above conditions is a standard comparable to 7 per cent

maximum under ordinary conditions.
Vertical Curves. — Vertical curvature is an element in grade design
as essential for safety as is horizontal curvature on alignment design. It
shoald provide sight distance or visibility sufficient to permit approaching
venicles to come to a stop, in emergency, before meeting. The summit
vertical creates the greater hazard. Six hundred foot sight distance is a
reasonable minimum and 800-foot sight distance desirable on major routes.
Since roadway width is proportionate to traffic and vertical curvature is a
safety device common to all classes of roads, short vertical sight distance
cannot be considered of less importance on minor roads than on primary
routes, but economy may dictate otherwise.
Sag vertical curves should ;iot be so sharp as to cut the length of illu
minated roadway at 'night to a short distance. Headlight glare on summit
verticals is a source of danger and gives one reason for eliminating or im
proving those vertical curves as much as possible. A vertical curve may
have a generous sight distance designed, but unless that fact is evidenced
by other vehicles being in sight thereon the conservative driver often can
not judge length of visibility and would not safely enter the opposing
lane, to pass another car, for instance. This condition will operate to re
duce roadway capacity and safety during heavy traffic, and is a considera
tion against vertical curvature and breaks in grades that require them,
including rolling grades.
Horizontal curves should overlap vertical curves when they coincide.
By this means approach of the horizontal change will become apparent
to the driver before it is obscured by the vertical,. curve.
Drainage usually dictates that vertical curves should not reach the
sag in cuts. Seldom will conditions be found where the vertical should
dip on an inside horizontal curve. Whenever horizontal curvature is in
volved the grade should be as uniform and unbroken as conditions will
permit. Long open curves present a better appearance if on unbroken
grade, and traffic follows traffic lanes more carefully than when adverse
grade is before them. A sharp curve at the end of a steep grade is dan
gerous.
On long sustained grades of allowable maximum for. tangent, the
grade should be compensated for curvature. California standard compen
sation, in per cent of grade, equals 125 divided by radius. It is applied
to grades of 6 per cent and 7 jier cent. Additional allowance should be
made when the current alignment is subject to radical improvement that
will shorten distance.
On long, heavy grades it is preferable to use the maximum at the foot
of the incline and lighter grades near the summit, or to compensate on
heavier curvature, than to use a sustained uniform grade that is but
slightly below the maximum.
Superelevation of curvature will increase the maximum grade on the
lanes of travel. This increase over center line maximum may influence
allowable maximum on center line or the standard of curvature. Since
superelevation is based on speed and curvature it is often consistent to
reduce standard superelevation over sharp curvature on the assumption
that speed will be controlled by evidence of curvature. The maximum
grades at transition of superelevation will in this case be lowered and a
more uniform grade design be made possible.
Alignment as It Relates to Grade Design. — Curvature that limits
speed and visibility calls for reduction in allowable maximum grades for
matters of safety, future curvature improvement and for any reduction
in efficient motor power caused by slowing movement on the highway.
Controls in' location and construction costs, however, usually dictate limits
to the excellence of grade and curvature standards. Fuel consumption on
grades becomes of less importance than safety, convenience, and distance.
W hen deciding the extent of the necessary disadvantages which must be
imposed on traffic and for which grade and alignment will be responsible,
future traffic conditions and the adaptability of present design to future
use are important.
If permanent alignment could be secured at reasonable outlay by em
ploying the maximum grade, the latter would ordinarily be allowable. If,
however, an appreciable difference in grade rate allows but a moderate
improvement in alignment, the better grade would most often be preferred.
For instance, having alternatives of 1,000-foot radius curvature and 6 per
cent grade or 500-foot radius curvature and 5 per cent grades, the best
alignment would be chosen as a permanent standard, other conditions being
equal. Were the alternatives 500 feet to 1,000 feet radii on 6 per cent
grades versus 500 feet radii on 5 per cent grades, the latter is preferable,
because curvature is zoned and the grade would unquestionably be su
perior for general traffic.
Zoning curvature to have adjacent curves consistent in degree of curve
to avoid sudden changes from light to heavy curvature, with transition
in standard covering an appreciable distance, will also prove beneficial in
inducing more uniform grade lines. Variable grades with variable curves
introduce hazards when the standards are low. Speed of vehicles on de
scending grades justifies limitations in gradient more than does the ad
vantages to the ascending traffic.
To overcapitalize the importance of reducing grades and increasing
radius of curvature when wide roadways are required, is sometimes incon
sistent. Wide roadways imply heavy traffic which, as it approaches con
gestion, is limited in speed for uniform travel. No better grade and align
ment standards are required for such a section than are required for a
narrower roadway handling its proportionate volume and class of traffic.
With speed of travel on the increase, the tendency is to hold grades to a
moderate maximum for the composite vehicle to avoid curvature that ne
cessitates heavy superelevation, and to eliminate grade breaks that obstruct
vision. If a two-lane road is a potential four-lane highway, grade standard

will not be set by present volume. The difference in construction costs of
the narrow and the wide road on the different grade standards will prob
ably show a proportionate difference in economic grade values for the
relative volumes due to width. On minor roads an increase in allowable
grade maximum is made at sacrifice of other traffic advantages wherein
costs of construction are more serious than disadvantages to small volume
of traffic.
^/Conclusions. — In design of important commercial highways the
grades allowable deal with volumes of traffic composed of so large a vol
ume of the heavy commercial vehicles that their efficiency in high gear
controls maximum. Within such low limits of gradients, fuel consump
tion, at grade separation ramps, for instance, is not an appreciable factor.
Uniformity in speed during peak traffic periods which increases roadway
capacity and safety is all important.
Grade separations and structure approaches on the open road can
usually be constructed with maximum 4 per cent grades. Good visibility
on vertical and horizontal alignment at the structure are essentials. Into
design must be built a margin of safety to give a sense of security to
traffic, even though the structure itself is a caution sign.
At grade crossings and road intersections safety and flexibility of
intersection design demand careful use of gradients as well as align
ment. Visibility should not be impaired by vertical or horizontal curves.
Maintenance of roadway enters into grade design. It may overshadow
other factors in many cases, as when exposure, snow removal, slide pre
vention, etc.. are serious problems. Grade may be the flexible location
item to avoid deep through cuts or attain positions more favorable for
maintenance. Maintaining drainage and roadbed on steep grades have
added costs in excess of the initial savings made by poor construction.
Type of surface plays its part in establishing allowable grade. The
surface with a low coefficient of friction should not have as steep grades
as would types of rougher surface. There are times when it is more eco
nomical to reduce grades through grading in order to utilize locally avail
able materials for pavement than to import a more expensive pavement.
In the ultimate analysis the allowable grade standard that follows the
above general principles resolves into a matter of providing safety while
maintaining roadway capacity.
Economy in fuel consumption due to gradients becomes an item sub
ordinate to safety. Other factors, such as distance, alignment and width,
entef~iiit() the design in their proper relation, and each one stresses elim
ination -of'hazard. The last resort in providing safety is by efficient con
trol of the use of the road to overcome deficient design. The engineer's
responsibility is to build safety into design, in-so-far as justifiable costs
will permit, by grade, alignment, and width. Of these three measures for
safety, grade and alignment should provide efficiency on the initial mini
!26 LOW COST ROADS AND BRIDGES
mum roadway for the immediate capacity required, so additional width

can correct for increase in volume. It is evident that the original design
of grade and alignment must also be contingent upon the costs of future
widening.
BRIDGES AND CULVERTS

Locations are often badly made on account of the desire to utilize an
existing old bridge. Avoid putting angles or curves in new paving surfaces
to utilize an old bridge. In case of insufficient funds, stop paving short
of old bridge on new location and surface gap with gravel or one of the
lower cost surfaces.
In all circumstances, culvert headwalls should be beyond the edges of
the earth shoulders. For structures on curves the distance between head-
walls should be not less than 30 feet, or prevailing roadway width. The
lives of many people are at stake and the public demands that highway
engineers of today give much more thought to the subject of clearance
between the headwalls of culverts.
Approaches to bridges should be on a tangent even though necessary
to skew the bridge to obtain it. Skew should be as small as possible. An
angle over 45 degrees is objectionable, and an angle over 60 degrees
should never be used. Direction of channel can frequently be changed at
small cost. Often, embankment material is needed, which will justify an
extensive channel improvement.
SPUR ROADS
Spur roads represent a recent development in highway location, having
the several objects of efficient service to local communities, relief of trafT
fie congestion in municipalities, together with safety and efficiency for
through traffic.
Not all traffic on the trunk lines is through traffic, but there is a con
siderable proportion of intercity and suburban traffic, and the larger the
cities the greater is this proportion. While belt-line highways, by-passes
and cut-offs satisfactorily serve through traffic, they do not fully serve
local traffic and therefore do not offer the whole solution. In addition.
there must be properly located local connections to serve intercity and
suburban traffic. Many such connections would be purely of local con
cern, but the principal connections may be classed as spur roads, a part of
the trunk-line system. With properly located and designed through routes
for through traffic and properly located and designed spur roads for local
traffic, it would appear that all the conflicting requirements are reconciled
and that the application of these means would then only depend on the
degree of traffic congestion and the cost of accomplishment.
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PREPARATION OF ROAD PLANS AND SURVEYS1

A good set of plans can be prepared only when the field surveys, de
signing, estimating, and field inspection have been good. The slighting
of any one of these preparatory operations in the name of economy will
be reflected in error, higher costs, and greater expense for maintenance.
The expense of surveys and plans as here described can be justified
for Class C and D roads of Table I or Class I and II roads of Table II
in this chapter. For strictly local roads in Class E of Table 1 or Class III
of Table II. where the alignment of an old road is being followed, simple
surveys with tape, string level, level rod, and Locke level will usually be
sufficient. Pennsylvania practice as discussed hereinafter is an illus
tration.
There are six steps necessary in collection of the data and compiling
the plans1 :
a. Field surveys.
Mapping the surveys.
b.
Designing the roadway.
r.
d. Estimating the quantities.
e. Field inspection of the design.
/. Final completion of the plans. ,

Care and skill are necessary that the center line as located will be the
best possible within the limits of justifiable expenditure.
The final location field survey follows in general a route tentatively
established. It may be along an existing road or over an entirely new route,
but the route should have been examined with certain definite ideas in
mind by the locating engineer or the chief of party acting under instruc
tions.
Transit notes will show: distances between deflection points, the de
flection angles, bearings on tangent lines, P. C, P. I., and P. T. stations,
horizontal curve data, and reference ties for the P. I. and P. O. T. points.
Level notes will show: elevations at all stations and prominent breaks
of the ground surface, stream edges, top and bottom of batiks, center
points in ditches and small streams, bench mark elevations and descriptions,
and intersections of the center line with the center line of cross roads or
with railroad lines. Bench mark levels will be run and bench marks
established.
Topography notes will show: location of buildings, drainage struc
tures, fences, field and private entrances, stream angles and direction of
flow, angle of railroad crossings, sidewalks, section corners, probable clear
ing and grubbing, road intersections, pole lines, mile posts, stream and
marsh boundaries, trees in right-of-way to be preserved, railroads and
streams adjacent to the right-of-way, and detailed topography at bad situ
ations.
1 Abstracted from a paper presented at the Eighteenth Annual Purdue Road School. January
25-29, 1932, by G. P. Springer, Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, Purdue University.
Drainage notes will show: detailed sketch with angle of stream cross
ing and all information which will affect the design of the road or struc
ture at that point, proposed channel changes, direction of drainage flow
at cross roads and culverts, detailed description of structures in place, in
let and outlet elevations with side shots in the field to indicate discharge
possibilities, notation as to head room, soundings in larger streams, struc
ture recommendations, and high water mark.
Right-of-way notes will show: boundary lines, property owners' names,
location of buildings, boundaries of fields, classification of lands, areas
of land cut off, location of water affecting pasture rights, stations and
plusses at property lines, names of owners whose lands encroach on the
right-of-way with areas of encroachment, length of centerline across prop
erty, monument ties, etc.
Soil and material notes will show: character of soil at all points along
the survey ; classification of materials such as rock, hardpan, loose rock,
gravel, earth; location of available materials for construction, gravel pits,
stone quarries; distances and character of roads for haulage.
Bridge survey notes will show: conditions which will make construc
tion difficult, foundation conditions, transportation conditions, high water
indications, character of local materials close by, velocity of stream, nor
mal high water, normal water stage, low water, character and amount of
drift, if any, profile of stream bed with information as to liability of
scour, location data as to test holes and soundings, careful notes on investi
gation of foundation conditions, alignment and grades on approaches, and
photographs of site and of any bridges on the stream near by.
Cross section notes will be taken at all stations and at prominent breaks
of the ground and at any additional places where necessary to get more
accuracy in computing the volumes of excavation and embankment. It is
important that sections be taken at cross roads, ends of bridges, culverts,
and railroad crossings.
Due allowance should be made in cross-sectioning, for grass, snow, ice,
and frozen ground. This is especially true where grading is light. Keep
in mind that an end section 60 feet wide and 0.1 feet high represents
22 cubic yards for each 100 feet.
Notebooks should be indexed and kept up to date. All notes should
be carefully entered, so they may be worked by others who are not famil
iar with the survey. The draftsman who makes the map may never get
into the field. A permanent bench mark should be set near Station 0 + 00
and a description of it entered in each notebook. Each day's work should
be dated. Upon the front page opposite the fly leaf should appear the
name of the survey, names of the survey party, and any general informa
tion relative to the purpose of the survey.
Survey Map.— Mapping the survey involves reproducing on the
plan-profile sheet the information obtained in the field by the field survey
Darties. If this information has been fully and carefully taken, then the
130 LOW COST ROADS AMD BRIDGES
On survey work considerable communication must be done by meons of signoli

Such should be os
t
Mmpleond unmisfokoble.nmeoning os possible ond known tooll members of theporry
Ihefellowma
ore suggested for use , mony of them being long established procf
ice >
Extending both orms horizontally once,or Wendmg orm vertically, holding position o mom
wovmg them once slightly above or below
t
ent, then dropping vertically, repeating until seen
horijontol I "AILDIGHTT (Oose w signal) "ROD UP"
Woving one or both arms bock ond forth
t
Mending orm vertically, holding posit on on
over the head holding o red w white flog,
instont.then making short wove toward one side
efc.in the honeVAU. Rl6HT.'(Distoncesignal) •PLUMBRODIN THAT DIRECTION:
Both orms extended downwond.diogonally, *A

> androised.eitended.tonearlymeetoverthe
1f
Holding orms, orflogS, crossed. motionless,
head,then dropped toctownwordpositionagain, "
|| over heod< CANT SEE YOU.'
repeat secondtime ^"AURIuHT.COMtAHEAD:
f\
■
■
I Runningbockon forth madirechon persen
(Tronsifmon) extending orms honjonfol
y,
one
ol
I
: diculor toline, otsome time woving,in big
T*
cir- time, onddrowing them bock, alternating, repeat
0
* de.orm holding flog of some kind •■
edly: "TAKESECONDPOINT TORDOUBLECENTER-
1 âRloHT.COMEAHEAD'Clongdistonctsijnol}
Entend ing or woving one orm out envoy
Extending armshori30ntolly,holdingupperonns
1
from one.* MOVEOVER IN THATDIRECTION'
rigid. woving forearms up toword heod ond backdown
Close up signol).
repeotedly."COME THISWAYANDBRIN6EQUIPMENT.'
Wbvingorm(nok)ingfloginhond)tooneside,
f încircle.jothotnogmovesawoyfromoneot
^
''
•*'
■ Extending orms horijontdly.hoJding one ngid,

kjpofcircle '
towordoesireddirectionoFmave'. Jl woving forearm
of
other toword
toward heo
heod ond bock
IN
"MOVEOVER THATDIRECTrON"(Dijlonor signal). down nipeotedly "BRIN6 5TAKE5:

I
I
f
Extendingorms horiyyitolly.hokJing onerigid, Holdmgflog rod vertically «i+hend on gpouno".
t
wovmgotherdownwardond bocK.reoeoiedlif-
woving
^
wn«A
wov. wovipg top too and fro ocroos the Une "GIVE
•
r
ngMorm "BRir.'G ME UNE*

EtR^GIROMPIN"
■
Stondmgsidewue.orms edendedforword.
■jllyover heod,
Holding flog rod hereon tall;
woveIhemuponddown,raisingone „htle the moving up ond down rop'd "Double center
it
ly
1
olher being lowered,in choppingmotion:

is
Ime for hub'.

o
'BRING CUTTINGTOOLS"(oies.cornhnivej.erc
'W Holdingflog rod hori3ontolly over- Holding flog rod on slant over heod, re
f
heod "GIVE
GIVEMELINEFOR hUB:
A
peatedly raising ond towering whole nod'

'GIVEME DOUBLECENTERTACKP0INT5"
Holdingflog rod on obouWstont

to
Hotdmgflog rod overhead, roiseond lower ends,

honjonfol.overheod 'GIVi! ME UNE FOR
rjt
rototmg oboul center of rod held point:

o
0
tack: 'REFf AT COMPLETE OPERATION:

a
to
inqiying jignolacore »houidbeto*en giverhem^ the

Holdingflog rod on slont over heod. beit mannertobeseen, movementof arms shouldbegreaterand
o
reoecredly raising ond lowering upperend-- widerasdistanceincrease*.flogssHoo'dbesix.ôswiMshowupognn-

5t
*GM ME 5EC0NDTACK POINTFORDOUBLE CENTER: thebocl'qroundfojfor'nstonce tfhiteorbrightredogomstgreenordarH

background butdorker colors,osob'ocfc hat,or something lergeond
hUu>flUaiJ
Holdng
.. ._w
^ ^w„JLr,Z,Mi,M™*,+
flog rodverticolly. moving uponddown;coaque,ogjOpnstobrtghtshy).lf possibleolwa>3 standoutinthesunlight
*c,*«t
iti
or.holding flog rod vertically with bottom on

ta(httal.gn>undhvI#,r5l«fofaw.nt-.ih(l»™<iltJ>onli9hiroUonr<>dif
point, moving one hond.oro flog, up ond down powtk,vx^gmiiviki*nbariiWt^^^^^toiv***idi**'irtn**i.
before it' '5ET0NTHI5". osoW*«o9trfon»ttb€oktthvidptnciloc*ditaolfc»ali»iiirlivboc»rf
wtnfe
bobamjor-yellowpencilAnarmysergeant's wh.sHe somehnies vie
is
Ajl toIhe mstrumentmon for signalling.
Fig. — Signals for Use Survey Work — From Indiana Instructions

in
31.
to Survey Parties
officedraftsmen will find their difficulties are few in building this base
upon which the road design constructed. All notes should be checked
is
before any plotting of plan, profile, or sections started.

is
Three views of the roadway are shown: the horizontal alignment,

the vertical section along the center line, and cross sections showing the
ground surface at right angles to the center line at the stations where
taken. For plan and profile the standard plan-profile sheet is recom
mended.
The plan sheet represents one-half mile of roadway. The center line
is laid down to a scale of 1" = 100'. The deflection angles are laid off,
using the natural tangent of the deflection angle. The plan serves as a
picture to present to the eye the relative position of the various topo
graphic features with respect to the center line. The hundred foot station
points should be marked on the center line and the full station number
PLAN
—m
it44
''I
f
'5
%S
V
IT
*/ 0
III1'! m
—
Fig. 32.
— Typical Plan, Profile, and Cross Sections for Grading in Footlii/I Country
shown at every fifth station increasing from left to right. All natural and
artificial features which might have any hearing upon the design should
be shown upon the map, located by a station plus and a right angle offset.
These features will be fences, both right-of-way and line, buildings, culti
vated fields, wooded areas, streams, rivers, lakes, culverts, bridges, infor
mation as to side slopes, nature of the soil, bad drainage, etc. Reference
ties should be shown for all P.I. and P.O.T. points, the P.I. and the P.O.T.
station point being shown on the ma]) as a small circle. Hearing of survey
lines; the elements of the horizontal curves, right-of-way lines, direction
of runoff flow, etc. The center line should be inked about weight,
other lines light weight.
The most usual mistake in plotting is using wrong station numbers,
or reversing the direction of the center line deflections, or plotting the
topography reversed. The lettering used should be neat and plain. The
smallest letter in lower case should be not less than Vw" high. Conven
tional signs for topography should be used so far as possible. Only the
information as received from the field, referring to structures and natural
topography as they exist, should be placed on the plan in the first draft
ing operation.
The profile of the center line is plotted on the lower part of the plan-
profile sheet, the profile being of the same one-half mile as shown in the
plan layout above the profile. The horizontal scale is 1" = 100' and the
vertical scale is 1" = 10'. Plot only those points at which elevations were
taken. Connect the plotted points by straight lines of about %4" weight.
The plotting can be done to 0.1 foot, which is as close as the field eleva
tions were taken. Stations for the profile points should be shown on the
vertical lines and across the bottom of the sheet. The stationing of one
sheet should lap four stations with the next sheet ; that is, the last four
stations upon one sheet should be the first four stations upon the next
sheet which follows.
The cross sections should be most carefully plotted so that quantities
may be calculated for laying the economic grade line. The section paper
is 5x5 feet to the inch. From the center elevation determine the section
reference elevation and mark this elevation and the section station number
upon the sheet at the left of the section. The reference elevation line
should be assumed at an elevation number divisable by 5 and that one
nearest to the center elevation of the section. The section is plotted right
and left of the center line to the nearest 0.1 foot in elevation and these
plotted points connected by straight lines. The sections are plotted begin
ning at the lower left and working to the top of the sheet ; this -allows 2
columns per sheet, average sections. The profile should be observed as the
sections are plotted and vertical allowance can be made between sections
so that the final plotting of construction sections will not overlap. The
ground line should be inked about %4" weight.
LOW COST SURVEYS

Low-cost improvement of roads calls for low-cost engineering. There
should he some reasonahle relation between construction and engineering
costs.
For the rural route improvements by department forces in Pennsyl
vania, the preliminary survey is a chained and referenced center line.
On department force account work the foreman establishes lines,
widths, and grades by eye or with string lines as the work progresses.
For contracting low-cost improvements the preliminary survey is based
on a traverse center line established with offset stakes at even stations
and breaks in grade. Curvature under 6 degrees is marked with tangent
stakes to be adjusted during construction. For curvature of more than
6 degrees, offset curve stakes are set by eye in the course of the survey.
For curvature of 6 to 16 degrees, stakes are set at 50-foot intervals and
for curvature of more than 16 deg., stakes are set at 25- it. intervals.
In the finished grade a tolerance of 6 inches above or below the estab
lished grade line is permitted, but breaks in the completed surface and
variation from the established grade line shall not be at a greater rate
than 1 per cent and the grade shall not be flattened or reversed so as to
cause improper drainage. Tolerance of 1 foot in alignment is permitted
if there is no resulting abrupt break in the alignment.
The average cost of surveys and plans has been about $75 a mile.
The following discussion and chart by P. M. Tebbs, Pennsylvania,
Department of Highways, appeared in Engineering Ntnvs-Record, Jan. 7,
1932:
A temporary stake is placed where the two tangents intersect (point A') which
is determined, as normally, by a visual inspection of existing ground conditions and
local developments. Along both tangents measure from X distances of SO ft. and
place temporary stakes, thus establishing points Y and Z. Measure the distance
between points Y and Z, and place a temporary stake at its mid-point so as to
locate the direction of the external for whatever curve may be selected to satisfy
the conditions imposed.
In the table in the left-hand column headed YZ pick out the distance nearest
corresponding to the measured distance. If an appreciable difference exists between
the two distances and greater accuracy is desired, a slight shift of either or both
points X or Z, with an accompanying shift of Y if X is changed, will attain the
results sought. Usually the function of a curve, aside from considerations of safety,
that dictates just what curve should be adopted is the extent the curve location
encroaches on adjacent property or the extent to which it necessitates earthwork.
This distance is invariably the external of the curve, shown as Xe and designated
E, although sometimes the tangent length aX or Xf is the controlling function.
Assuming, however, that external distance is the control, opposite the distance YZ
used and under heading E find the distance which, after dividing by a number
(degree of curvature), will result in a quotient representing the external needed.
Measure the external, as above obtained, from X to e and drive a stake at the
latter point, which becomes one point on the required curve. From the table and
opposite the distance measured YZ divide the tangent distance T shown by the
same number (degree of curvature) as used above in selecting E, and thus obtain
tangent distance. From the point of intersection X measure this tangent distance
along the tangents and drive stakes at a and /, which become points of tendency
of the curves. Three points on the proposed curve have now been determined and
located.If additional points are desired they can be obtained as follows:
ob-bc=cd--de \ if.rre9.b5 (Vers.]]

All values in the columns headed (T,c,M,andM,)are for 0. One Degree Curve.
Divide an values in those columns ty the Degree of Curve used.
P*S- 33-
— Chart for Laying Out Curve Without a Transit
Place temporary stakes at the mid-points of the measured chord length or and fc
and at right angles to the chord lengths, measure distances of Ml (as determined
by taking tabular value of Mi from the table opposite the measured length YZ and
dividing it by the degree of curvature), and thereby obtain two more points c on
the curve. To obtain two additional points on the proposed curve, such as b, pro
ceed similarly as outlined in preceding paragraph, using the distance found under
column M,, and dividing it by the degree of curvature used.
Intermediate points can be obtained by sighting them in by eye and if the re
sultant curve is satisfactory, offset stakes can be placed so as to avoid disturbances
by construction operations.
To illustrate the applicability of the foregoing let us assume that the back and
fore tangents have been established, the distance YZ measured as 90.5 ft., and
that a building (or some other local control) exists on the inside of the curve so
that to avoid encroachment of the highway on the control the center line of the
contemplated curve must be in such a position as to restrict the external distance
F. to a maximum of 60 ft. In the table is found a value of YZ as 90.6 ft., which is

the closest value to the measured distance of 90.S ft. Assumimng that no further
refinement is necessary requiring an adjustment of the points X, Z or Y, the value
of 90.6 ft. as found in the table will be used. The flattest degree of curvature that
can be used and which will satisfy the above requirement for E not to exceed 60 ft.
is,
therefore, 592.3 -f- 60, or 10 deg. (to the nearest deg.). Accordingly place
%
= 59J4 ft., tangents = 267.2 ft., A/, ■= 13.6 ft., and Mi = 3.4 ft.,
E
stakes so that
T
thereby establishing nine points on the center line of the curve.
ROAD DESIGN
The mapping of data which have been accumulated by the field sur
veys1 furnishes the base upon which to build the design. First considera
tion should be given to the requirements of the future road.
The road design consists of several parts:
a. Type of metal for the surface.
Width and shape of section.
b.
c. Proper drainage system.

Correct grade line.
d.
e. Determination of quantities.
Culverts and bridges needed.
/.
g. Miscellaneous details.
The type of metal, or wearing surface to

be used will be determined
by engineer and be approved by the comissioners, or other proper
the
authority. The width of the roadway surfacing, the shape of the section,
the width of the shoulders, the slope, width and depth of ditches, are de
termined, and this information furnished to the drafting force who will
is
then complete the design in accordance with the tentative specifications

and requirements as set up for the road.
Throughout the design, the designer must constantly check his drain
age. Special drainage may be required in some places.
Selection of the proper grade line dependent upon an understand
is
ing of all of the principles discussed hereinbefore. at this point that

It
is
the designer applies those principles. The designer should observe that
the maximum gradient having been determined, uneconomical and
is
it
unwise to make heavy and extensive cuts to secure lower grade at points
a
on the road where the traffic conditions remain the same. The most eco
nomical grade line one whereon the cuts and fills just balance with
is
minimum of excavation. This never attained, but can be closely ap

is
a
proached. The controlling features of the grade must be satisfied. The

economic design will make use of rolling grades. unwise to cut
It
is
3% grade to the ruling grade Small minor rises and

if
is
2.5% 5%.
hummocks, however, should be cut through to get pleasing grade line
a
and avoid the unsightly appearance of dips in the pavement.

In computing the yardages, and balancing the earthwork, shrinkage
of the materials placed in embankment must be taken into account. The
These were p~es-ntfd in the Inst section as discussed by Prof. Springer of Purdue University.
1
This a continuation of that discussion.

is
allowance for shrinkage will vary from 15% to 35%, depending on the
amount of sod and surface mulch.
To determine the economic grade line a template cut to the road section
is placed over the plotted ground cross section and adjusted to make the
side cut and rill balance. The elevation of grade as shown for this posi
tion of the template is marked upon the profile at the proper station.
Through these plotted points a straight line curve is drawn which will be
an economic grade line ; that is, the earthwork quantities will be balanced
both for side casting and for longitudinal movement. The line must be
adjusted to take account of the various vertical control points along the
line, such as railroads, bridges, culverts, and cross roads. The first line
drawn is a trial grade. From this trial grade a preliminary estimate of
the earth quantities is run off and the grade line is adjusted to make the
cuts and fills balance.
The straight grades are connected by vertical curves, so computed that
the sight distance along the road will be not less than adopted standards.
For hard surface work a change of grade of 0.5% should have a verti
cal curve; for gravel a change of 1.0% or less does not need a vertical
curve. The vertical highway curve is a parabola and the mid-offset is
given by the equation
—
(G,— G,) L
c
8
and any other offset is given bv
O = c
(P)
where
e = the mid offset,
Ct and G„ = the grade per cents,
L = the length of curve in stations,
x = the distance from the nearer end of curve to point,
/ = half length of the curve,
0 = the offset at any point on the curve.
All offsets are applied to the grade tangent and are plus or minus, depend
ing on whether the construction grade is above or below the grade tangents
in passing through the curve.
Quantity of Earthwork. — The cubic quantities of earth ore com
puted from the areas of the cross sections using the average end area
method. For each station determine the net quantity, that is, the excess
or deficiency in the cut or fill yardage. If these excess quantities per sta
tion, considered plus when representing excavation and minus when repre
senting fill, are summed algebraically, beginning at the zero station and
progressing through the survey, and these summation numbers are plotted
station by station to some vertical scale of cubic yards and horizontal scale
LOCATION, DESIGN, AND GRADING \37
of stations,the resulting curve is called a mass diagram, and it graphically

represents the movement of earth in a direction parallel to the center line.
This curve does not represent the total excavation or fill, but represents
only those yards of excavation which move from one station in excavation
to position in fill in another station.
A rising curve represents excavation and a falling curve represents
fill. If any section of the curve which is in the form of a loop, has this
loop cut by a line parallel to the base from which the curve was plotted,
the section cut represents a balance of excavation and fill. Loops convex
upward show haul in the direction of the increasing station numbers, and
loops convex downward show haul in the opposite direction. Haul is al
ways from cut to fill, from the rising line to the falling line. Each loop
is comprised of two equal parts, cut and fill, and the volume of each part
is represented by the length of the maximum ordinate which divides them,
computed from any horizontal line drawn across the loop. The intersec
tions of this horizontal line with the loop determines the stations between
which the quantities balance.
If the curve is a continuously rising line, then there will be waste,
for the curve is representing excavation, and if it is continuously falling,
there will be borrow, for the falling line represents fill. When this occurs,
the grade line, if possible, should be adjusted to equalize the cut and fill.
The mass diagram checked against the profile and grade line will show the
balanced sections, location of wastes, borrow pits, and the overhaul sec
tions. If these represented units of work are not satisfactory, the grade
line must be relaid.
However, it may be more economical to waste or to widen cuts or to
borrow, than to balance cut and fill, because of hauling costs.
Field Inspection of Design. — The plans as first prepared may and
usually do contain inconsistencies and omissions which must be corrected.
This is best done by a field inspection of the design. The inspector walks
over the line and carefully checks the grade to see that the fills are ade
quate in swampy places ; that guard rail is specified at all places where
essential ; that the cuts do not unnecessarily interfere with private prop
erty ; he should not criticize a grade because at that particular point it does
not appear to fit the ground properly. If a desirable grade has been prop
erly laid, the cuts and fills as shown on the plan are necessary to produce
that grade ; he should, however, criticize the grade with regard to the
general topography, the importance of the road, the road's relation to the
general topography. If he suggests a change, then he should furnish a
clear and concise statement of his reasons, setting forth the extent and
amount of the change proposed.
The general drainage conditions should be given careful consideration ;
inspection of bridges and culverts on the same stream should be made to
see that proper sizes are specified. The inspector should carefully note
that all required drainage locations are shown upon the plans. Bleeder
lines of tile for springy places, out-croppings of water bearing strata,

special work in boggy and swampy places should be noted, the extent and
amount of the special work required specified. Notations as to farm en
trances and drives, cross-roads intersections, railroad crossings, should be
made. The inspector should endeavor to visualize the road as it will be in
the future and in this manner check the work of the designer at all points.
Final Plans. — The field inspected plans are gone over by the de
signer to see what changes are pointed out by the inspector. These are
studied with reference to the general idea of the grade and line. Rec
ommended changes in grade must be given consideration. The yardage
quantities are recomputed. The elevations of all stations along the grade
line are now placed along the bottom of the sheet. Elevations of other
essential points are shown, bench marks are noted, guard rail computed,
length of vertical curves are shown, and special drainage details described.
Across the bottom along a convenient line collective figures are shown
giving the quantities of cut, fill, borrow, waste, and overhaul, if any, in
such a way that the contractor is given a comprehensive idea of the amount
of work between certain stations and the direction of the earthwork haul.
The stations between which these units of work as shown are obtained
from the mass diagram, and the units of work shown are between bal
ancing points. The length of these working sections will be variable, but
in general they should not be greater than 1000 to 1500 feet in length.
New culvert information should be most carefully studied and the
proper kind, size, and sha]>e of culvert specified, and the quantities upon
which the contractor will base his bid should be shown. Bridges should
be handled under the bridge engineer, and are not considered as a part
of the road plans. The bridge location, name of stream, and description
of the bridge should be shown. The elevation of the flow line, upper and
lower, should be shown for all pipe culverts, and the elevation of the top
of footing for box culverts. Culverts for driveways should be specified.
Notation should be shown as to width of widening and amounts of metal
or extra pavement required for this widening.
Special details and designs should be worked out on separate sheets
and included in the set of plans. These extra details will cover special
culverts, baffle walls in ditches, cobble gutters, concrete gutters, sub-
drainage structures, bleeder drains, catch basins, inlets, manholes, special
driveways, channel changes, riprap, and special construction of any kind
which is not covered in the usual standards and regularly specified for
the road.
The set of plans when completed should be collected in folio form and
contain in order: the cover sheet showing the general location of the proj
ect with respect to shipping points by rail or water, and the roads leading
from these shipping points to the job; one or more sheets showing the
standard cross sections for the road construction ; the plan-profile sheets
for the entire layout; quantity sheets consolidating and summarizing all
the quantities of work of every kind upon the project ; sheets showing
the special details cross section sheets, and mass diagram sheets. For
;
the use of the contractor, a folio for his inspection should contain : general
location sheet, typical road sections, plan-profile sheets, quantity sheets,
and special detail sheets.
GRADING BY HAND SHOVELING

the data on hand shoveling that follows, costs have been transposed
In
to a basis of 50 cents per hour for labor, $1.00 per hour for teams, and
an 8 hour clay.
Hand Shoveling. — Shoveling earth by hand into wagons or trucks
is done to quite an extent even today. Other methods may be more eco
nomical or may not, depending upon ownership and location of other
types of equipment, and quantity of dirt to be moved. An average cost
for shoveling, one motion only, would be 42 cents a cubic yard. If a step
or two must be taken the cost will jump up to 50 cents. For farther carry
a wheelbarrow becomes more economciaL
Hand Shoveling into Wheelbarrows. — The first move for this will
cost 35 cents a cubic yard. Moving any distance up to 60 or 70 feet will
raise this cost to 45 cents. Gradients and the condition of the runways
will change this cost a few cents either way. Beyond 60 or 70 feet it is
more economical to load into a wagon and haul, so far as hand shoveling
is concerned. Slip scrapers, fresnos. and wheelers, of course, are more
economical for hauls of 75 feet up to 500 or 600 feet.
GRADING WITH BLADE GRADER

Many of our roads are built and maintained by blade grading meth
ods. The following discussion pertains to a roadway of sufficient width
for travel on some of our county roads as well as township roads.
Successive Rounds of Grader.— The diagrams illustrate the method
of grading an earth road. Typical for many old roads is a level stretch
of roadway with light ditches and balanced section, in which the roadway
is approximately level with the adjacent land.
Level Section. — For the first cut on a road, the blade is set to cut
an even depth along its entire length and at a sharp cutting angle nearly
parallel to the direction of travel.
When the grading has been completed, the surface of the road should
be free from sods. This requires that the sods be reduced to a minimum
and that the quantity of fine earth be a maximum. As most of the sods
come from the first cut of the grader, this cut should be as shallow as
possible without permitting the blade to come out of the ground ; under
ordinary conditions this will mean a cut two or three inches deep. The
resulting sods will be thin and pliable ; in addition, the total volume of sods
will be small, and they can be cut up easily and covered.
140 LOW COST ROADS A.XD BRIDGES
In making the first cut, the point of the blade should be kept a few
inches inside the outer edge of the finished ditch. Then, by having each of
the successive ditch cuts a little deeper and a little nearer the center of the
road, the rough ditch will have a stepped back face as shown in cross-
section by the dotted lines of Figure 34. With the point of the blade
located as described, and with the stake-line at the middle of the ditch,
the operator will be in a position to sight along the stake-line when he
makes the first cut.
It is very important that the first cut be straight, as the succeeding
cuts are governed by the first, and any curve which appears in the first
cut is likely to perist in the finished ditch.
The second round of the grader, the ridge of sods formed by the first
round, is broken up and spread so that it can be covered with fine earth
obtained in later cuts from the ditch.
For the second ditch-cut, which is the third round of the grader, the
point of the blade is set a little deeper than the heel in order that the ditch
24-' <r
Fig. 34.
— Cross-Section of Roadway
might be deepened without disturbing the earth which forms the shoulder.
The dotted lines in Figure of the second ditch-cut.
34 represent a section
It is to be noted that the second cut does not extend as far to the right
as the first, and that the stepped face of the rough back slope becomes
apparent. The grader should be hitched to the tractor with just enough
offset to insure that, with the grader making a ditch-cut, the outside wheel
(or track, in the case of a crawler tractor) of the tractor will run on this
spoil.
There arc three distinct advantages in having the tractor run on the
shoulder when the grader is in the ditch. First, the tractor is clear of
mud and water, and it can, therefore, deliver a maximum drawbar pull.
Second, the sods during the first ditch-cut are cut to pieces and rolled
down during the second cut so that the grader, in transferring earth from
the shoulder to the center of the road, does not move the sods. Thus, the
sods are not only kept off the center of the road, but by the time the road
is finished, they have been for the most part entirely cut to pieces. Third,
since successive passages of the tractor pack the shoulder, by the time the
road is finished, the shoulder is solid and more stable than a shoulder of
loose earth would be.
The fourth round of the grader is to move earth from the

the excess
shoulder toward the center of the road. For this work the blade should
be set a little straighter across the road than for the ditch-cuts. This is
done in order that the earth may be transferred a maximum distance with
a single passage of the grader.
The blade should also be placed low enough to transfer the loose earth
resulting from the second ditch-cut, but high enough to slip over and not
disturb the sods of the first ditch-cut. If this is done, and it can be done
with a high degree of success by a competent operator, the loose earth will
be in the center of the road, and the sods will remain at the shoulder where
they are further ground up and packed down by successive passages of
the tractor.
Transferring the earth from the shoulder toward the center of the road
necessitates a much smaller draw-bar pull than the ditch-cut does, so that,
Fig. 35.
— Cross-Section Showintj Cuts Taken by Successive Passages of Grader.
As the point of the blade is lowered for the successive rounds, the,
heel is raised so as not to disturb the shoulder AB. For
successive cuts the point of the blade is kept
away from the finished back slope.
if a tractor having three speeds is used, it can be run in "intermediate" or

even possibly in "high" for this round, thus expediting the work.
The fifth round of the grader, which was the third ditch-cut, the earth
removed from the ditch being represented in cross-section by the dotted
lines of Figure 34. For this cut, the blade is again set nearly parallel to
the edge of the road ; the point of the blade is set down while the heel is
kept up so as to clear the solid ground at the shoulder and to deliver the
spoil just inside the shoulder line; the point is kept away from the back
face in order to cut another step in the rough back slope. This passage of
the grader leaves a ridge of mellow earth on top of the sods just inside
the shoulder line.
In the sixth round of the grader the loose earth is transferred from
the shoulder toward the center of the road. As in the third round, the
blade can be set a little more across the road than for the ditch-cut; and
the tractor, if it has three speeds, can be run in "intermediate" or "high."
This operation is essentially the same as that of the fourth round, with
a difference, however, in the case of an unbalanced road section. It is at
this point that the correction of an unbalanced section is begun.
On the seventh round the back-sloper is attached and the fourth ditch-
cut made. The back face of the ditch is cut on a slope and the ditch
deepened. This cut delivers a ridge of fine, loose earth on the line of
the shoulder which is later used to finish the surface of the roadway.
The eighth and ninth rounds carry the loose earth from the shoulder
toward the center and distribute it in such a way that at the end of the
ninth round the road approximates the finished section.
The tenth round of the grader is the fifth and last ditch-cut. In this
round the back slope of the ditch is smoothed up, and any loose material
in the ditch is cleaned out and discharged on to the shoulder. In order
to deliver this earth to the shoulder, the blade should be tipped forward at
the top. This cut deposits on the shoulder a quantity of fine, loose earth,
which is in excellent condition for distributing over the road to complete
the finishing of the surface.
By cutting the back slope smooth and at an easy grade, the grader
ni'tkes a ditch much less likely to fill than if the back slope is left rough or
vertical. Besides, the smoothly cut liack slope gives the road a finished
appearance.
As a result of the eleventh and twelfth rounds, the loose earth Is
again transferred from the shoulder toward the center of the road, and the
road is brought to a finished surface.
Old Road in Deep Cut. — An old narrow road between h'gh banks
is widened by pul'ing down the trinks. raising the level of the roadway
with the earth so moved and forming side ditches for the drainage of the
roadway.
The first two or three rounds with the grader results in cutting down
the banks and moving the earth out to form a level portion along the
banks on which to operate the machinery in a level position. It is also
possible to successfully cut down a hi'eh bank bv beginning at the bottom
of the slope. The adjustment of the leaning wheels on the grader makes
it possible to start on the side of a very steep bank and begin the cutting
at the top.
Balancing Cross-section. — Another condition often encountered in
old roads is to have one side higher than the other. This is often the case on
ground sloping transverselv to the roadwav w:ith a high bank on one side,
the other side being lower than the roadway itself. In grading such a
road, it becomes necessary to transfer earth completely from one side to
the other.
The diagram shown in Figure 35 represents the cross-section of an un
balanced roadway. The heavy, full lines show the condition of the natural
road ; the dotted lines show the position of earth after the fifth round of
the grader. The spoil from the ditch-cuts on the low side is discharged
on the line of the, shoulder and allowed to remain in that position. The
spoil from the ditch on the high side is moved across to the center of the
road by an extra round of the grader. On the return trip of this extra
round, the blade of the grader is reversed so that all the loose earth on the
high shoulder is moved towards the center of the road. In some cases two
extra rounds on the high side of the road may be necessary to obtain the
desired result. This can best be done after two or three ditch-cuts have
been made, to provide sufficient loose earth for filling the low side of the
road. The extra amount of earth obtained from the high side in back-
sloping the bank as indicated in the drawing, can best be disposed of in
such manner as described herewith. Extra heavy cuts are necessary on
the high side, in order that the bottom of the ditch may be cut to a level
with the ditch on the lower side.
Items Included in Cost of Road. — Records kept on operations give
the cost of grading a road. This cost includes a consideration of the orig
inal investment in the machinery ; interest, depreciation and repairs ; the
cost of material and supplies and the pay of men required to do the work.
The tractor that can be used on this work retails in the U. S. at about
\\ ^—Surplus soil cul from bonk

-n. <ô// spread from high Side
s/ Ongir/al surface
Fig. 36.
— Method of Balancing Road Section
$6,250.00 and the grader, including backsloper, at $1,790. The life of

the machinery cannot be exactly determined, but a reasonable estimate
for the equipment used would be to assume that it would last five years,
working One hundred twenty days per year, at this kind of work and
under average conditions.
The fixed charges on this work have consequently been estimated as
follows : these figures are given primarily to show the formula for figuring
fixed charges.
Initial Cost of Machinery Annual Cost of Machinery

Tractor $6,250.00 Depreciation at 20% $1,608.00
Grader 1,790.00 Interest at 6% 482.40
Repairs at 4% (Est.) 321.60
Total $8,040.00 Total $2,412.00
Daily cost of machinery, based on 120 days per year $20.10

Hourly cost of machinery, based on 9 hours per day 2.23
The grading crew will consist of two machinery operators and the pay is
of regular mechanic's wages for such work ; the tractor
based on the rate
operator's wages are taken at $8.00 per day and the grader operator's
wages at $6.00 based on a nine hour day. The actual time of operation of
the machines are noted and all the items of cost computed on this basis.
Due allowance should be made for lost time for repairs, and for rainy
days, which of course is variable and cannot be estimated here. Following
is tabulation of data pertaining to all the items involved in the cost of
grading a road.
Length of road graded 2.12 miles

Amount of earth moved 4,468 cu. yds.
Total time — actual operation 36 hours
Operating Costs
Rate Amt. Total Cost Per Mi. Per Day Per Hr.
Tractor Opcr $8.00 36 hr. $32.00 $15.09 $ 8.00 $0.89
Grader Oper 6.00 36 hr. 24.00 11.32 6.00 0.67
Gas 0.236 210 gal. 49.56 23.38 12.39 1.38
Eng. Oil 1.00 16 gal. 16.00 7.55 4.00 0.44
Tractor Oil 0.30 22 gal. 6.00 3.11 1.65 0.18
Grease 0.20 36 lb. 7.20 3.40 1.80 0.20
Mach. Invest. Cost 2.20 36 hr. 80.40 39.72 20.10 2.23
Overhead 32.36 15.27 8.09 0.90
Total $248.12 $117.04 $62.03 $ 6.89
Cost per Cu. Yd. = 5.55c.
The cost figures given above are

the average for unfavorable weather
on which some heavy grading is encountered. The conditions here are
about what would be encountered in rolling country prevailing over the
greater part of the central and northern sections of the states.
However in level country, where light grading would be sufficient to
put a road in good shape, the cost of grading may be somewhat lower.
In order to determine the cost of grading under such conditions, a short
section of level road might be graded as a separate unit and the cost
determined.
The following data show the results to be obtained :
Length of section 900 ft.

Amount of earth moved 432 cu. yds.
Time required to complete section 2 '4hrs.
Cost per hour $ 6.89
Total cost of grading section $15.50
Cost per mile of road $90.92
Cost per cubic yard of earth moved 3.6c
THE EFFECT OF HAUL ON THE COST OF EARTHWORK

The material on the effect haul, which follows, was taken from an article in Public
Roads discussing a study made by Mr. J. L. Harrison, Division of Management,
U. S. Bureau of Public Roads.
It has been commoa practice to assume that differences in cost of exca

vation are due in a large measure to variations in the cost of labor and
teams. These are, of course, important factors in the cost at which grading
work can be accomplished but it may be reasonably assumed that if these
were the only important factors grading prices would vary in substantial
harmony with them. Other factors than the cost of teams and drivers
are paramount in determining variations in unit bid prices.
Neither small variations in the character of the material nor its loca
tion with reference to state lines should enter as important factors in
considering average bid prices, especially when the quantities considered
are large and contain all kinds of materials as they do when they result
from averaging a considerable number of jobs in each state.
The depreciation, wear and tear, and breakage of equipment are large
elements in the cost of moving earth. So also are loss and depreciation
of stock. They are of small importance here because there is no reason
for supposing that mules or equipment depreciate faster in Dakota than
in Texas, and even if it could be shown that some difference in rate of
depreciation does exist it is not at all likely that this difference would be
great enough to have any large influence on bid prices.
Length of Haul Controlling Factor. — Besides these factors, there
is in all excavation work the factor of length of haul. Studies have
brought out clearly the strong influence of length of haul on the cost of
excavation. Other factors such as the character of the soil, grades, and
prevailing weather conditions, over which the designer of the road has
practically no control, may "operate to increase or decrease the cost of the
earth work; but the length of haul appears in general to have a more
marked influence than any of these and it is an element which can be
definitely controlled in advance by the designing engineer. That an increase
in the length of haul which doubles the time required per trip in moving
earth from the excavation to the fill will double the cost of moving it
may be accepted as a foregone conclusion. While studies confirm the ac
cepted practice in regard to the kind of equipment best adapted to hauls
of various lengths, it appears to be well established that adaptation of
equipment will not enable designing engineers or contractors to disregard
distance as a primary consideration in the cost of moving subgrade ma
terials. By showing that positive and material savings can be effected by
reducing the average haul, it indicates that engineers may reconsider with
profit certain of the practices which are accepted as fundamental in grade
location, especially the practice of balancing cuts and fills by long end or
longitudinal hauls. Consideration must, of course, be given to the use
of excavation in embankments where the cost of overhaul is less than

the cost of wasting plus the cost of borrow.
Basis For Studying Costs. — To approach the problem of determin
ing why unit bid prices are higher in some states than in others by an
analysis of unit costs in dollars seems unwise as the number of fluctua
ting elements leaves no apparent basis for even a day-to-day comparison
of results and makes the possibility of any valuable comparison as between
different jobs very difficult of attainment.
Instead of using the cost in money as a basis for comparative studies,
the time-distance basis offers a better method. The theory that underlies
this basis of comparison is that an average mule team pulling any given
variety of earth-moving equipment ought to travel as fast in the Dakotas
as it will travel in Texas if working in the same sort of material.
Figures 36 and 37 show the relation between length of haul and time
required per trip by No. 2 wheel scrapers and 4-foot fresno scrapers,
respectively. They represent the average relation as found in Kansas,
Missouri, Oklahoma, and Texas, in which the performance is similar.
The graphs appear as straight lines, indicating, for the studies made,
that the average rate at which teams travel does not change materially
with the distance the load is moved. As extended, they cross the hori
zontal axis some distance to the right of the zero point. This distance
represents the average time required for loading, unloading, and turning,
together with the minor delays incident to operations of this nature. This
period is called the "time constant." If the distance is short, material
can sometimes be moved by fresno from the ditches to the embankment
within the time here set down as the average for loading, unloading, and
turning. As this fact has only a limited bearing on the matters discussed
in this section, it is merely noted here for subsequent amplification and
discussion.
Translating the general time-distance graphs into mathematical for
mulae we have, for fresnoes,
t = 1.2 + 0.0101D
in which,
t = time per load in minutes and
D = distance load is moved in feet
The factor 0.0101 is governed by the rate at which teams have been
found to move under average conditions. The constant 1.2 is the time
consumed in loading, unloading, and turning.
For wheelers the formula similarly developed is
r = 3 4- 0.0071D
Repeated measurements made in the field indicate that the average

load for normally operated fresnoes ranges from slightly over one-third
cubic yard on short hauls to slightly under one-third cubic yard on long
hauls. The load of the ordinary wheel scraper is found in practice to
vary in about the same manner with an average of 0.4 cubic yard per trip.
The studies on the standard lyi cubic yard wagon operated in connection
with an elevating grader are not as complete as for wheelers and fresnoes,
but they indicate that wf'gons operated with elevating graders average
about 1^4 cubic yards per trip. Reducing the above formula: to a 1-cubic
yard basis in the light of these data, we have, then, these general for
mulae: -• ..
For wheel scrapers, T = 2y> ( 3 -f 0.0071Z?) •
For fresnoes, T = 3(1.2 -f-O.OlOlZ?)

in which, T = time required to handle 1 cubic yard of material
HAUL DISTANCE HAUt DISTANCE

(FEET) (FEET)
1
900 700
800 600
700 500
600 i 4-00
500 300
400 200
300 roo
200
01 23456789
100 TIME PER TRIP (MINUTES)
0
r
123456789 10
Fig. 38.
— Relation Between Length of
Haul by 4-Foot Fresno Scraper
and Time Per Trip
TIME PER TRIP(MINUTES)
Fig. 37. — Relation Between Length of
Haul by No. 2 Wheel Scraper
and Time Per Trip
In further analysis of the time-distance curves it may be noted that

a
the graphs for the fresno and wheel scraper are, in a general way, directly
comparable. A fresno outfit, as operated by the usual small contractor,
includes the foreman (usually the subcontractor himself), the plow team
with driver and plow holder, and six to eight three-mule fresno teams
with drivers. The drivers customarily load and dump as well as drive.
A wheel scraper outfit of this size has a foreman (generally the subcon
tractor), a plow team with driver and holder, a two to three-mule snatch
team and driver, a loader, a man on the dump and from 6 to 10 two-mule
wheelers. The items of supervision and plowing are so nearly the same,
whether wheelers or fresnoes are used, that consideration of them may
be omitted. As a rough generality the commercial value of teamster's time
is about the same as that of a two-mule team. The fact that a wheeler
outfit uses a snatch team with driver, a loader, and a man at the dump
(none of these being customarily used with a fresno outfit), which, in
a general way, is equivalent to eight mules, makes up for the extra mule
on the fresno. From this standpoint the cost per unit of time of operating
a fresno is so nearly the same as the cost of operating a wheel scraper
that equality may be assumed. It therefore results that the point of equal
operating cost may be obtained by equating the two formulae :
3 (1.2 + 0.0101Z?) =2y2 (3 + 0.0071Z?)

orD = 310 feet
The importance of this deduction lies in the fact that it shows that
wheelers can not be successfully operated in competition with fresnoes
except at hauls exceeding 300 to 350 feet, and therefore that lower bid
prices can not be secured by resorting to the use of this type of equip
ment. While both on the basis of mathematical development and observed
field practice, it appears that fresnoes should be laid aside and wheelers
used at this haul distance. Contractors claim that fresno hauls as long as
this are hard on the stock and so must be used sparingly. Field observa
tions confirm this claim. Moreover, from the graph for fresno work it is
a simple matter to show that the teams are under full load almost twice
as many minutes per hour on a 300-foot haul as they are on a 100-foot
haul. It therefore appears that the statement that a 300-foot fresno haul
ought not to be attempted over any extended period is sound.
The data which have been secured in regard to wagons operated in
connection with elevator graders have reasonably established the fact
that wagons move at about the same speed as wheel scrapers. From the
limited number of studies on this type of equipment it has not yet been
possible, however, to derive a mathematical statement which can be
equated with the formula given for the fresno and the wheeler in order
thereby to develop the haul distance below which this style should be laid
aside. However, enough data have been collected to warrant the statement
that while an elevating grader outfit of the usual pattern handles the longer
hauls as cheaply as the wheel scraper, it has not been possible to show that
it is effective in so reducing costs that it is comparable with the fresno on
hauls much if any below 300 feet.
Results of Study. — The net result of the studies by the U. S. Bu
reau of Public Roads, as reported by Mr. J. L. Harrison, so far as they
bear on the specific problem under discussion, has been, then, to show that
there appears to be no means of handling earth which eliminates the factor
of distance moved as a dominant element in cost. At certain hauls a
wheeler will move earth cheaper than a fresno and for the longer hauls —
over 300 feet — it appears probable that the elevating grader moves earth
somewhat more cheaply than either of the other forms of equipment. But
no form of equipment has been found in common use which enables con
tractors to disregard distance as a primary consideration in the cost of
moving subgrade materials. The time-distance graphs make this fact very
clear. In terms of fresno operation, where the movement can be kept
within 75 feet, the time required may be kept within two minutes per
load, while, if the movement be 300 feet, it will require slightly over four
minutes. But a grading operation that takes four minutes of team time
costs the contractor twice as much as an operation requiring two minutes
of team time.
It is not necessary to expand this statement to great length to justify
the conclusion that grading costs may be reduced by a general modifica
tion in design which will reduce the haul distance. One of our states con
sistently shows unit bid prices for excavation which are relatively low.
In the light of the conclusion above reached, it is interesting to observe
that two elements in the subgrade design of this state contribute to this,
viz., the cross section and the low free-haul limit of 200 feet. This cross
section, shown in Figure 38, somewhat generalized in order to make its
variable elements clear, differs from that in general use in other parts of
the country in that it permits considerable side balancing of quantities in
stead of depending on a balance by end or longitudinal haul. This is ac
complished by widening, sometimes accompanied by deepening the ditches
so that a large percentage of the material needed for rills can be secured
from alongside. In coupling a practice of this sort with a low free-haul
limit engineers rind it possible to reduce cuts to a minimum. The research
work done at the Iowa State College has established the fact that rolling
grades are of little disadvantage to the users of highways, a proper maxi
mum being observed. It appears, then, to be a natural conclusion from
the foregoing that at least on projects with average excavation quantities
lower bid prices may be secured through such adjustments of design as
may be necessary in order to secure short hauls.
The time-distance graphs indicate that the practice of balancing cuts
and fills by long end or longitudinal haul is expensive. Many states have
so-called free-haul limits of 500 feet or more with design practices estab
lished in accordance therewith. In those cases where the free haul is as
low as 500 feet but is calculated from center of mass to center of mass,
the actual maximum haul will not infrequently run over 1.000 feet. Of
course, the amount of material moved 1,000 feet is not large but it requires
almost exactly twice as long to deliver it this distance by wheeler as it
does to deliver it a distance of 300 feet. At a delivery distance of 300 feet
the cost of wheeler work and fresno work is practically the same. A
fresno longitudinal haul of 300 feet, in turn, takes about twice the time
generally required for side borrow work. The effect of design based upon
66'-0"
I?
y MINIMUM ^-MINIMUM
£ BERM=Z'- !JnL h- iz-o" -4—K-o" H hHBERM=2'=0" £
(Li
Ql
W
I
1 1
STEEPER i
•H THAN lj-1 ■IN GENERAL TO BE I
AND NEVER
-WIDTH AND DEPTH AS STEEPER THAN hi

SHOWN ON CROSS SECTIONS
OR AS DIRECTED BY ENGINEER
Fiy. 39. — Generalized Cross Section l.'scd by One of Our Stales
long free-haul limits, when compared in this way with short-haul work,
is apparent.
Low Cost Grading. — Since the cost of grading varies with the
amount and character of the material moved and the distance or difficulties
of moving it from cut or borrow pit to embankment, excavation costs are
minimum when smallest quantities of earth are moved shortest distances.
Full advantage of these facts have been taken by the Oklahoma State
Highway Commission in planning and grading low cost state-aid projects
in Texas County.
In Table III, "casting and blading" means that material excavated
from the side ditches is to be used in constructing the embankment in the
same 100-foot station. Material taken from ditches and moved to construct
the embankment in another station is "drifted" material.
Typical Section. — The typical cross-section is designed to utilize blade
graders and elevating graders. The embankment and ditch sections have
long, flat slopes and the fill has a width of 50 feet at the base with a
36-foot width at the crown. This section is used for fills up to 2x/2 feet
in height; above that a 2:1 side slope is used and berm of 4 feet between
toe of fill and ditch section.
Construction Conditions.— The engineer, during construction, gave the
contractor center-line and depth-of-ditch figures, measuring from a line of
hubs set on the right-of-way line.
Payment was made according to ditch excavation measurement ; and
where the ditch excavation made more embankment or less embankment
than anticipated, it was leveled off on a grade parallel to the original as
sumed grade line. The adjusted grade varied only 0.1 or 0.2 feet from
the assumed grade line, and saved a great deal of work in finishing ; varia
tion in the different soils and their moisture content might have caused a
change as great as this.
Ditch not less than , jf-'^T1 vJl—s&

not less than 4'-
Fig. 40.— Typical Fill Section for Fills Over ?y2 Ft.
TABLE III
Quantities, Items and Unit-Fhices
Sections A, B and C, 23 Miles
Approximate
Quantity,
Cu. Yd. Item and Unit-Prices Bid Amount
159,500 "Cast and bladed" excavation including all clearing and grub
bing, removal of structures, obstructions, etc. ; formation of
embankments and shoulders, as provided in specifications, at
$0.09 per cu. yd $14,355.00
39,000 Class A excavation, including all clearing and grubbing, re
moval of structures, obstructions, etc.; formation of embank
ments, subgrade and shoulders; refilling around all structures,
disposal of surplus material and all incidental work, at $0.15
per cu. yd 5,850.00
1,000 Class C excavation, including all clearing and grubbing, the re
moval of structures, obstructions, etc. ; formation of embank
ments, subgrades and shoulders ; refilling around all structures,
disposal of surplus material and all incidental work, at $1.50
per cu. yd 1,500.00
24,500 Borrow, complete in place, including furnishing, placing, labor,
tools, equipment, etc., and work incidental thereto, at $0.12 per
cu. yd. 2,940.00
20,900 Excavated material hauled for each 100 ft. beyond the free-haul
limit of 300 ft. as specified in Section 17 (except noting the
free-haul is 300 ft. instead of 500 ft.), at $0.03 per cu. yd 627.00
The estimated quantities were totaled in the specifications for each

8-mile section and the engineer was required to lay the grade line so that
the contract prices would not be exceeded. In flat country the field en
gineers have been able to do_jhis and over-runs have been avoided.
U-t Roadway K/WLine*

J HP:* ^.f:9'.J
^MV„_._^q*
/
6>-V.
^■Finished Grade j
^^^-^J ^-Ground Line \
Roadway Section
'/z
^""v^J
|
Ditch Section
Fig. 42.
— Typical Cut Section, 36-Ft. Roadway
necessary to have sufficient quantities in the original estimate

It
is
;
but large amounts of money are not involved because variation of several
a
thousand yards per mile can be justified when the time and expense of
making more accurate survey are considered. On this particular contract
a
$90 per mile the price for casting and blading 1,000 cu. yd. at $0.09.
is
This method of preparing plans not recommended except in level or

is
a
slightly rolling country where these typical sections can be used eco
nomically.
Contractor's Equipment. — The contractor's equipment for doing this
work consisted of two units; each unit had two elevating graders, or one
elevating grader worked 24 hours day. The ditches of the old road were
a
filled ahead of the elevating grader by the blade grader, and the road was
put under construction mile at time. The finishing and leveling were
a
1
done with big tractor and bladcr backslopes were cut with graders and
a
the material was used for finishing, with fresnoes as auxiliary equipment.
The contractor moved camp for each miles of completed road. The
6
state took over the road in 3-mile sections and released the contractor
from further maintenance. Progress and workmanship were reported by
the state engineer as good.
Outfit No. consisted of the following equipment:
1
Russell 42-in. elevating grader with 19-ft. carrier

1
Adams elevating grader with 21-ft. carrier and auxiliary

1
power unit
Russell 1-ft. blade graders
2
Caterpillar 60 tractors
2
Caterpillar 30 tractor
1
Monarch 75 tractor
1
Killefer rooter
1
13 Watson and Russell dump wagons

SO Head horses and mules
Fresnoes, plows, camp equipment, etc.
On this outfit, two 3-foot wings on the Russell 12-foot blade were used
for blading surface. One 12-foot blade was used for tearing down banks
and filling ditches ahead of the elevating grader. The Caterpillar 30 and
the Killefer rooter were used for making dirt for fresnoes where borrow
was required. On this outfit the Monarch 75 tractor and the Adams elevat
ing grader, equipped with electric lights, were worked at night opening
up new work, which was finished during the daytime.
Outfit No. 2 was made up as follows :
2 Russell 42-in. elevating graders with 19-ft. carriers
1 Russell 12-ft. blade grader
1 Adams 12-ft. blade grader
1 Adams 10- ft. blade grader
3 Caterpillar 60 tractors
1 Caterpillar 30 tractor
15 Russell dump wagons
125 Head horses and mules
Fresnoes, plows, camp equipment, etc.
Low-cost grading this project was possible because the engineer

on
designed the roadway cross-section for construction with fast-working
modern equipment and permitted reasonable tolerance in the finished grade
lines.
CHAPTER IV
UNTREATED SURFACES
surfaces are those which consist of mineral aggre
gates held together by the binding, compacting, or interlocking
UNTREATED
qualities of the materials themselves or by the addition of mineral
binder such as clay. These untreated types include sand clays, gravels,
stone, slag, chert, shale and others less commonly used, such as caliche,
scoria, and mine chats. Untreated surfaces are commonly grouped as:
sand-clay and top soil ; gravel, chert, shale, etc. ; waterbound macadam ;
miscellaneous.
INTRODUCTION
Untreated surfaces are the first step in the stage or progressive sur
facing of highways, wherein the work must be prosecuted in such a man
ner that the bulk of the labor and materials may be saved for future im
provements. In the development process, however, each stage must be so
designed as to utilize to the greatest extent all of the preceding work, at
the same time providing for future expansion. Certain fundamental fea
tures of construction that are considered vital to the successful construc
tion of any of these types regardless of their geographical location are
discussed herein.
This chapter on untreated surfaces is limited to representative types
which have found the widest usefulness throughout the entire country,
and to those methods of construction that are prerequisites everywhere
to the completion of surfaces of the greatest durability. It is recognized
that certain local materials such as caliche provide surfaces that are as
good as the more-widely-known sand clay, but the space limitations will
permit consideration of only the outstanding types.
The chapter shows the universal necessity for the preparation of a
smooth, traffic-compacted subbase, the desirability of placing the granular
untreated surfaces such as sand, gravel, etc.. in relatively thin, traffic-
bound layers, the advisability of restricting the size of the surface rock
to a maximum of 1 inch in diameter and preferably to % inch, the most
recent tests for determining the adequacy of sand, clay, or top-soil as a
surfacing material, the logical selection of the feather-edge or uniform-
thickness cross section, the function of traffic and the blade grader in
order to obtain the best compaction and the smoothest surface, the allow
154
UNTREATED SURFACES 155
able percentage of clay as a binder in gravel surfaces, the permissible

softness or hardness of aggregates for untreated surfaces, the superiority
of crushed gravel to screened and water-worn gravel, the proper depth of
surfacing and the allowable crown, and the need for continuous mainte
nance in order to provide a smooth surface free from corrugations, "chat
ter" bumps, pot holes, ruts, etc.
Sand Clay and Top Soil. — Sand clay and top soil surfaces usually
consist of clay, silt, tine sand, and coarse sand, with a total sand content
of from 65 to S5 per cent. They seldom contain particles larger than }i
inch in size.
States having from 800 to 3,0CO miles of these surfaces are Alabama,
Florida, Georgia, Kansas, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas and
Vermont. In 1930, Alabama, South Carolina and Virginia laid between
100 and 200 miles each, while Kansas surfaced over 1,500 miles with
sand clay.
Gravel, Chert, Shale, Caliche, etc. — Tabulated classifications do not
list separately the miles of treated and untreated roads, but the total at
the end of 1930 was 107,000 miles on the state systems. Only 14 states
had less than 1,000 miles of the gravel, chert, etc., types while 22 had of
each from 2,000 to 6,000 miles.
Trends in construction of untreated and treated types in 1930 and as
proposed for 1931 are shown in tables.
Gravel is used for surfacing in all states, and there is a marked trend
toward using gravel passing the 1-inch screen with crushed particles
favored.
Traffic bound surfaces of gravel, stone or slag until recently were
used principally in Ohio. Indiana, Tennessee, Nebraska, and Iowa. This
type has proved particularly economical and serviceable, and is now
meeting with favor in Kentucky. North Carolina, Missouri. Oklahoma,
and others.
Traffic bound surfaces usually consist of a layer of clean crushed
stone, slag, crushed or screened gravel evenly spread on a prepared sub-
grade. This layer is kept smooth by constant blading. Traffic gradually
compacts it from the subgrade upward. New aggregates are added, under
traffic, periodically until a surface of suitable thickness is built up.
Macadams. — Macadams of crushed stone, slag, crushed gravel,
Florida lime rock, and marl are commonly laid in one, and less frequently,
in two courses to form a well compacted surfacing, suitable for improve
ment with bituminous materials.
Macadam type roads and specifications for them show notable differ
ences in requirements for quality and size of aggregates, thickness of
section and details of construction, but a study of specifications shows they
are written to secure good quality and a practical gradation of the available
local materials and that softer stone is permitted in base courses which
will later be surface treated.
The departments in 1930 built 1,300 miles of this type

state highway
as compared with a 13,000 total of gravel, chert, and similar types.
The states which have more than 1,000 miles of macadam types in
their systems are Florida, Kentucky, Maryland, New York, Ohio, Penn
sylvania, Tennessee, and Virginia. Kentucky leads the list with about
4,000 miles. Kentucky also built 400 miles of macadam in 1930, which
was more than twice that built by another state ; but Florida, Pennsyl
vania, West Virginia, and Wisconsin each built more than 100 miles.
Miscellaneous Untreated Surfaces. — These include surfaces of va

rious kinds of aggregate which are laid in one or two courses as a type
of water or roller bound macadam, or they are placed in loose layers of
1 or 2-inch thickness to form a traffic bound surface.
Materials for miscellaneous surfaces include scoria, decomposed (or

disintegrated) granite, stone screenings, mine "chats," iron ore, top soil,
granulated slag, pea gravel, stamp sand, shell, and volcanic cinders.
The use of hand napped field stone as a base, covered by crushed
stone, slag or gravel has met with success in Pennsylvania in the surfacing
of 1,700 miles of the 20,000 mile program of low cost roads.
There are two principal methods of constructing untreated surfaces
and they may be identified by their method of compaction, quality and
size of aggregate, and thickness of layers. One or the other of these two
types is well suited to utilize aggregates which are usually available. The
types are:
1.The traffic bound type in which compaction is usually obtained by
the action of traffic and frequent blading or dragging, the use of hard and
durable aggregates which have a maximum size of Jq to 1 inch, and the
uncompacted thickness of layers is about two inches.
2. The roller bound type in which compaction is usually obtained by
rolling with a power roller; the aggregates may be hard or relatively soft
with a maximum size of 3 to 4 inches and the uncompacted thickness of
layer is usually 4 to 6 inches.
Suitable Soils for Earth Roads. — The desirable composition of the
natural soil, in place, that would make it suitable as an untreated earth
surface without the addition of other material are as follows :
a. There should be sufficient gravel present to furnish the desired
hardness of surface.
b. There should be sufficient clay present to cement the mass when
in a dry condition, but not enough clay to cause the expansion of the silt
nnd sand, in the presence of water, with a consequent dislocation of the
seating or embedment of the gravel particles.
r. There should be a liberal amount of coarse sand present to supply
a matrix, for the gravel particles, that is not materially affected by vari
ations in moisture content.
d. There should not be present excessive amounts of clay, silt or
US TKEA TED SURE A CES 157
fine sand, because in rainy weather these ingredients reduce percolation

and retain water in the surface, thus reducing its stability.
e. The feldspathic or slaty materials are objectionable because of
their softness. Mica flakes are undesirable because of their elastic proper
ties and organic matter because of excessive elastic and shrinkage prop
erties.
Effect of Clay and Sand. — To fulfill the conditions outlined in
suitable soils for earth roads the soil mortar ( that portion of the constitu
ents passing a No. 10 sieve) should have a grading by weight approxi

mately as follows :
Clav 5- 8 per cent

Silt 12-20 per cent
Fine sand . 23-27 per cent
Coarse sand 45-60 per cent
A slight increase in the clay content, but never to exceed 10 per cent,
should be allowed where the gravel exceeds 15 per cent of the total. Angu
larity of the sand grains wiil probably increase the effectiveness of the
soil for a surfacing.
Maintenance Necessary. — Where the natural soil is unsuitable for
a surfacing material the subgrade should be continuously shaped with a
blade grader and compacted under traffic until hard and firm. All soft
spots should be dug out and backfilled with suitable material that will
compact under traffic.
Type of Cross-Section. — The selection of the feather-edge or uni
form-thickness design of cross section depends primarily upon the natural
stability of the subgrade. climatic conditions, and the character of the
surfacing material. Generally those materials, which will provide suffi
cient edge support for loads and which will not scatter excessively under
traffic, may be laid with a feather edge ; but on weak subgrades, in regions
of excessive rainfall, or where the material crushes or scatters under
traffic, the trench method would seem desirable.
No hard-and-fast rule can be laid down but the choice of design must
be determined upon the basis of the greatest economy after experiments
have been made with available local materials.
Traffic Bound Method of Construction. — Where possible, the best
gravel (or equivalent) surfaces may be obtained by placing the material
in relatively thin lavers (2 inches or less) and shaping and compacting
it under traffic, then spreading additional lnyers until the desired total
thickness is obtained that is necessary to distribute the loads over the
subgrade.
Size of Aggregate. — For surfaces constructed of hard granular ma
terial such as gravel, the constituent material should not exceed a maxi
mum of 1 inch with the general trend toward a preferred maximum of
*4 inch. When gravel is placed in two traffic-bound layers, each approxi-
mately 4 inches in depth, the maximum size of the gravel in the base
should not exceed V/2 inches.
Availability and Suitability of Surfacing Materials. — The allow
able hardness and toughness of granular surfacing materials such as
gravel, chert, marl, caliche, or lime rock, depends entirely upon the avail
ability of local materials and experience. In general the harder and
tougher the particles, the more durable the surface will be and the best
possible gravel road will require careful control of the material with re
spect to its durability, size, grading, and content of binder. Generally
shale gravel is to be avoided because it breaks down into clay so rapidly
but the problem of allowable hardness or toughness must be solved upon
the basis of economics, previous experience, and experiment.
For the soil mortar (that portion of material passing a No. 10 sieve)
in all untreated surfaces, the general requirements are the same in that
the material shall contain sufficient clay to hold the mass together in dry
weather without excessive shrinkage, and not enough clay to cause exces
sive swell or softening in wet weather. The character of the soil mortar*
may now be determined as satisfactory when the lineal shrinkage (Rose
Test) does not exceed 5 per cent or a plasticity index =
lower liquid limit — 14 —

■
( Atterberg Test ) .
j-^j
The allowable percentage of clay as a binder should be considered as

a fraction of the soil mortar and shall be controlled by the tests referred
to in the previous paragraph. Ordinarily the allowable amount of clay
should never exceed 10 per cent by weight of the total mass.
Smooth-Riding Surfaces. — Traffic-bound surfaces are generally
smoother than roller-bound surfaces in which the blading and dragging
are omitted during construction.
Crushed Gravel Superior to Round Gravel. — Crushed gravel is gen
erally as cheap as round screened gravel and makes a better surface
because of the interlocking properties of the angular fragments.
Crushed gravel generally makes surfaces that are cheaper to build and
maintain than crushed rock surfaces because of the omission of the
quarrying operation.
Depth of Surfacing. — The proper depth of surfacing depends en
tirely upon local conditions such as stability of the subgrade, climate, and
traffic. The determination of the depth must be entirely from local experi
ence and experiment. It may range from as low as 2 inches as in Nebraska
sand-gravel to as high as 12 inches for crushed stone as in western
Oregon.
Crown of Surfacing. — The crown for untreated roads should be
maintained at a minimum so as to provide adequate drainage without
* of the American Road
TM« information was taken from the annual convention proceedings
Builders' Association for 1930.
discomfort to travel. Ordinarily the crown should be restricted to
l/±
inch to the foot but should never exceed inch to the foot.
y%
it
Traffic Capacity. — Untreated surfaces are ordinarily economical for
an average daily traffic not exceeding 500 vehicles per day but even to be
serviceable under these conditions they must be maintained systematically
and continuously by blading and dragging reasonably smooth surface
if
a
to be retained.
is
Drainage. — Proper drainage of the subgrade necessary to pre
is
vent rutting or disintegration of the surface during wet or thawing
weather.
Methods of Construction.— The method of construction of the
various low-cost untreated surfaces such as are represented by the sand
clay the southern and western states, chert in Georgia, shale in West
in
Virginia, disintegrated granite Arizona and other western states, gravel

in
throughout the country, macadam in Ohio, lime-rock in Florida, caliche
in Texas; Arizona and New Mexico, marl in Minnesota and Ohio, trap-
rock in the New England States, basalt in Oregon and Washington, slag
in Ohio, pea gravel South Dakota, and mine "chats" in Missouri, are
in
described this chapter.

in
Summary. — The chapter may be summarized brieflly as follows
:
Untreated surfaces may be considered as the second step in the stage
or progressive improvement of road surface.
a
Generally speaking, untreated low-cost surfaces are adequate for an

average traffic not exceeding 500 vehicles day but ordinarily for traffic
a
in excess of This amount, some form of bituminous surface treatment

must be appli ed.
The high speed of modern motor traffic requires the maintenance of
a
smooth surface fa) to provide safety and comfort for the motorist, and
(b) to reduce to minimum the impact of heavy trucks that causes the
a
disintegration of the surface.

The subgrades of untreated low-cost surfaces must be thoroughly
drained~Trrorder to preserve them from disintegration under traffic when
the climatic conditions are unfavorable.
Progressive stage construction in which the road improved with
is
successively higher type surfaces, as required by increasing traffic, an

is
economic and safe method of improving highways. avoids building in

It
excess of traffic requirements. Progressive type surfaces can be built

which are adequate for existing traffic and which can be improved from
time to time so as satisfactorily to serve increased volumes of traffic with
out the destruction or waste of the original investment.
The utilization of local short haul materials as surfacing or aggregate
the principal factor in keeping the cost of constructing and maintenance
is
at minimum.
a
Materials which are adaptable and suitable for untreated surfaces and
which can be improved later by the addition of other types of surfacing

include stone, slag, gravel, lime rock, marl, caliche, chert, shale, disin
tegrated granite, sand, clay and volcanic cinders.
Construction and maintenance methods which include blading, drag
ging or screening result in smooth-riding surfaces.
Low crowns, % inch to % inch per foot, are desirable and feasible.
Untreated surfaces capable of carrying mixed traffic of 300 to 500
automobiles and light trucks daily can commonly be built for less than
$7,000 per mile with a width of not less than 18 feet.
The annual surface maintenance cost, exclusive of lost material, is
usually less than $500 per mile. Replacement of lost surfacing may greatly
increase the annual maintenance cost.
Surfaces constructed or maintained by blading or by dragging should
be composed of aggregates passing the 1 or % inch screen.
The costly part of the maintenance of untreated surfaces is the replace
ment of aggregates blown or pushed off the road. When traffic increases
much over 400 vehicles per day or when local supplies become exhausted
this item may run so high as to make it advisable to use some sort of a
treated surface. It is variously estimated that 1 inch of material is lost
per year for each 200 to 400 average daily motor vehicles, depending on
'
the climate and the character of the road metal.
In taking over some old road for maintenance, long neglected, it may
be necessary to scarify it to remove a high crown, although this should
be avoided if possible. It will be found frequently that large size mate
rial will thus be brought to the surface and must be removed. Unless
the climate is very dry it should be possible to remedy high crowns by
building up the edges or to fill pot holes by proper manipulation of mate
rials. Corrugations can be cut by heavy drags.
It is only where materials are less than 1 inches in size and prefer
J/J
ably not over inch that blading and dragging can be used with good
1
results on untreated surfaces.

The idea to keep thin layer of loose material worked back and
is
forth. Excellent results are obtained by the use of both blade graders
and heavy road drags. These latter built long and heavy, cut down all
bumps and produce remarkably smooth surface.
a
The amount of blading depends on the volume of traffic and the cli
mate. W hen reaches over 200 vehicles per day, the road will likely
it
have to be gone over daily. When traffic reaches around 400 per day
it
hard to keep untreated surfaces smooth.

is
advisable to blade the material in single windrow alternately

It
is
from one side of the road to the other when the amount such that this
is
can be done.
Untreated surfaces are less economical than treated surfaces but they
are used with success where funds are not available for anything better.
NOTES ON DETAILS OF UNTREATED SURFACES

Sand Clay Surfaces
]4ty. l. — Sand Clay Surfaces
Materials Costs per mile Service daily Examples in

Natural or artifi For construction Average 300 600 North Carolina,
cial mixture of $1300 to §2600. vehicles including South Carolina,
sand and clay. For maintenance light trucks. Florida, Georgia,
$300 to $600 per Alabama, 'Texas.
year.
General Description. — The finished surface consists of an intimate

and compacted mixture of sand and clay.
Materials. — "Top soil" is a natural mixture of sand and clay found
as a surface deposit. Subsurface material is found in two or three foot
layers and in pits having a depth of five feet or more.
Sand clay and top soil roads are built and giving good service which
have wider limits than shown in the table in the preceding section.
Coarse material, above the No. 10 sieve in amounts greater than 10
per cent, distinctly increases the stability and durability of the road slab.
Sizes up to J^-inch are satisfactory.
The clay should be sticky and non-slaking in character.
An excess of silt, very fine sand, and clay, during rains, tends to
reduce percolation, retain water and rapidly weaken the stability of the
slab.
The entire mass because of interlocking of coarse parti
is stabilized
cles, bond, and a rather complete filling of voids with the finer particles.
Artificial mixes of volcanic cinders with disintegrated limestone have
been used successfully in Mexico.
Construction Methods. — There are four ways of placing sand-clay
surfacing materials.
1. The natural mixture of sand clay is placed on the road, given addi
tional mixing and consolidated.
2. Sand and clay are placed separately on the road, mixed, and con
solidated.
3. Clay is hauled and placed on a subgrade of suitable sand, mixed
with it and consolidated.
4. Sand is hauled and placed on a subgrade of suitable clay, mixed
with it and consolidated.
In each instance the subgrade should be prepared to a true and regular
cross section before the surfacing material is applied. Number 1, which
contains sand and clay mixed by nature, is most generally used and gives
the most uniform service.
The selected materials are hauled from the pit or fields and deposited
on the subgrade in a loose layer of uniform width and depth. The cus
tomary length of each layer so placed is from 500 to 1,000 feet. The depth
and width are such that when spread and consolidated the desired typical
cross section will be fulfilled.
For example, a width of 18 to 24 feet having a depth of 12 to 14
inches, will spread and compact to a section 30 feet wide, 9 inches deep
at the center and tapering to 1 or 2 inches at the edge.
After the materials have been deposited on the subgrade, they are
thoroughly mixed with plow, harrow and road machine blade.
During the mixing and shaping process, traffic and hauling compact
the surfacing from the subgrade upward.
Rains, or sprinkling with water, assist in securing increased compac
tion and density.
Rollers are seldom used. Those having flat surfaces tend to consoli
date only the immediate surface. Ring rollers, sheep's foot rollers and
similar types which produce a high unit intensity of pressure, even though
lighter in gross weight, are more effective.
Following a final shaping with blader the surface is practically com
plete. However, constant maintenance of the surface must begin at once
and continue throughout the life of the road.
For this type of surfacing the feather edge section, extending from
out. to out of shoulder, is good practice. Better surface drainage is ob
tained and inferior material from the shoulder does not become mixed
with the surfacing.
Flat crowns, from J4 to ^4-inch per foot are easier to maintain and
are less seriously eroded. They are smoother and safer to ride upon and
tend to increase the traffic capacity of the road.
Maintenance Methods. — Whether sand-clay roads are opened to
traffic during or after construction, 'maintenance must begin during con
struction. This requirement is included in some contracts.
As in all types of untreated surfaces, traffic, erosion and winds cause
loss of surface material. This loss has been estimated by some as about
2 inches each year. This figure is higher than a careful investigation dis
closed in Georgia. Observed data there indicated an annual loss of between
and inch.
l/2
The principal operations are scarifying, adding new materials, blading,

dragging, and patching. The first two operations are at periodic intervals
of from one to several years. The last three must be at frequent inter
vals. The most satisfactory results follow daily patrol maintenance in wet
and dry weather. Lighter equipment suitable except when heavy equip
is
ment needed to cut down surface irregularities.
is
Construction Costs. — The surfacing usually done by contract

is
at unit price per cubic yard of sand clay complete in place.
a
The typical cross sections are usually wide, that is, from 24 to 30
feet. They require from 2,000 to 3,000 cubic yards per mile of surfacing.
"Length of haul the principal item affecting the cost.
is
The costs are about the same all over the South for similar require
ments of specifications and workmanship.
The range of cost per mile from $1,300 to $2,600. A fair average
is
about $2,000.
is
Maintenance Costs. — When serving within their traffic capacity

these surfaces are well maintained for from $300 to $600 per mile per
year. Surface maintenance by "machining and dragging should be from
$200 to $300, scarifying and reshaping may range from $50 to $150, re
placement of lost material with new material from $250 to $500 per mile.
Scarifying and reshaping may or may not be done yearly.
New materials may be necessary only at two or three year intervals.
Service. — In the South observation and investigation have shown
the traffic capacity of this type to be from 300 to 600 vehicles per day.
For average conditions this about 400. Regions having extremes of
is
wet or dry weather affect this figure unfavorably.

Poor quality of materials or maintenance seriously affect serviceability.
Records show a satisfactory quality of service for an average life of
more than years.
6
*""This type of surfacing has been successfully surface treated with

bitumen and aggregates.
As sub-base for pavement presents subgrade uniform in quality
it
a
and bearing power, well compacted and semiporous.

Chert, Shale and DrsiNTECiRATF.D Granite Surfaces
Dtstmsemv semr-jmem cmr-ffifn&ast
Fiy. 2. — Disintegrated Granite, Mexico

Cost per mile
, *
>
Materials Const. Maint. Daily service Examples
Chert $7,000 $550 800 vehicles Georgia, Alabama.
Shale 7,000 500 600 vehicles West Virginia, Penn.
Dis. Granite 3,000 500 400 vehicles Arizona, Mexico.
General Description.— The materials as obtained in pits are broken

or crushed to suitable size. After they have been placed on the subgrade
the surface is prepared in much the same manner as a sand clay or one
course gravel road. The principal operations are harrowing and blading.
Rolling is required by some engineers but not by others. Both the feather
edge and trench sections are used.
Materials. — Disintegrated granite and shale in suitable sizes for
road work can be obtained from pits by blasting. They usually break
up into fragments and seldom require crushing by machine. The larger
pieces may be broken by hand. For this reason production cost is lower
than for cherts which may require machine crushing and screening as
well as blasting.
Not all disintegrated granites, cherts and shales are suitable for
surfacing. Those containing an excess of clay may become soft or slip= —
pery during wet weather. In case of doubt a short section of surface may
be laid as an inexpensive experiment. Such experiments with untried local

materials of this nature frequently result in a considerable saving over
shipped-in and long-haul aggregates.
Chert. — This material as shown by chemical analysis is largely
amorphous silica.
""""Georgiaspecifications for chert call for all the material to pass the
lX'-inch screen and at least 60 per cent to be retained on a number 10
sieve. The material passing the 10 sieve is known as binder with the fol
lowing composition :
Per cent
"Clay" (Amorphous silica) 20 to 40
Silt 10 to 30
Total sand 30 to 60
Sand above No. tO sieve should be 20 to 40 per cent.
Shale. — From analysis and service results, Mr. B. E. Gray, for

merly of West Virginia, states "that a shale having a percentage of silica
in excess of 55 is required, that the presence of iron oxide in excess of
4 per cent is necessary and that the cementing quality of the material
largely depends on this factor. When Al2Oa is present in excess of 20
per cent by volume the surface tends to become very slippery when wet.
DisintegratedGranite. — Arizona reports that this material gives
better service than the gravel and caliche found in that state. Wisconsin
uses it as a temporary surfacing. The author has used it in Mexico with
results equal to those with the best sand clays in North Carolina.
The following table from the Encyclopedia Britannica is of interest
in denoting the slight differences between fresh hard granite and the sandy
mass of disintegrated granite.
I. Analysis of fresh grey granite.
II. Brown moderate firm granite.
. III. Residual sand, produced by the weathering of the same mass.
H.>0 SiO- Al-On FeO Fe203 CaO
I 1.22 69.33 14.33 3.60 ... 3.21
II 3.27 66.82 15.62 1.69 1.88 3.13
III 4.70 65.69 15.23 ... 4.39 2.63
Note. — The balance of these analyses show small quantities of MgO, NazO, K«0, and PaOr,.
The differences are surprisingly small and are principally an increase

in the water and a diminution in the amount of alkalies and lime, together
with the oxidation of the ferrous oxide.
It is necessary to screen chert to the required size which should not
be over 1J4 inches for a one course surfacing. Finer sizes are even more
satisfactory. Disintegrated granite and shale should be broken down to
4 inches or 6 inches in the pit before hauling to the road. During the
construction process they are broken down to 1 inch size and smaller.
Construction Methods. — The materials are hauled and spread on
the subgrade in a loose layer of uniform thickness in much the same
manner as in sand clay construction. Harrowing and machining bring
about a well mixed and uniform surface. When the trench section is used
rolling is required in Wisconsin for disintegrated granite. The feather
edge section has been used satisfactorily and the surface bound by traffic.
Sufficient machining with a heavy road planer is necessary to secure a
smooth riding surface. Temporary side forms and a trench section are
used in Georgia for chert.
Maintenance Methods. — Maintenance methods are much the same
as for sand-clay roads. They consist of road machining, patching and
the addition of layers of new material when the original surface becomes
reduced in thickness.
Construction Cost. — These surfaces are used when suitable local
deposits of stone and gravel are not available. Their cost will be less
than for imported crushed stone and about the same as for local gravel.
If the cost of crushing and screening are absent, hauling will be the most
expensive item.
Maintenance Costs. — Direct maintenance costs include the neces
sary machining, dragging, patching and resurfacing.
Chert surfaces are being maintained in Georgia for approximately
$150 per mile per year for machining, scarifying and patching. Lost
surfacing is less than for sand clays in that state. It averages less than
Yi inch per year.
Good shale surfaces in West Virginia are maintained for less than
$500 per mile per year.
Disintegrated granite in Arizona, where the annual rainfall is between
10 and 16 inches, is said to give better service than local gravels. Local
gravels show an annual maintenance cost per mile in Arizona of less
than $500.
Service. — Shale as used in West Virginia, Wisconsin and North
Carolina is equal to or better than the best sand clays. If it becomes slipt_
pery in wet weather a thin layer of fine gravel, coarse sand or crushed
stone has corrected the condition.
Disintegrated granite does not become slippery except when an ex
cess of clay is present. Some deposits in Mexico contain practically none.
Good chert surfaces in the South are carrying an average of 800
vehicles per day without undue maintenance cost but with more dust
than local gravels.
Shale in West Virginia is carrying from 300 to 600 vehicles per day
during the summer months and about
2/t,
that amount in the winter.

Disintegrated granite in Arizona carrying traffic equal to local gravel
is
roads. Traffic counts in Arizona show an average of 330 vehicles per

day on gravel surfaces.
Chert, shale and disintegrated granite surfaces have salvage value as
subgrade treatment. Chert and shale have been successfully treated with
bituminous surface or wearing courses. No records are available for sur
face treatments on disintegrated granite.
Gravel Surfacing
^-6 Carrjx. fe<f He?//;
J'rip ___ ff'/b-h

in /S'
Fig. 3.
— Michigan
Materials First cost Maint. cost annual Service daily
Pit or river gravel $1,500 to $9,000 $250 to $800 300 to 800
and binder. Average $5,000 Average $500 vehicles
Examples in nearly every state and Canada
General Description. — Gravel surfaces consist of one or more

layers of aggregate evenly spread on the subgrade and compacted by roll
ing or by traffic.
A surface mulch of loose material, J/^-inch in thickness, on compacted
surfaces is advantageous.
Materials are generally the best available local gravel. Shipped-in
gravel may increase the cost as much as 40 per cent. The top layer which
carries the traffic should be hard and durable pebbles.
Gravel up to 2l/2 and 3 inches in size for base course is permitted in
some specifications. The states which have large mileages of smooth
riding untreated gravel surfaces do not permit material larger than 1 inch
in the entire slab. Crushed gravel is preferred to rounded particles by

some, because they key together more readily and more securely with less
binder.
Good binder^ materials are iron oxide and limestone. Clay and loam
are used when no better materials a*re available. In untreated surfaces,
clay and loam binders become dusty in dry weather and lose their binding
power in wet weather.
The success of an untreated gravel surfacing appears to depend upon
the size of coarse aggregate, and the amount and character of the binder.
When clay or loam i&jised_ as binder small amounts are advisable. More
than 20 per cent is questionable practise. 10 to 15 per cent give more
satisfactory results.
Binder materials which are little affected by the presence or absence
of moisture are excellent. Such materials are volcanic ash, limestone dust,
and tines from quarries or gravel pits.
The bonding of loose gravel is frequently difficult, but an excess of
silt or clay should be avoided. An excess of clay, particularly when a
loose surface mulch of clean aggregate is absent, tends toward pot holes
under traffic. An excess of sand below the No. 10 sieve may be the cause
of early and persistent corrugations.
Michigan has good gravel roads. The specifications require :
Per cent
Passing 1-inch circular opening 100
Retained on 8-inch sieve 75 to 85
Clay and silt content not more than 10
South Dakota specifies as follows :

Per cent
Passing l;4-inch screen 95 to 100
Retained on J4 -screen 10 to 40
Retained on 10-mesh sieve 35 to 70
California requires:
Per cent
Passing 1-inch circular opening 100
Retained on No. 3 sieve 50 to 70
The remainder shall consist of rock screenings, disintegrated granite or other

cementaceous material of which not less than 8 nor more than 20 per cent shall pass
the 200-mesh sieve. At least 50 per cent of the total volume shall be crushed
aggregate.
Construction Methods. — Three general methods are used :

1. The trench method; in which a trench narrower than the graded width
is filled with gravel.
2. The trench and feather edge ; in which a trench about 16 or 18 feet
wide is filled with gravel. This is covered with a top course of
gravel which extends to the full width of the shoulders.
3. The feather edge method ; which consists of a surface for the full
width of roadway, that is, out to out of shoulders. It varies in
depth from a maximum at the center of the road to one or two
inches at the edges. A uniform depth of material for the full shoul
der width is also used.
Best results are obtained when the gravel is spread from vehicles hav
ing spreader devices, from dump boards or from piles along the road.
The dumping of gravel in piles on the subgrade before spreading may
result in a wavy surface, particularly if the entire pile is not immediately
spread after dumping. Gravel is generally spread by road machines or it
may be done by hand shovels.
The practise of using large gravel containing particles up to 3 inches
and larger in size, and then working the large material ahead on the sub-
grade is not good practise, because some of the large particles may be left
near the surface or they will work to the surface within a year or two.
They are always a source of annoyance when the road is reshaped or
scarified. Their dislodgment at that time will destroy the compacted sur
face below the desired depth of scarifying. If left in the surface they are
a contributing cause of corrugations.
Harrowing with a spike tooth harrow is frequently done, particularly
when clay is spread over the layers as a binder. Binder material must be
thoroughly mixed with the gravel by nature, at the pit or on the road.
Watering to secure bond and compaction is of considerable assistance when
the gravel contains a small amount of hinder.
Rolling is not universal practise. However, if quick compaction is de
sired, rolling undoubtedly gives it more quickly than traffic. Ring rollers,
sheep's foot rollers and the Michigan type give good results. Surfaces
which had early compaction obtained by the addition of excessive amounts
of clay and rolling may not resist trpffic and the elements as well as sur
faces containing a smaller amount of good binder which were compacted
from the subgrade upward by traffic. Rolling cannot, however, be depend
ed upon to give smoothness of surface. Smooth riding qualities are se
cured by harrowing and a large amount of blading.
Maintenance Methods. — Flat crowns J4 to J^-inch to the foot in
dry weather will greatly assist in maintenance. A slightly higher crown
may be used in wet weather.
A Yi -inch loose layer of clean gravel passing the M or J^-inch screen
and retained on the ¥\ should be retained on the surface at all times.
This retards the formation of pot holes, corrugations, erosion, and par
tially reduces dust. The surface should be dragged or machined daily for
traffic of over 200 per day. For lighter traffic alternate days will be suf
ficient.
Untreated graveJ surfaces lose 3/4 of an inch or more of their surface
each year. This lost material must be replaced if sufficient depth of sur
face is to be retained. Material for resurfacing is frequently stock piled
along the road sides. If the graded width between shoulders is 30 feet
or more, it may be placed in windrows along the sides, with suitable open
ings for drainage.
Pot holes, corrugations and dust are the principal objections to the
best gravel surfaces. They may be minimized as already stated, but surface
treatment or the addition of a bituminous wearing course is indicated
even when fast moving, light traffic is in excess.
Scarifying and reshaping twice a year or annually are not unusual.
These operations, together with blading and dragging, can well be done
during or immediately after rains. None of these operations are done
after the surface has been prepared for the winter in heavy frost sec
tions of the country. Maintenance should begin during construction.
Construction Costs. — As in all types of surfacing length of haul
by truck or rail greatly aects the initial cost. Such items as washing,
screening and crushing also affect the cost. For these reasons the cost of
gravel surfacing varies between wide limits. Manipulation and compac
tion of the material on the road are comparatively small items in the total.
Maintenance Cost. — The items of blading and dragging are easily
determined for fixed amounts of traffic. Scarifying and reshaping may
be reasonably estimated. The replacement of lost surfacing material is the
principal item of maintenance expenditure and the one which seriously
increases the maintenance costs of gravel surfaces. For average traffic
of 300 to 500 vehicles per day the data show the highest losses in regions
of low humidity and precipitation such as Arizona. On the other hand.
Alaska reports no difficulties from dust and little lost material. Yearly
losses range from -inch to or inches. In Indiana 22 sections on 236
J/2
miles of gravel road showed an average annual loss of 257 cubic yards
for an average daily traffic of 892 vehicles. The average annual rainfall
in Indiana about 37 inches. The cost of daily blading should be about
is
$200 or $300 per year, scarifying and reshaping annually about $100. The
cost of new materials will naturally vary with local conditions. With
gravel at $2.00 per cubic yard loose measurement in place, replacement
a
of inch, loose, per mile per year would, for an 18 foot width of surfac
1
ing, amount to $580. The cost of scarifying, reshaping and continuous

blading seldom amounts to more than $400 per mile per year. The cost of
replacing lost surface materials therefore serious item. When the cost
is
a
of maintenance exceeds $600 or $800 per mile, regardless of traffic in

tensity, common practise indicates the advisability of some type of surface
treatment or pavement.
a
Service. — When constructed with suitable aggregate and maintained,

safe speeds of 40 to 60 miles per hour can be maintained for hours at
a
time. Untreated gravel surfaces are seldom satisfactory for more than
600 vehicles per day. The average appears to be about 400, arid regions
report 200 or 300 to be the maximum and Alaska with its damp soils,
;
reports no trouble from the dust nuisance. When the traffic capacity of
gravel surface passed, loss of surfacing material, dust, corrugations
is
a
and pot holes indicate the necessity of surface protection.

Traffic Bound Surfaces of Gravel, Stone, and Slag
- S£'/oJO"
rmmtimpawn JMt aejrm

Fig. 4.- -Ohio
Construction and
Materials maintenance costs Service Example in
Crushed stone. First year $2,000. 300 to 600 vehicles Ohio.
Crushed slag. Second year $1,000. including light Indiana.
Screened or Third and succes trucks. Tennessee.
crushed gravel. sive years $500. Nebraska.
Iowa.
General Description. — This type of construction has been used

with success previously
on graded and unsurfaced subgrades and as a
method of resurfacing and widening an existing untreated surface. This
untreated surface may be an old sand-clay, gravel or stone macadam.
The construction methods are similar in each instance but more new
material will ordinarily berequired on raw subgrades. Some scarifying
and reshaping may be necessary prior to the addition of new surfacing.
The surfacing is a layer of clean crushed stone, slag, crushed or
screened gravel evenly spread on the prepared subgrade. This layer is
kept smooth by constant blading. Traffic gradually compacts it from the
subgrade upward.
172 LOW COST ROADS AS D BRIDGES
New material is added, under traffic, periodically until a surface of

suitable thickness is built up. This surface is seldom more than 5 or 6
inches in depth after a period of several years. It is kept covered at all
times with a loose layer usually of the same materials as are in the body
of the surface. The surfacing should preferably extend from shoulder to
shoulder. This distance should not be less than 20 feet ; 30 is better.
The crown should be low, about Y\ to -}^-inch per foot has been found
sufficient. It is easy to maintain, to ride upon, there is less erosion than
with high crowns, and it seldom needs building up or cutting down when
used as a base for future surface courses or surface treatments.
Materials. — Suitable materials are hard crushed stone, slag and
crushed or screened gravel. Other materials have been used, such as stone
screenings, pea gravel and cinders. They may also be successfully ap
plied as a subgrade treatment for the first year. Good results have been
obtained when the materials all pass the 1-inch or "s-inch screen, with
little passing the '4 and less than 10 per cent passing the number 10 sieve.
The material should be uniformly graded from coarse to fine. Crusher run
below the 1-inch has also been used. Riding qualities are improved, and
tire wear probably reduced, when the maximum size is or ->4-inch.
J/»
Materials over 1-inch and up to lJ/> have been used, but the surface
is
rougher and tire wear probably greater.
An excess of fines may cause corrugations with gravel aggregate.
They will become more dusty all types under traffic. Clay causes dust
in
and pot-holes. disadvantage in case of future surface treatments.

It
is
a
Clay sometimes necessary as binder when screened uncrushed gravel
is
is
used. should be applied dry, evenly and sparingly.

It
Several thousand miles of roads of excellent riding dualities have

been built in Iowa by the methods described herein for traffic bound sur
face, except that pit run gravels and crusher run limestones conforming
to the following specifications have been used
:
Class A gravel Class gravel Crushed limestone

B
Maximum size inch inch inch

1
1
8 1
Max. clay, mud-balls, etc per cent 12 per cent per cent
5
Passing No. sieve not more than. . 50 per cent 65 per cent 15 per cent
8
Maximum per cent of wear .... .... per cent

5
Construction Methods. — The construction operations are simple

and consist of hauling, dumping and spreading the aggregates. All of them
are done by mechanical equipment. For maintenance, equipment same.
is
The subgrade first prepared to firm uniform cross-section and

is
loose layer of aggregate spread and machined to uniform depth. This

is
layer should not be of greater thickness than traffic can safely use.
There are several methods: one of the most satisfactory to dump the
is
surfacing continuous pile along the center of the roadway or in two

in
a
piles, one on each side. then bladed over the roadway in smooth
It
is
layer of uniform depth of from to inches, depending on the character

3
1
of subgrade, the amount of moisture contains. As the first layer becomes

it
compacted, more material is bladed in from the side windrows so that a

loose mulch about 34-inch deep is present at all times. Traffic and hauling
of surface material compact each thin layer from the subgrade upward.
Blading and dragging each day keep the surface regular and free from
pot holes and ruts.
The first year's work, which may be considered the construction
period, will result in a densely compacted surface 2 to 3 inches in depth.
Maintenance Methods. — Maintenance methods are similar to the
construction methods. They consist of the addition of new material which
is either stock piled along the road or placed in windrows at the sides.
This is usually applied when the road surfaces are wet, a condition per
mitting better bond with the old surface. One-man patrol graders with
straight or spring blades, followed by an occasional planing with heavier
equipment, serve to keep the surface in excellent condition.
In sections of the country subject to conditions of freezing and thaw
ing such as Ohio, Michigan, and Indiana, these surfaces may break
through in places, especially during the first winter and spring. Repairs
are simple and are made before the existing surfacing becomes lost in
the subgrade. Reducing the amount and weight of traffic during these
periods has reduced the maintenance costs.
Construction Costs. — On a large program of construction, suffi
cient amounts of material delivered at the proper time and place can
best be handled by contract. It should be delivered in stock piles at sev
eral mile intervals or placed in piles at the roadside or in stock piles along
the road. On small programs for this type of construction, portable out
fits and small set-ups have been used and the entire work done by force
account. The surfacing will cost for the first year, which may be consid
ered the construction period, about $2,000 with local aggregates.
Service. — This type is easily and quickly constructed, traffic, after
the grading operations, may use the road at once. There is no time out
for the surfacing operation. On account of the flat crown, surface mulch
and small amount of aggregate below the j4-inch screen, erosion is not
serious. In Ohio the slag and stone surfaces are less dusty than the gravel,
and show fewer corrugations.
Due to the constant dragging or machining the riding qualities are
excellent. Speeds of 50 to 60 miles per hour are limited only by traffic,
alignment and grade. These roads will accommodate from 300 to 600
vehicles per day consisting of automobiles, a fair percentage of 2y2 ton
trucks and infrequent 5 and 7 ton trucks. The surface mulch retards the
formation of pot-holes and corrugations. Crushed stone and slag have
been used to prevent them on gravel bases.
The principal objection to this type of surfacing is the wear on tires
and rather high tractive resistance. After the road has been in service
and under observation for 2 or 3 years it may be successfully treated with
one of the several satisfactory types of bituminous surface treatments.
Macadam
/S
wrfm-ce/jiTL-jrwtaeJWtfi
Fig. 5j — Macadam
Materials First cost Maintenance cost Service Examples

Crushed stone. $8,000 to $15,000. $300 to $600. . 500 to 800 Indiana.
Crushed slag. vehicles Kentucky
Crushed gravel. per day. Ohio.
Tennessee.
New England
General Description. — Macadam roads have been built which show

wide ranges in quality and size of aggregate, thickness of section and
method of construction. It is one of the oldest types. This perhaps ac
counts for the variations, although present practise is by no means uniform.
In general these surfaces consist of one or more courses of coarse
broken aggregate, whose voids are partially filled with finer aggregate.
The whole mass is keyed and interlocked together by protracted rolling.
Water may or may not be used to assist in the void filling process.
Materials. — These roads are usually built of crushed stone.
Crushed slag and gravel are less widely used as macadam aggregate. A
study of specification requirements shows they have been written to secure
good quality and a practical gradation of the available local material and
that a softer stone is usually permitted in the base course than in the wear
ing course. The maximum allowable per cent of wear for the surface
course is about 5, for the average specification, trap rock is specified as

low as 4 while limestone is permitted as high as 6.
Base course requirements are not as severe. A per cent of wear of 10
and 12 is tolerated for limestone, 15 and 20 for slag and 25 for sandstone.
The grading requirements indicate that larger maximum sizes are cus
tomary when softer stone is used.
When stone of the same quality is used in both base and surface
courses the gradation may be the same for each. In this case the courses
may be of equal thickness. For example some typical state highway speci
fications for quality and gradation of stone are given.
Ohio Sandstone Base Course
When sandstone having an abrasion loss of over 12 per cent is used,
it shall be broken to sizes ranging between 3 and 5j/£ inches, with the
larger sizes predominating. When sandstone having an abrasion loss of 12
per cent or less is used, No. 0 or No. 1 size may be used. The sandstone
shall be broken to proper size before being placed in final position. No
knapping will be permitted after the sandstone has been placed.
, Per cent of wear not over 25 ; toughness not less than 3. No. 0 size,
gradation requirement for passing screens having circular openings is :
through the 5^2-inch 95 to 100 per cent, through the 2j/2-inch 0 to 10
per cent. No. 1 size gradation is : through 4-inch 95 to 100 per cent, and
through 2]/2 -inch 0 to 10 per cent.
Ohio Water-Bound Macadam Surface Course
This course consists of crushed limestone or slag and screenings. The
maximum allowable per cent of wear for limestone is 8 and the toughness
factor is not less than 5. The stone shall show no signs of checking,
cracking or disintegration in the sodium sulphate test for soundness. In
no case shall the maximum size permitted exceed the compacted thickness
of the course by more than 34-inch.
The specified sizes of stone passing screens with circular openings are
given in percentage:
Passing Passing
No. 1, 4 inch, 95-100 ; 2^ inch, 0-10.
No. 5, yA inch, 95-100; % inch, 30-60; 100 Sieve, 5-20.
No. 7, y2 inch, 95-100; M inch, 60-100; 100 Sieve, 10-30.
Virginia state specifications designate a broken stone base course or

a hand broken base course in which no screenings are used unless espe
cially required. For the broken stone base course the coarse stone must
pass a 4-inch circular perforation and be retained on a 2 J/2 -inch. The per
cent of wear is not more than 8 and the toughness factor not less than 5.
The method of handling gravel, sand-clay, soil, chert and shale in
Virginia are about the same and for brevity will be described as a group.
Their gravels are either water deposited bank or stream gravel. In
either case the particles are usually water worn and vary in size from
sand to 2 inches. A content of more than 20% of clay is not desired.
Sand-clay is a term much abused in this state as well as elsewhere.

They find many localities where it occurs naturally in a proportion of 85%
sand to 15% clay. They do not resort to the manufacture of the mixture
on the road unless one or the other materials in the road are of excellent
quality. They prefer the sand sharp and coarse.
Soil as they understand it occurs in localities where the soil has
been formed by the disintegration of granite. The top layer on the fields
ranging from 4 inches to 12 inches has most of the clay leached out and
when used as a road surface makes a very stable road. The better soils for
road purposes contain considerable grit or pebbles.
Chert occurs most in localities where limestone also occurs. It is a
material containing a flinty aggregate and a clay filler. The clay content
often runs as high as 25%, but due to the angular stone particles is not
objectionable.
Shale is a term also much misused and abused. However, Virginia
does not use any but the hardest shales that approach a rock formation.
The construction methods for using the above five materials are about
the same. The trench method is used. The subgrade is cut and about 12
inches to 15 inches of material is applied to give a 10 inch compacted sur
face. This subgrade is cut by a large tractor and road grader. The stand
ard section is 20 feet wide, having a crown of }4 of an inch per foot.
The material cut out in forming the subgrade forms the shoulders of the
finished road. It is preferable that a little of the surfacing "spill" over
on the shoulders to prevent clay from getting on the surface during main
tenance operations. The material is usually excavated by a power shovel
and hauled to the road by truck and dumped in a "windrow." This wind
row is spread by a tractor and grader. This method of spreading mixes
the material which seldom comes from its source uniform. If the material
is carefully spread it can be kept smooth by ordinary- maintenance methods.
However, if poor spreading has been done it may be necessary to scarify
the surface after it has become compacted to get it smooth. This scarify
ing is done by an attachment that is a part of the larger road graders.
The maintenance of these road surfaces vary considerably with the
traffic and weather conditions. Ordinarily they use the small farm type
tractor equipped with solid rubber tires. A one-man type road machine is
part of the equipment. The type preferred is one that can be easily and
quickly detached so that the tractor can be used for other maintenance pur
poses. A trailer is also furnished with each tractor for hauling additional
road material that is always necessary to bring up low spots. Machining
is done only when the road is moist, except where corrugations form due
to heavy, fast traffic.
Slag and crushed stone for traffic bound surfaces may be handled to
gether. The method of handling the subgrade is the same as described
above. The material best suited for such surfaces is what is known as
"crusher run" up to 2y> inches. At times it is necessary to separate the
dust so that it may be applied on top to aid the material in tightening or

setting up. Also at times, where it is available, sand is used for this pur
pose. In dumping the coarser material on the road it is usually spread from
the truck on the subgrade in 4-inch to 6-inch layers. The finished road is
usually 8 inches in depth.
The maintenance of this type of road is not unlike gravel, except that
not enough machining is done to keep it in a raw condition. A surplus
of fines are kept on hand to take care of the places that "ravel" or are
hard to make bond together.
Rolled macadam or slag roads are laid on a subgrade the same as
described above. The stone is crushed and screened to give an aggregate
from 1 inch to 4 inches. This is spread uniformly and rolled with a ten-
ton roller. Dust and screening are then applied and raked into the voids.
Water is then applied and the rolling continued until the road is firm and
sets up. This type of road does not lend itself to the ordinary mainte
nance method as do other low type surfaces without a mat coat of smaller
stone on top. As a matter of fact bituminous surface treatments are rec
ommended.
In Massachusetts broken stone is designated as No. 1, No. 2 and
screenings. No. 1 passes the 2j4-inch ring and is retained on the lj4-inch.
No. 2 passes the 1^4 -inch ring and is retained on the -)4-inch. The screen
ings all pass the Y\ -inch. The allowable per cent of wear is not more
than 4 and toughness is not less than 8.
California specifies two types of water-bound macadam base, but does
not specify a water-bound macadam surface course. The broken stone for
Type A base course must all pass a 3}/>-inch circular opening and be
retained on a lj^-inch. The screenings all pass the J/2-inch opening and
include the dust of fracture. Maximum allowable per cent of wear is 5.
For Type I? all stone must pass the 2j4-inch circular opening and be re
tained on the j4-mch. Maximum per cent of wear is 8. The filler or binder
may be rock screenings, sandy loam or disintegrated granite. 90 to 100
per cent of which shall pass the -inch screen.
)A,
Construction. Methods. — Current practise varies in details but the

principal features are similar. The trench section in general use. Wood
is
blocks or temporary timber side forms are used to gauge the loose depth
of stone in the trench. Earth from the shoulders generally used to
is
prevent lateral displacement during the rolling. The compacted depth of

any course seldom more than ^-inch greater than the maximum size
is
of coarse stone. This type may consist of base and surface course or
a
base only. Six or seven inches appears to be maximum compacted depth

for single course macadam, but 4-inch nearer the average for the
is
a
cases studied. The principal construction features are:
Hauling and spreading the layer of coarse stone. The stone seldom
1.
is
dumped directly on the subgrade or base course.

2. Shaping this layer of stone by hand tools. Harrowing and machining

are required in some specifications.
3. Rolling with one or two, ten-ton power rollers, usually the three wheel
type.
4. Spreading fine stone, screenings or other suitable fillers. These are
spread thinly and gradually and broomed over the surface.
5. Rolling is then continued, usually on the dry surface.
6. Watering, the addition of more screenings or filler and protracted
rolling, are continued until a thin "mud" or "grout" appears on the
surface and applied water runs to the edges of the surface.
Some states, Ohio, Indiana and others, require the surface to be care
fully tested with a straight edge and all inequalities corrected.
Base courses are sometimes built without watering. Surface courses
are sometimes of the traffic bound type, not rolled, in this case the maxi
mum size aggregate is lj^-inch or better still ^-inch. Rolling begins at
the edges overlapping the shoulder. It progresses toward the center of
the roadway. On super-elevated curves rolling is sometimes begun on the
inside of the curve and progresses outward across the entire width.
Maintenance Methods. — Experience has shown that untreated

macadam surfaces become dusty, ravel and pot hole under traffic. Pot
holes are isolated holes in the surface. They are the result of lost binder
and coarse stone removed by traffic. If not patched at once with new
stone they quickly cause a very rough riding surface. Pot holes, raveling
and a reduction in dust may be partially retarded by covering the macadam
base or surface with a J/2-inch loose layer of •% gravel screenings or other
hard aggregate. This layer must be lightly bladed or dragged from two
to six times each week. Sprinkling the surface with water, if available,
is of assistance in reducing raveling and dust. Surface treatments with
bitumen or calcium chloride are the most common practise. Scarifying,
reshaping and the addition of coarse stonei and filler are less common.
Heavy road planes and bladers are said to be useful in removing high
spots. The material planed off is deposited in the low spots and compacted
by traffic.
Construction Cost.— Skilled labor and competent supervision are
important factors for good macadam construction. These are not always
available. For this- reason macadam prices may be relatively high or local
contractors may not care to bid on this type of surfacing. Except when
local stone or a short haul are available macadam is not growing in popu
larity.
The cost of watering may become a serious item if the surface is water-
bound. An unusually dry period during a working season, or construction
in naturally dry, arid regions may make a long haul unavoidable. If not
previously anticipated serious financial loss may result to the contractor.
To obtain maximum density under the heavy rolling required, a firm
subgrade is essential. This is dependent on variable soil and climatic con

ditions. It is sometimes difficult to obtain a smooth riding surface without
frequent patching. This is undesirable and an excess of patching is
expensive.
For the foregoing reasons macadam is high in first cost compared with
traffic bound types. These are built up in thin layers on average subgrades,
shaped with a road blader, without watering, and traffic gives adequate
compaction.
In macadam types it is desirable to avoid waste by using the entire
output of the crusher, if the stone is crushed on the job. An excess of fines
or coarse may be used with success to improve the bearing capacity of
the subgrade.
From the available information local stone macadam 5 to 6 inches in
thickness and 18 feet wide can be laid for $6,000 to $10,000 per mile. The
cost of greater depths to suit local soil or other conditions may reach
$18,000. On the average, depths of 7 to 9 inches cost less than $15,000
per mile for an 18 foot width.
Maintenance Costs. — Untreated macadams show about the same

traffic capacity and maintenance cost as the traffic bound and gravel types.
This is from $300 to $600 per mile per year for a surface which is main
tained free of pot holes and raveling.
Frost boils, occasioned by the freezing of moisture in the subgrade,
may require scarifying, reshaping, new materials and rolling. This item
may amount to $50 or several hundred dollars per mile yearly depending
on the quantity of new aggregate required.
Sub-base of gravel, stone or sand will reduce frost boils. A loose sur
face mulch of fine hard aggregate will reduce pot holes and raveling.
Service. — Although still included as a standard type by nearly

all states the Bureau of Public Roads records show a proportionate de
crease in macadam mileage as compared with other types.
Macadams and rolled broken stone surfaces and bases are now usually
laid with the intention of future improvement by bituminous surface
treatments.
Traffic of more than 600 or 800 vehicles per day quickly disintegrates
the surfaces as evidenced by dust, raveling and pot holes. Even though
the body of the macadam remains intact these surface failures indicate
of surface treatments.
the advisability
Because of high first cost, low traffic capacity, rough riding surface,
and non-adaptability to machine maintenance other types are replacing
macadams for light traffic in all but a few states.
Old macadams are excellent bases for surface treatment and bituminous
wearing courses and many miles are thus salvaged and improved annually.
i Lime Rock, Marl and Caliche, Base and Surface
Fig. 6. — Marl Surface, Ohio
Materials Costs per mile Service Examples in

Lime rock. Construction $4,000 200 to 300 vehicles ■Florida.
Ojus rock. to $15,000. Main daily without North Carolina.
Coquina rock. tenance, said to treatment. 1,500 Ohio.
Disintegrated be high without to 2,000 with bi Minnesota. %
limestone. surface treat tuminous surface Arizona.
Marl. ment. treatment. New Mexico.
Shell rock. Texas.
Caliche.
General Description. — When deposits of stone or gravel are not

available locally or when their cost is excessive, excellent base courses have
been constructed from these materials. They are usually laid in a one
course trench section to a compacted thickness of from 6 to 8 inches.
Four inches have been used but are not recommended. The material is
spread on the subgrade, harrowed, wet, machined, rolled and machined
again. The result is a finely bonded smooth riding surface with but little
resistance to the wear of traffic during dry weather. The immediate sur
face may be improved by scarifying to a depth of one or two inches and
covering with fine hard stone or gravel. Gravel or sand have been mixed
with marl or caliche to increase their resistance to abrasion. Apparently
the best method is to place a bituminous surface treatment. This method
will be described under the title of Surface Treatments. There is evidence
also that calcium chloride is effective for reducing dust on marl. By far
the greatest and best mileage of lime rock base is in Florida. Similar ma
terials are found elsewhere in the country and they may be used for this
type of construction successfully by following the Florida methods.
Materials. — All of the materials listed are a limestone formation
and consist essentially of carbonate of lime.
Florida state specifications require the following minimum percentage
of carbonate of calcium and magnesium. Florida Lime Rock, 97; Ojus
Rock, 70, with cementing value not less than 45 ; Coquina Rock, 80,
cementing value 45.
Marl is a calcareous clay or mixture of lime with soft friable clay.
It may also contain shells, fossils, teeth, potash and phosphoric acid. The
lime content of marl suitable for road construction varies from 25 to 75
per cent and higher. Marine marl is found in the Atlantic Coastal Plain.
Fresh water marl is found in Michigan, Indiana, Ohio and Minnesota.
Sand, though not abundant, is usually present.
Caliche is described as a soft earthy limestone. It is a calcareous de
posit formed beneath the surface sand or soil in Arizona and adjacent
territory. Texas specifies suitable caliche as a natural mixture of cal
careous dust and quartz sand with or without the presence of gravel or
small stones and not more than 10 per cent clay.
Other materials such as disintegrated limestone are similar in character.
They are considered acceptable for road building provided they show no
tendency to air slake or undergo chemical change when exposed to the
weather. They are found in wet or dry pits with or without overburden.
Blasting, crushing, and sizing may or may not be necessary. It is usually
required for lime rock in Florida and the Atlantic Coastal Plain.
Gradation requirements are similar for all these materials. Florida's
requirements where water is used to assist in compaction are:
Passing a screen with Z]/2 -inch circular opening 95 per cent. Retained
on screen 24-inch circular opening not less than 30 per cent. All fine
material shall consist of the dust fracture.
When water is not available the materials should be crushed, all to
pass the 1% or 1-inch screen. The surface is then bonded by traffic, blad
ing and an occasional rainfall.
Construction Methods. — Of the various specifications studied and
work inspected in the field, the Florida methods are complete and the re
sulting work is excellent. Other specifications such as Texas' are similar.
The following are the principal methods for constructing lime rock base.
Temporary timber side forms are first set and staked to line and grade.
The crushed stone, containing dust of fracture, is spread on the subgrade
by any standard method. Dumping directly upon the subgrade is not per
mitted. Care is taken to prevent segregation in fine or coarse areas, by
replacement with stone of acceptable grading. The spread material is
shoveled or raked to produce the required loose thickness. This is about
x/i
more than the desired compacted thickness. Rolling commenced and

is
water sprinkled over the material until it receives maximum compression

under a 10 ton roller. Sprinkling is commenced while the material is being
dumped and spread. After being watered and rolled the entire surface is
thoroughly scarified to a depth of 4 inches or more, then shaped with a
2yi ton road machine, watered and rerolled. The rolling and machining
are continued until the entire depth is thoroughly bonded and compacted.
Blading with the road machine insures a smooth riding surface. Some
specifications make rolling optional with the engineer in charge. The sur
face may be constructed in one or more courses.
Maintenance Methods. — It is customary to leave these surfaces

open to traffic for a month or more before surface treatment. Under light
traffic in dry weather the surface becomes dusty and pot holes appear
in a short time. These weak spots are patched with material similar to
that in the base. They are mixed or sprinkled with water to insure bond.
Bitumens with stone chips or calcium chloride are suitable surface treat
ments. A thin layer of gravel has been found to reduce dust and wear.
Construction Costs. — Contract prices for 8-in. compacted base in
Florida vary from less than $1 to nearly $2 per sq. yd., with an aver
age of less than $1.50. Florida lime rock is frequently hauled long dis
tances by rail. With local materials nearby and using a thinner base,
surfaces of marl and caliche have been laid for $3,000 per mile for an 18
foot width. In New Mexico caliche surface costs less than gravel. New
Mexico claims that a fair average cost of a caliche road would be less
than $7,000 per mile. This would provide for a roadbed 24 feet wide and
a surfacing 16 feet wide by 8 inches deep.
Maintenance Costs. — For the untreated surfaces the maintenance
costs will be for patching, replacement of lost material, scarifying and
reshaping. These become serious items for even light traffic in such states
as Arizona and Texas. In Arizona the annual surface maintenance cost
was given as about $450 per mile for comparatively light traffic.
Service. — As a surface course these materials are limited to light
traffic of not more than 200 or 300 vehicles per day because of abrasion.
As base courses for surface treatments and bituminous surface courses
they are giving excellent service in Florida and North Carolina. Bases
6 and 4 inches thick on fine, loose sand, have failed under heavy traffic
in Florida. A marl surface in Ohio shows an excellent surface during
freezing weather in mid-winter. Untreated caliche and caliche-gravel sur
faces in Arizona show expensive maintenance due to loss of surfacing un
der traffic in dry weather. Some instructive experiments on the use of
local marl in road construction were made by the University of Minnesota.
It is evident that all of these materials make excellent bases at a reasonable
cost. They show practically no cracks due to expansion or contraction un
der extreme changes of temperature and moisture and on varying sub-
grades.
Miscellaneous Untreated Surfaces
/a'
m/m mm/m/m/r-trc.
Fig. 7.
— Volcanic Gravel in Mexico. Spillover or Feather Edge Sections
Are Suitable for Material Which Passes the i-Inch Screen
Materials Cost Service Examples in

Stone screenings. Construction : less For automobiles Connecticut.
Mine "chats." than $10,000 per and light trucks Missouri.
Iron ore top soil. mile. Mainte 200 to 500 per Texas.
Granulated slag. nance ; less than day. Ohio.
Pea gravel. $600 per mile per South Dakota.
Stamp sand. year. Michigan.
Shell. Louisiana.
Volcanic cinders. Mexico.
"Red dog." Pennsylvania.
General Description. — Materials which are practically unknown

to the majority of road builders have given satisfactory service in widely
separated sections of the country. This can be seen from the foregoing
list of examples of materials and locations. In general, the materials should
contain little clay, be of good bonding quality, all passing the 1^4 or 1-inch
screen and be capable of maintenance with blade machine and drag. Long
haul for these materials or expensive construction methods, which involve
protracted rolling and watering may exclude them from low cost classifi
cation.
Materials. — The specification requirements for some miscellaneous
materials are given.
Stone screenings as used in the Connecticut towns of Wallingford,
Cheshire and Winchester are fine particles of crushed trap rock in size
from %-inch down to and including stone dust. This dust is about 75
per cent of the total.
Mine "chats" are residue accumulated in the production of lead and
zinc. They have been successfully used in bituminous surface treatment
work in the Southern States and as aggregate for untreated surfaces in
Joplin Co., Missouri. They are produced from a hard flint rock forma
tion. This material will all pass a -)<J-inch screen.
Iron-ore top soil as included in the Texas specifications consists of
hematite, hydrated hematite, or limonite ore as found at the surface. It
must be free from vegetable matter and contain not over 15 per cent clay.
In size it must pass the lj^-inch screen.
Granulated slag as used for base course in Ohio is specified as water
or steam cooled. It is of such fineness that 90 per cent shall pass the
J^-inch screen.
Pea gravel is specified in South Dakota and consists of hard durable
fragments of stone mixed with sand or clay or binding material.
Passing the 1 ^4-inch screen 95 to 100 per cent.
Retained on J4-inch screen 10 to 40 per cent.
Retained on 10 sieve 35 to 70 per cent.
Stamp sand as used in the Upper Michigan Peninsula is a product of

crushing copper-bearing rock, composed of hard durable particles of rock,
uniformly graded. Approximately all of the material will pass a No. 8
mesh sieve and be retained on a No. 100 mesh sieve.
Shell as a surface or base course has been and is still used in Maryland,
Florida, Texas and Louisiana. Louisiana specifications state that shell
shall consist of reef shell, clam shell, bank shell, or other commercial shell,
free from worm holes, or marks of deterioration or disintegration. Steamed
shell shall not be used. Grading requirements are :
Clean, dry, sound shell, retained on a 54-inch sieve, shaken to refusal and measured
by volume, not less than 70 per cent. Of the material passing a J4"mch sieve,
not more than 15 per cent shall be removed by elutriation, and the remainder
shall consist of shell particles, chert and sand.
Volcanic cinders are found in parts of the Southwest, Mexico and>
other volcanic regions. Some of these materials bind together readily un
der traffic or rolling, but others require the addition of local disintegrated
limestone or clay. They make excellent surfaces for light traffic roads.
Construction Methods. — The traffic bound method of construction
as previously described for crushed stone, slag and gravel or the sand-clay
type are economical and satisfactory, provided the materials all pass the
iy2 or 1-inch screen. The section used may be the feather edge, or trench
section of uniform depth. A surfaced width from shoulder to shoulder is
desirable.
Surfaces of these materials are also built to a trench section using
temporary side forms or wood blocks to gauge the depth of placed ma
terials. The spread material is then rolled and watered to secure compac
tion and density.
The construction methods described for sand clay have been success
fully employed in Mexico for volcanic cinders combined with a local clay
known as "tepetate." Rolling and watering were required as there was
not sufficient traffic to secure adequate compaction.
The methods used for water-bound macadam construction are ex
pensive and may generally be avoided if fine crushed material is applied
gradually and compacted by traffic.
Maintenance Methods. — Surfaces of fine material may be and are
maintained by light and heavy blading or dragging. New material is
added as required. Water-bound and rolled surfaces of coarse and fine
material which cannot be bladed must be maintained by patching and occa
sional scarifying.
Construction Costs. — Nearly all of the materials indicated under
Miscellaneous Surfaces may be obtained suitable for surfacing without
blasting, heavy crushing or screening. The principal cost item usually is
for haul which can be estimated for known local conditions. The depth
and width of surfacing naturally affect the quantities to be handled. In
general the cost of these surfaces compare favorably with sand clay,
gravel and the traffic bound types.
Maintenance Costs. — The greater part of surface maintenance con
sists of blading, replacement of lost surfacing, with occasional scarifying.
These costs for light traffic seldom exceed $600 per mile per year. If
large quantities of material must be replaced annually, that is 400 or 500
cubic yards, the maintenance costs will become serious and a new type
of surface or a surface treatment will be indicated.
Service. — Few traffic counts or reliable records are available on
these miscellaneous types. From the information available and from
some personal experience and observation, these surfaces are an economical
investment ; particularly where no other suitable local materials are avail
able and where their cost, if shipped in, would increase the service cost
per vehicle mile beyond the limits of available funds.
Sodium Silicate
A sodium silicate street surface in Brives, France, has found some
favor where traffic is light and where funds are not available for more
expensive road work. It is essential that the stone consist of a pure lime
stone and that it be free from appreciable amounts of siliceous matter.
In practice it is usual to take the stone out one year before use in order
to entirely free it from any clay or dirt which might stick to the stone.
The same result would probably be accomplished by thorough washing.
Stone for the first course is from V/z in. to 2l/i in. in size. Fines and
filler from the same stone, including dust, is mixed with 58° Be. sodium
silicate in proportions of about 10 gal. to each cubic yard of fine material.
The mixing may be accomplished in a concrete mixer. The mortar pro
duced is spread over the coarse stone with a shovel. The coarse stone
and mortar is then mixed on the road, using forks, and this is followed
by rolling with a roller weighing about 12 tons. In some cases the coarse
stone and fine material are mixed with sodium silicate in a concrete mixer.
During the rolling operations the sodium silicate and limestone mixture
comes to the surface in yellow patches. Rolling is continued until this
color becomes uniform and until it is a paste.
EQUIPMENT FOR CONSTRUCTION

Construction of untreated surfaces commonly includes the following
operations and equipment:
1. Preparing aggregates to specification in fixed or portable crush
ing and screening plants. Sand-clays, many sand-gravels, clay-gravels and
some other materials are loaded directly from pits by power shovels, or
various kinds of scrapers or by loading devices. For such materials crush
ing and screening plants are usually unnecessary.
2. Hauling to road by trucks.
3. Dumping and spreading by blade graders, stone spreaders, chip
spreaders and through special tail gates on trucks.
4. Mixing on the road by harrows of disc type, spring tooth or spike
tooth, and by blade graders.
5. Compacting of traffic bound surfaces is commonly done by traffic,
but the sheep's foot roller has been successfully used to a limited extent.
The ten-ton three-wheel power roller is extensively used for com
pacting macadams and stone bases.
6. Smoothing is accomplished by patrol graders, drags, and truck
scrapers.
A review of present practice in using squipment for untreated sur
faces has developed the following:
1. That portable crushing plants used for preparing aggregates are
desirable which are of lighter weight and greater capacity than now in use.
2. That hauling equipment is generally satisfactory.
3. That dumping and spreading devices are effective in improving
quality of work and reducing costs — but high first cost on some types pre
vents their purchase.
4. That mixing equipment seems to be satisfactory.
5. That early compaction by rollers is necessary in the roller bound
types of surfacing and desirable in the traffic bound types. Compacting
devices or rollers, low in first cost and operating costs, and capable of
compacting surfaces quickly and effectively, are needed.
6. That smoothing with heavy blade graders or long base drags is
desirable when surfaces are rough and corrugated and heavy cutting nec
essary.
That smoothing is commonly done with motor grader and drag when
light cutting is needed.
That smoothing be done with truck scraper when a light surface mulch
is to be maintained on road surface.
7. That there is need for a scarifier which will loosen surfacing
without unduly disturbing the underlying and well-compacted base, and
will not mix poor quality subgrade material with good quality surfacing.
EQUIPMENT FOR MAINTENANCE

There is no definite designation as to what constitutes construction,
maintenance, betterments, or reconstruction of untreated surfaces.
Maintenance operations as designated in this book include the principal
work done to the original surface course for the purpose of keeping it in
serviceable condition. Maintenance equipment of various types should be
capable of satisfactorily performing the following operations:
Scarifying, reshaping, blading, dragging, patching, compacting, add
ing new materials which are similar to those in the existing surface.
Untreated surfaces require frequent or daily maintenance, depending
on volume of traffic.Maintenance operations for untreated surfaces and
the equipment commonly used are:
1. Scarifying and reshaping because of high crowns, large protruding
stone or because of corrugations. Scarifying is accomplished by scarifiers
attached to graders, rollers or tractors. Reshaping by blade grader is
common practice. Light, portable equipment for separating out oversize
aggregate as well as for crushing it is desirable.
2. Blading and Dragging.Light road machines, patrol graders, spring
blades attached to trucks, and drags are used for daily and routine main
tenance, especially in dry weather. Heavier equipment is used when the
road is moist and when irregularities in the surface cannot be removed
by the lighter equipment.
3. Patching of untreated surfaces is resorted to during dry weather
and is usually done by hand tools.
4. Addition of neiv materials
is the most expensive maintenance item.
It is usually performed when the weather is moist or wet, by the same
methods and with materials similar to those used in constructing the orig
inal surface. An exception is the addition of a fine surface mulch of
gravel to well-compacted stone macadam; this mulch is later maintained
by light dragging.
TABLE I
State Highway Systems— Existing Mileage at End of 1930
From the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Public Roads

(Compiled from reports of State authorities)
Grand Earth Surfaced Road by Type1

Total Road, Non- Gravel, Waterbound Bitu
Mileage Surfaced Surfaced Mileage etc. Macadam minous
State Total Non- Low High Sand-Clay (Treated (Treated Macadam
Highway Surfaced Type3 Type4 and and Un- and Un by Pen
State System2 Mileage Surface Surface Top-Soil treated ) treated) etration
Alabama 5,526 1,938 2,813 775 959 1.826 28 165
Arizona 2,633 769 1,634 230 •130 1,504 24
Arkansas 8,810 1,944 5,697 1.169 5,697 136
California 6.589 2,107 1,813 2,669 •1,813 399
Colorado 9,234 4,859 3,981 394 3,905
Connecticut 2,234 95 1,194 ''45 302 892 504
Delaware 817 64 753 47 17 48
Florida 6,663 2,869 2.671 1,123 812 8 1,851 148
Georgia 7,124 3,208 2,773 1,143 1.770 766 217
Idaho 4,565 1,806 2.528 231 11 2,517 >>
Illinois 9,889 2.186 4 7,699 3 1. 3
Indiana 6,111 125 2.849 3,137 1,875 974 544
Iowa 7,685 1.149 3,039 3,497 3,039
Kansas 8,690 4.450 3,122 1,118 2.635 487 172
Kentucky 15.000 6,846 7,146 1.008 3,162 3,984 525
Louisiana 10.509 2,960 6.871 678 6.864 7 16
Maine 2.039 153 1.520 366 1,508 8 2 57
Maryland 3,253 1.668 1.585 520 1,148 48
Massachusetts 1,624 254 1.570 60 194 852
Michigan 8.109 552 4.125 3.432 l(ii| 3.4SS 557 111
Minnesota 6.891 97 5.360 1.434 195 5.165
Mississippi7 6.101 764 4,865 472 1 4.853 11 51
Missouri 8.446 2.808 2,918 2,720 2,918 130
Montana - 8.148 6.302 1,788 58 51 1,737 17
Nebraska 9.752 4.968 4,452 352 84 4,368
Nevada - 3.774 2.033 1.662 7I 1,662 26
New Hampshire .. 2,548 114 2.038 396 1.920 1 IS 175
New lersey 1,873 32 247 1,594 216 31 84
New Mexico 9.334 6,663 2,585 86 2.585
New York 14.015 2.771 1.796 9 448 124 1.672 3.638
North Carolina ... 8.705 975 3,705 4,025 2,977 538 190 •598
North Dakota 7.401 4,218 3.172 11 3,172
Ohio 11.343 89 5,543 5.711 4,108 1,435 1,591
Oklahoma 6.395 3.054 1.747 1.594 1.747
Oregon 4.352 748 2.380 1.224 2.380 324
Pennsylvania9 13.501 4.006 3.217 6,278 852 2,365 408
Rhod- Islfnd 1.009 458 132 439 26 106 204
South Carolina .... 5.993 1.127 3,399 1.467 2,842 514 43 11
South Dakota 5.976 1.992 3.931 53 20 3.911 8
Tennessee 7.044 1.084 3.863 2.097 2.534 1.5?9 r° '
Texas 18.703 7.895 7.925 2.883 9 55 6.000 990 513
Ctah 3.4*6 1,532 1.60? ?QQ 1.605 5
V.-r-ont * ?04 652 3.217 3*5 1.000 2.168 49 74
Virginia 7.688 2.086 3.988 1.614 504 2. '01 1,283 S47
Washington 3.248 401 2.067 7«n 2.067
W"l V'rginia 4.164 1.077 1.118 I Of,0 920 1'iS 920
WSocon-in 10.2'1 8 =6 6.008 3.3" 5.451 5n 144
Wvoming 3.127 1.477 1.615 35 1.615
Total 324,496 98.275 142.109 84.112 15.152 106.728 20,229 14,590
Notes: 1 Tn this tnhlp she"t asphalt surface is included with bituminous eorfr'-t- to ronfo'*-" «-ith
the new classification of road types for federal aid road work adopted July 1, 1929.
: Highways under control of State Highway Department, excluding all roads under con
trol of county and local authority.
3 Includes sand-clay, gravel and waterbound macadam as given in first three columns of
surface types.
4 Includes bituminous macadam by penetration and other types.
0 Oil-surfaced earth road.
* About 61 miles formerly reported as waterbound macadam is now reported as gravel.
7 Report covers 13 months ending January 31. 1931.
fi Includes 481 miles of sand asphalt.
•Report covers year ending May 15, 1931.
TABLE II
Local Roads-#Existing Mileage at End of 1930
Erom the I'nited States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Public Roads

(.Local Roads Include County and Township Roads, ami Exclude State Highways)
(.Eroin Records and Reports of County Authorities)
Local Roads by Types

Surfaced
Earth Roads Treated and Bitu-
Total Non- Surfaced Mileage Untreated minous
Total .Surfaced Low- High Sand-Clay Gravel, Water- Macadam
Local Local Type' Type' and Chert, bound by Pen-
State M.leage MileaKC Surlace Surlace Top- boil etc. Macadam etration
Alabama 62.381 46.185 15,908 288 8.093 7,523 292 79
Arizona 20,185 18.209 1,612 364 383 1.203 26 14
Arkansas 60,039 58.U21 2,0j5 13 210 1.749 46 7
California 70,375 49,210 13,782 7,383 11,725 2,057 3.677
Colorado 59,740 56,527 3,207 6 1,381 1,826
Connecticut 12,022 10.449 1,381 192 985 396 91
2,962 2,521 387 54 1<.J 226 is
Honda 23,703 12.102 10,228 1,373 3,954 962 5.312 IDS
Georgia 95.160 84.154 10.509 497 9,143 1.291 75 264
35,260 28,253 6,949 58 2,054 4,895 46
87,398 72,286 13.227 1,885 12,798 429 86
Indiana 67,657 21,609 44,092 1,956 42,966 1,126 322
Iowa 95.b43 82,091 13,544 8 13,544
Kansas 123.550 120,763 2.669 UN 500 2,100 69 42
Kentucky 46,261 36,761 9.398 102 165 3,101 6,132 71
Louisiana 25,044 20,390 4,641 13 60 4.57U 11 S
18.843 14.502 4.316 25 s 4.295 13 18
Marvland 11,594 8,539 2.725 330 1.610 1,115 20
Massachusetts .. 17,178 9.120 6,108 1.950 17 5.355 736 1,425
Michigan 72.997 54,273 16.738 1.986 84 15.256 1,398 217
Minne ota 103.77J 73.347 30.262 161 5.927 24.234 101 2
Mississippi 55.856 43.243 12,377 236 204 12,155 18 57
Missouri 102.094 93.406 8.193 495 1,200 5.543 1,450 175
Montana 58.924 56.900 2,022 2 120 1.900 2 2
Nebraska 84.155 82,553 1.550 52 500 1.045 5 3
Nevada 19.802 19,099 690 13 58 652 11
New Hampshire. 9,486 8,860 610 X. 24 562 24 15
■
New Jersey .. 15.520 7,919 5,151 2.450 16.' 3,834 1,155 661
New Mexico . 38,442 38.099 343 78 265 „
New York 68.360 45,326 14.746 8.288 10.599 4.147 6,890
No th Carolina- 45.091 30.865 13,620 606 12.595 850 175 137
No-th Dakota ... 99.445 98,602 843 84 5
0h:o 73.763 34.181 35.802 3.780 30.687 5,115 2,682
Oklahoma 114.484 112.518 1.845 121 169 1.674 2 11
Orefron 47.265 36.938 9.820 5 7 .150 8.270 1.200
Pennsylvania ... 77.366 59.780 14.978 2 608 12.491 2,487 601
Rhode Island 1.730 1.209 402 119 278 124 162
South Carolina . 51.733 37,797 13,776 160 13.197 572 7 HI
South Dakota . 114.205 111.183 3.112 3.112
60.909 48.851 11.456 602 2'6 8.296 2.924 SS8
T-xas 169.836 154.220 15.351 265 2.584 12.300 467 40
I'tah 20.219 17.672 2.447 100 15 2,432 5
V'-rmont 10.827 9,304 1.519 4 144 1.375 1
Virrinia -. 52 2'9 45.290 6.881 98 3.849 1.712 1.320 83
VVashinMon 40.63 t 26.610 12.954 1.069 975 10,275 1.704 44
W-st Virginia... 30.635 78.410 1.345 860 655 690 461
Wi«co"«:n 71.56.1 51.296 19.884 iS! 3.391 15.542 951 ——
Wyoming 38.1"6 37. 719 337 97 240
Total 2.684.570 2.217.232 425.742 41.596 71.907 310,308 43.527 19,059
Notes: 1 Low-type «urfaced roads include sand-clay, gravel and waterbound macadam; high-type
includes type in last column.
3 Decreases in mileages due to an accurate survey of all county roads, as of October 1.
1930.
TABLE III
State Highway Systems — Mileage Built During 1930
From the United States Department or Agriculture, Bureau op Public Roads

(Compiled from Reports of State Authorities)
Earth Gravel, Water-
State Total Roads Chert, bound Bitu
(Year ends Mileage Improved New Sand- etc. Macadam minous
December Improved (Graded Sur Clay (Treated (Treated Macadam Summary of
31 except and and' facing and and Un- and Un by Pen Low High
as noted ) Surfaced Drained) Placed Top-Soil treated) treated) etration Type Type
Alabama, 9/30.... 780 .150 430 113 209 49 322 108
96 16 80 ...... 79 1 79 1
Arkansas 2,517 735 1,782 941 1,437 345
California 553 64 489 MM* 272 "48 272 217
246 246 204 _ 204 43
183 1 182 14 102 7 116 66
82 82 5 13 ..... 18 64
347 123 i 224 19 _ 131 150 74
Georgia, 6/30 200 33 167 21 22 24 26 67 100
Idaho 643 29 614 7 600 607 7
945 155 790 790
Indiana 559 16 543 26 21 147 47 496
Iowa 1,494 217 1,277 247 247 1,030
2 139 364 1,775 1,620 44 26 1,664 111
958 2.10 728 137 371 ...... 538 190
1,632 221 1,411 951 951 460
116 116 87 6 87 29
Maryland, 9/30.. 320 320 58 48 58 262
Massachusetts 88 88 50 88
750 68 682 4 324 27 3S5 327
1,423 1,423 1,129 ...... 1,129 294
Mississippi 109 54 55 44 44 11
Missouri 979 40 939 477 477 462
Montana 537 337 200 20(1 200
Nebraska 1,020 224 796 „„„ 668 ...... 668 128
Nevada 226 226 226 226
New Hampshire .. 220 1 219 147 7 5 154 65
New Tersey 180 3 177 2 - 177
New Mexico 1.686 875 811 810 810 1
New York ... 983 19 964 16 150 16 948
North Carolina 544 82 462 190 96 61 286 176
North Dakota 1.132 502 630 630 —. . 6.10
Ohio 718 55 66 3 ...... 71 15 68 86 577
Oklahoma 993 598 ,195 ...... 94 94 301
Oregon 526 149 377 „„_ 207 160 207 170
Pennsylvania 703 3 700 8 154 2 162 538
Rhode Island 47 47 ... .. 1 4 28 5 42
South Carolina ... 4J80 92 .188 177 177 211
South Dakota .. ... 559 193 166 342 342 24
Tennessee. 6/30.. 1.001 504 497 3 86 164 89 408
Texas 1.905 937 968 278 74 .152 616
Utah 337 78 259 ...... 250 250 9
Vermont 119 139 81 7 81 58
Virp:r>ia 377 20 ^57 92 92 91 49 275 82
WashinfHon 848 87 761 ,.„.. 716 716 45
W*st Virginia. ... 638 75 563 175 109 169 ^84 279
Wisconsin 2.043 21S 1,825 1..155 112 . 1.467 358
Wyoming 276 45 2.11 211 2.11
Sub-Total 35.277 7.813 27.464 2.24.1 13.063 1.371 1,273 16,677 10,787
Total 35.277 7.813 27,464 2.243 1.1.06,1 1,371 1.273 27,464
Note : 1 Column shows miles of previously reported unimproved earth roads improved to an
established grade and drained.
TABLE IV
Local Roads — Mileage Built During 1930
From the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Public Roads

(Roads Not on State Highway Systems)
(From Records and Reports of County Authorities)
Total Miles Earth Bbituminous
Graded and Improved, Total Miles Sand-Clay Treated and t'ntu-.vteil Macadam
Miles Graded and of Road and Gravel, Waterbound by Pene
State Surfaced Drained Surfaced1 Top-Soil Chert, etc. Macadam tration
1,647 504 1,143 853 209 20
825 610 215 25 169 13
Arkansas 295 220 75 75
California 2,614 715 1.899 798 402 573
Colorado 746 468 278 15 263
19 19 2 7 8
50 50 10 29
Florida 225 12.1 102 15 8 71 7
619 490 129 llu 11
Idaho 712 189 523 20 488 11
Illinois 962 42 920 610 13 6
Indiana 818 12 806 581 45 31
Iowa 5,237 3,384 1,853 -—. 1,853 i
2,106 1,200 906 1/u 720 4 1
Kentucky .. -. 589 80 509 3 240 260 5
. 150 50 100 100
Maine 415 415 411 2
178 32 146 3 69 53 5
Massachusetts 519 26 493 .1 28.1 .1.1 144
Michigan 1,223 71 1,152 5 814 80 25
4.812 1,115 3,697 382 3,310 5
2,123 277 1,846 1,846
1,831 1,050 781 348 210 90
Montana 300 200 100 100
Nebraska 1,158 6 50 508 85 420
Nevada 699 214 485 480 5
New Hampshire i .. 138 6 132 129 1 1
New Jersey .... 744 1 743 455 144
New Mexico1
New Vok 1,901 1,901 84.1 121 785
North Carolina .... 2.820 1,108 1,712 1.434 211 53
North Dakota . 157 75 82 82
Ohio 2,241 2,241 2.026 185
420 .100 120 1?0
Oregon 175 100 75 75
Pennsylvania .. 1,367 80 1,287 46! 28.1 65
Rhode Island- 112 20 92 80 5 6
South Carolina .... 1.303 .17 1,266 1.175 78 2
South Dakota .. 1.622 865 757 757
Tennessee- 2.208 25 2,183 1.986 185 12
l.inn 600 500 500
Utah 282 182 100 80 3
t< in inn 25
287 97 190 .14 109 43 4
Washington .... 25S 100 155 150
Wrst Virginia 588 201 387 215 131 11
Wisconsin 3,684 900 2,784 145 2.567 50
Wyoming 129 128 1 1
Total 52,440 16.557 35,883 4.477 25.159 2,084 2,175
Notes : 1 Includes new original surfacing and reconstructed surfacing.

2 No local roads built during year.
EXAMPLES FROM STATES

South Carolina State Highway Department
Reported by Chas. H. Moorefield, State Highway Engineer
Wheelers are generally used for short hauls of top soil, sand-clay, or
gravel. For long hauls Ball wagon-graders or trucks are generally used.
The trucks are loaded by different methods, such as by hand labor with
shovels, or by steam or gasoline shovels and "skimmers."
The equipment listed below is used to maintain clay-gravel, clay-bound
macadam, sand-clay, and top soil roads in South Carolina:
Tractors — All sizes and both wheel type and track laying type.
Trucks — All sizes from S-ton down, with gravity and hydraulic
lift bodies.
Graders— All sizes.
Maintainers — All sizes.
Small tools — Such as axes, bush hooks, scythes, picks, shovels, etc.
Our usual method of maintaining untreated surfaces is dry drag twice

per week in dry weather, using a light tractor (2 to 5-ton) or heavy
truck (2 to 3-ton), pulling two 8-foot graders, or a three-way drag, or
using a heavy truck with an under-body scraper. The surfaces are dragged
or machined after each rain, if sufficient to give the surface a "season"
using the same equipment. In case the road is badly corrugated, a heavy
tractor (5 to 10-ton) is used, pulling one or two large graders (10-foot
to 12-foot). This outfit usually parts the surfacing material from the
middle of the road to the sides and then pulls it back in. Usually the
cutting is done to the bottom of the corrugations.
Trucks are used to patch holes, build up thin surfacing and transport
men and equipment. Tn patching top-soil, clay-gravel, clay-bound mac
adam, and sand-clay, we find it best to clean out all loose material, lightly
scarify or roughen the surface of the hole or depression, sprinkle the
roughened surface with water and then patch with a moist material.
Tennessee Department of Highways and Public Works

Reported by R. H. Baker, Commissioner
All untreated surfaces on our state system are treated in the same
manner, regardless of whether they are gravel, crushed stone, slag or
original earth. These types of surfaces are dragged with what is ordi
narily termed a one-man grader, from one to five times per week. In dry
weather, we have found it to be good practice to spread this material as
evenly as possible over the entire surface of the roadway, thereby taking
advantage of the traffic to pound a portion of the material into the road
way. In the absence of the so-called one-man grader, we use a small
crawler type tractor and grader; however, this practice is more expensive
and is not customary. Material is added as occasion demands, preferably
in wet weather.
Minnesota Department of Highways

Reported byJ. T. Ellison, Chief Engineer
Minnesota uses pit-run gravel with oversize above % in. either screened
out or crushed down to proper size, depending upon the amount of ma
terial available for crushing. We are gradually going to crushing all
materials.
We are not building any stone or slag roads, or any other types that
require rolling.
The equipment on a gravel job consists of a crushing and screening
plant, several types of which are now on the market, and the hauling is
done by trucks with either end or bottom dump bodies. The spreading on
the road is carried out by means of a blade-grader. In so-called sand-
clay construction we apply clay to the sandy subgrade first and mix it into
the subgrade, and thereafter apply the usual gravel surface on top. The
loading of clay is done by the usual types of construction equipment, such
as shovels and elevating graders, and the hauling is usually done by trucks
The method of operation consists in setting up the crushing and
screening plant in the local gravel deposit, from which the surface has
been previously stripped either by teams and scrapers or sometimes by
rotary scrapers drawn by small tractors. The material is then delivered
from the plant directly into the trucks and the trucks in turn haul it to
the roadway and dump it along one shoulder. A smoothing unit, which
consists of either a tractor drawing a blade grader or a motor grader,
windrows the material into more compacted form and spreads a small
portion of the gravel over the roadway under traffic. Thereafter from
time to time small additional amounts are brought in under traffic as fast
as the material can be compacted, and smoothing operations on the road
way are more or less continuously carried out by the sectionman assigned
to that particular piece of highway.
Utah State Road Commission

Reported by H. S. Kerr, Chief Engineer
On our state road system we have almost entirely adopted three types
of surfaces, viz. :
1. Crushed gravel.
2. Oil mixed type of gravel surfaces.
3. Hard surface pavement.
In ourstate we have an abundance of gravel deposits and by crushing
the oversize we obtain a very splendid surfacing material. Our con
tractors generally use the portable type of crusher and screening plant.
The material is hauled to the road by truck — the average haul varying
from one to four miles. After being dumped on the prepared subgrade,
the surfacing material is spread by means of graders' and then com
pacted by standard road rollers. We give considerable study to the ques
tion of binders and our material is so prepared that it binds itself quite
readily under traffic. We use between 2,000 and 3,000 cubic yards of
surfacing material per mile of 18-foot road surface — the amount depend
ing upon the subgrade conditions. The maintenance of this type of road
consists of regular dragging with motor patrol graders and a yearly
addition of new surfacing material. At the present time we have no
gravel roads carrying traffic in excess of 500 vehicles per day which have
not been oiled.
Kansas State Highway Commission
Reported by W. V. Buck, State Highway Engineer
Under this type of roads, we have two classes of road — sand-gravel
roads, windrow method, and traffic-bound surfaces.
1. Sand-gravel surfaces
— windrow method: These roads are con
structed by depositing on the shoulder of a highway a windrow of sand-
gravel of varying amounts per mile. Our standard practice on new
grades is to deposit 600 cubic yards of material per mile. This material
consists of sand-gravels taken from our creeks, rivers, and from dry pits,
and our specification on this class of material calls for a material having
a gradation factor of 4.25. Another material very largely used under
this class of work is a material which we call chats, and which is crushed
flint by-product from the lead and zinc mines of southeastern Kansas,
southwestern Missouri and northeastern Oklahoma. This material usually
runs a gradation factor of from 4.50 to 5.25. Roads that are treated by
the windrow method are bladed approximately each day. Types of equip
ment used are push type motor graders and one-man pull type outfits.
Our practice in the use of motor graders has been to increase the size of
these machines until all of our new purchases are for machines with a
sixteen-foot blade and 15.30 class or heavier tractor. At one time, we
used caterpillars in the push type, but this practice has been discontinued
and where we have a road that is not surfaced, we use the caterpillar with
a one-man type pull blade — that is, the tractor and blade are both operated
by one man. This is a very satisfactory type of equipment and, for cer
tain use, has advantages over the push type. In summation, our windrow
type of gravel roads are maintained daily by blading the loose material
across the surface of the road with either a push type or pull type one-man
blade outfit, having blades varying from twelve to sixteen feet in length,
depending on the over-all width of the roadway.
2. Traffic bound surfaces: We have, in some restricted areas within
the state, a material which appears either in ledges or as gravel deposit,
which is a very soft high lime content material. This material can be
crushed where it occurs in the ledges, or taken in its natural state from
the gravel beds and placed on the road and bladed into shape. It packs
immediately under traffic. After the material is packed once, it is possible
to blade it only at such times as there is considerable moisture. This road
is largely maintained by placing additional material in holes or depres
sions that occur in the road. These are very essential roads for lighter
traffic conditions, and present a hard compacted, although slightly dusty,

riding surface.
Wisconsin Highway Commission
Reported by Win. Hoenig, Maintenance Engineer
In the construction ofthe low cost untreated surfaces, such as gravel,
stone, slag and other types, the equipment we usually use for the prep
aration of the grade consists of a heavy twelve-foot blade grader and a
sixty-horse-power tractor, and a few teams with slips and fresnoes. The
road bed is shaped up with the proper width and cross sectioned and
approximately 2,000 cubic yards per mile of either crushed stone or gravel
placed. The surfacing material is crushed to a size to the following speci
fications :
The total per cent by weight retained on a 1-in. opening, 0; J^-in.
opening, 0 to 20; %-in. opening, 50 to 70; No. 10 sieve, 75 to 100.
This surfacing material usually is placed to a depth of 6 in. in the
center and spread out to a feather edge over a width of from 20 to 24
feet, and is traffic bound. Most of our low type of highways in the state
are surfaced with gravel or crushed limestone. In some localities we do
build shale and mine tailing surfaces. These are built in the same man
ner, with the exception of the shale, which is crushed so that it passes
through a 4-in. ring. In Wisconsin we have our state trunk highway
system laid out in patrolled sections. On our untreated low type surface
road the sections range from 8 to 15 miles in length and are maintained
by motor graders. The loose material is worked from one side of the
road to the other, thereby eliminating corrugations as much as possible.
The motor grader is worked ten hours each day on the surfaced portion
of the highway. Other right of way maintenance work is performed by
auxiliary crews. These crews take care of the mowing of the weeds and
grass, the hauling of additional surfacing material, the opening of ditches
and drainage structures, the repair and maintenance of guard railing, etc.
Missouri Department of Hichways and Public Works
Reported by T. H. Cutler, Chief Engineer
In this state gravel roads are constructed by first blading the earth
surface to proper grade and cross section. The gravel is then dumped in
piles at intervals so as to secure the required amount per station or per
mile. A heavy blade grader is then used to build a windrow out of the
piles thus dumped, and this is usually accomplished by spreading the
material — by moving it across the road and back to the windrow, leaving
about two inches of material on the surface to be compacted under traffic.
The road is then turned over for maintenance, and maintained by motor
grader or other blade machines — by feeding in gravel to the surface from
the windrow as the gravel compacts under the action of traffic. The
equipment used for maintenance consists of blade machines, such as
motor graders and graders pulled by trucks and tractors. We supple
ment this equipment as occasion demands with multiple blade drags and
light scarifiers. After a period of years, we find the gravel road loses its
shape, and then the road is reconditioned by giving it a heavy scarifying
and a general reshaping, and an addition of gravel as necessary.
Oklahoma State Highway Commission
Reported by Ray Lindsey, Maintenance Engineer
Our gravel construction is all feather-edgedtype. We are not building
any thick gravel roads at this time, but are placing a considerable mileage
of what we call maintenance gravel construction. This consists of placing
from 450 to 600 cubic yards per mile of gravel, crushed stone, stone
screenings, or coarse sand. This material is hauled to the road in dump
trucks, unloaded along one side of the road and bladed across the road
with blade graders or power patrols. The material is spread over a width
of 20 to 22 feet. Practically all of our material is pit gravel, stone
screenings, or a by-product of a crushing plant. Our specifications require
all material to pass a 24-inch round screen. On crushed stone and stone
screenings we permit up to 25 per cent passing a No. 20 sieve. On
washed gravel we permit up to 30 per cent passing a j4-inch screen, and
on pit gravel we permit up to 60 per cent passing a 54-inch screen, with
not more than 25 per cent passing a No. 20 sieve. On sand we permit up
to 95 per cent passing a ^-inch screen, with not more than 40 per cent
passing a No. 20 sieve. You can see from these specifications that it is
necessary to crush and screen practically all pit material used. In fact,
we do not believe it possible to secure a satisfactory surface with light
gravel treatment using gravel larger than 24 inch.
We maintain our untreated gravel roads with power patrols, using
mostly wheel type with rubber tires, pneumatic preferred, weighing from
11,000 to 14,000 pounds, with blades from 12 to 16 feet in length, de
pending on the width of roadbed. Our patrol sections will average about
24.0 miles in length. In dry weather we brush the roads lightly and try
to keep a floating surface or mulch of gravel distributed uniformly over
the surface. Immediately after rains we generally cut the surface and
carry enough loose material to fill up all minor depressions and holes.
Most of our sand-clay roads are light traffic roads and are maintained
with team patrols, using a 4-up team and a patrol grader weighing around
1.000 pounds, with an 8-foot blade for cutting and a 16-foot blade for
sweeping in dry weather. Patrol sections will average about 8.0 miles.
We also supplement this with power patrols or light tractors and blade
graders. We try to get over our sand-clay roads about four times per
year with the heavy equipment to smooth up the surface. We always try
to use the heavy equipment when the road has enough moisture for the
material to pack in the holes and depressions. In constructing sand-clay
roads, where the roadbed is sandy, we generally get the nearest available
clay. If the haul is one-half mile or less, we generally use teams; if the
haul is more than one-half mile, trucks are nearly always used. The clay
is loaded into wagons or trucks by hand or by a fresnos over a trap.
At the present time we are doing- practically all loading by hand to pro
vide work for the unemployed. The sand is bladed out, leaving a trench
in the middle about 20 feet wide with a shoulder and windrow of sand
on either side. The clay is placed in this trench in layers of about six
inches and sandbladed from the shoulder and mixed with blade graders.
We generally place 10 or 12 inches of clay. The final surface is then
covered with a layer of sand, which is allowed to work into the road
under traffic. In placing sand on clay roads, we use practically the same
method as placing gravel, clumping the sand along the shoulder and
blading over the surface, allowing the sand to be worked into the road
under traffic. We believe we get better results by working the sand into
the clay under traffic than trying to mix the sand and clay with discs and
blade graders. We use 500 to 600 cubic yards per mile of sand on clay
surface, and get very good results for light traffic. We find it requires
from 150 to 400 cubic yards per mile per year for replacement. This
depends on the grading of the sand, the location of the road (we lose more
material on an east and west road than we do on a north and south, on
account of the prevailing north and south winds), and on the amount of
traffic.
Only a small mileage of caliche has been placed. We have added light
gravel surfacing to the caliche, as this material will not stand the wear
of traffic.
Arizona State Highway Department
Reported by J. S. Mills, Engineer of Specifications and Estimates
As thename implies, untreated surfaces, the surfacing consists of a
selected local material, usually found in close proximity to the work,
containing sufficient metal to give it body and binder of lime, caliche
or clay to make it "set up."
Caliche, disintegrated granite, crushed water-worn gravel, semi-gravel
and conglomerate with whatever binders come with them are all used for
this type of surface. Volcanic cinders are used very sparingly, and only
when all other materials are economically impossible, as they are very
short lived breaking up readily under traffic, producing a dusty surface
when dry and a slick muddy one when wet.
The equipment used is optional with the contractor and in our opinion
the factors governing selection would be (a) terraine, (b) type of ma
terial, (c) experience of the contractor. The work of handling the material
from the pit or working face to the crusher has been advantageously done
by power shovel into trucks to the crusher, by fresno to trap to crusher,
and by drag line into trap to crusher. The equipment beyond the crushing
stage is fairly well standardized and consists of trucks for hauling, tractors
for motive power for graders, drags, scarifiers and fresnos.
The material loaded is hauled to the road and, when trucks are equipped
with special tail dumps, is spread directly on the road to a depth that
will insure the compacted thickness required without segregation. When
vehicles are not equipped with tail dumps or spreading boxes, it is

required that the material be gently dumped in piles or windrows. These
piles or windrows are then removed down to the subgrade and respread.
This eliminates to some extent the formation of hard spots and waves.
You will note in our highway specifications that the contractor is
required to maintain the surface until final acceptance by the engineer.
After acceptance this maintenance is carried on intensively by the state
by the use of motor graders, drags, and standard equipment.
New construction graveling only, 18 feet wide with a compacted thick
ness of six inches, costs on the average of $2,000.00 a mile, and the
maintenance from $500.00 to $600.00 a mile a year.
State Highway Board of Georgia

Reported by G. C. Blount, Maintenance Engineer
Efforts in this state have beendevoted primarily to the maintenance
of sand-clay and topsoil roads, since the mileage of other low cost sur
faces, including gravel, stone, or slag, are practically negligible.
While not the most economical, we have found that more effective
dragging is accomplished by using a five-ton tractor and two standard
eight-foot graders, the rear grader carrying a twelve-foot mold board.
With this dragging unit we are able to thoroughly cover the entire roadway
with one round trip. This method applies to dragging operations during
seasons when sufficient moisture is available to bond bladed loose material.
In my judgment, the most difficult problem encountered is the main
tenance of these types during dry periods which often continue over a
period of several weeks. For this work we find two standard eight-foot
three-blade drags are most efficient. On better grades of topsoil, as well
as gravel, a Willett spring scraper (or other similar types) are more
economical than drags. In both instances a three-ton truck is the power
unit. A much larger mileage may be covered with the latter type, though
not as effective except on clay gravels.
I would like to call particular attention to damage to these types of
surface if bladed with standard road graders during dry periods. This
operation breaks the crust which results in pot holes should the dry
period continue and allows an excess of moisture to enter during suc
ceeding rains.
Most effective dragging in dry weather is that which moves the loose
material without disturbing the surface proper.
SUMMARY OF SURFACING
Selecting the type of road for the best possible all-weather service,
considering local materials and available funds, is an economic problem
of major importance. To obtain best results at lowest cost, stage con
struction methods are recommended. During the past four years there
has been a wide acceptance of low cost roads. Stage construction has
made this possible.
By stage construction is meant the progressive improvement of a road :

First, by adequate grading and draining, and improvement of the soil
surface itself, followed or accompanied by constant maintenance.
Second, the surface is next improved by the addition of untreated,
small size aggregates placed in thin layers at periodic intervals as required,
or placed to a greater depth in one operation. This surface must be shaped
and reshaped by continual rather than periodic maintenance.
Third, the untreated surface of well-maintained aggregates is im
proved by one of several types of bituminous surface.
The foregoing are the three principal and lowest cost steps in stage
construction, but the noteworthy exceptions will later be briefly described
as supplementary information.
Steps in Stage Construction of Surfaces. — First Step. — Surfacing

with local soils is the first step, but grading and draining are fundamental
and must be properly done before any surfacing material is placed on the
road. If improperly or inadequately performed, the construction and
maintenance of any subsequent surfacing will be unduly expensive or
may result in total failure. A properly constructed earth roadway is the
base to which all the varied types of road surfaces may be applied.
If the earth road is of sand, clay or loam is added to increase its stability
in dry weather ; if clay, sand or other gritty, non-slaking material is added
to produce a surface which will be more serviceable in wet weather.
Clay and gumbo roads have been made very serviceable by applying
slow-curing asphaltic oil to their surface prior to the application of sand
or fine gravel. A mixture of sand and clay or loam in a road has been
improved by the addition of a slow-curing asphaltic oil, followed by blad
ing and dragging. Indications are that oiled subgrades will result in a
much greater traffic service than untreated subgrades when used as a base
for a subsequent wearing course.
Second Step. — The traffic-bound surface is the second step. It con
sists of the application to the improved earth roadway of small-sized
gravel, stone, slag, or coarse sand. These materials for best results should
be properly prepared and have specified gradations.
They are commonly placed in windrows along the center or side of the
road and then spread by blade graders in relatively thin layers of from
1 to 2 inches. By means of further blading or dragging the surface is kept
smooth and traffic compacts the material in place. A more uniform

initial spreading may result by the use of mechanical spreaders and less
material is wasted along the shoulders.
If a relatively thick course, 3 to 6 inches is desired, then this layer
must be rolled with a power roller and water applied, if early compaction
is an objective. Clay gravels, caliche, and other materials which readily
bond together are commonly laid in thicker courses than the materials
which contain little binder and which are used in traffic bound construction.
200 LOW COST ROADS AKD BRIDGES
Third Step. — The addition of a low-cost bituminous surface, with few

exceptions, is the third step. Untreated surfaces, as described in the
second step, have a relatively low traffic capacity. Above a fairly well-
determined number of vehicles, 300 to 500 vehicles daily, their main
tenance cost will increase sharply and their riding qualities decrease. At
this point the third step in stage construction becomes necessary and
advisable.
In some instances calcium chloride or lignin binders are used to reduce
dust and loss of surfacing material, but they are not as commonly used
as bituminous treatments to improve the roadway surface at this stage.
Bitumens are commonly used as binders and the results are usually satis
factory.
Principal Types of Low-Cost Bituminous Surfaces. — There are

three principal types of bituminous surface which are commonly and suc
cessfully used. Other types are successfully used but not as extensively.
The first type in point of time and general usage is the surface appli
cation of bitumen to a well-compacted and clean-swept road, followed by
the application of clean, hard chips.
The second type in point of time and usage is the mixed-in-place, now
designated road -mix, which consists of mixing the aggregates already in
the road, or recently added thereto, with bitumen. This method is espe
cially successful for roads whose immediate surface aggregates are loosely
bonded and for obtaining a bituminous surface of greater thickness than
by the surface application method. Priming the base with bitumen prior
to mixing-in-place is good accepted practice.
The third type is by premixing the bitumen and aggregates in a plant,
and is known as the premixed or plant-mix. It is the newest in the low-
cost field, the least used, generally the highest in first cost, but it com
monly results in a more uniform and stable surface. In this type the
bitumen and aggregate are accurately proportioned by weight and are
mixed in a fixed or portable asphalt plant, in a bituminous paver, or im
mersed and coated in a bath of bitumen. The mixture is then placed on
the road, spread, shaped, and rolled.
Other Types and Methods Used Instead of Steps II

or III. —
Bituminous macadam under modern specifications and competent inspec
tion can be laid smooth, and on good bases its cost is justified, but it is
not commonly classed as a low-cost type. For penetration bituminous
macadam, quick -breaking emulsions, instead of the customary hot asphalts,
have proved successful and are attracting considerable attention. Blading
or dragging of the seal coat for all penetration macadam surfaces has
greatly improved their riding qualities.
A newly developed process for penetration macadam is the treatment
of the coarse aggregate on the road by spraying with an oil similar to
UNTREATED SURFACES
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TABLE VI <.
Evaluation of Some Other Surfaces
Showing approximate traffic capacity and cost exclusive of grading, drainage and financing.
Thickness and Cost per Mile

Type Materials Widths as shown Daily Traffic Capacity Disadvantages Advantages
For Construction
5
18' Sand As to inches 18' wide 1,000 to 2,000 or more ve-
phalt includes Local sand. $11,000 to $15,000 hides including pneumatic Economical only when No freight and low trucking
is
base and top. filler, bitumen For Maintenance tired trucks. local sand available. charges on aggregate.
$200 to $500 including
surface retreatments.
lop Course
o ^ n o -i
IS' bituminous Top Course For Construction Not as smooth riding

a
macadam on 6" 2Yj to $y2 inches 18' wide 1.000 to 2,000 or more ve- as other surfaces with None as low cost surface as
s
traffic bound crushed tone $6,000 to $12,000 hides including pneumatic out special construc compared with Retread.
base as shown and bitumen. For Maintenance tired trucks. tion methods.
1
in Table $200 to $500 including Relatively expensive.
fa
retreatments.
Top Course
18' retread on Top Course For Construction Half the cost of bituminous,
1
if
a
3
6" traffic bound to inches 18' wide 1,000 to 2,000 or more ve- Few, any, as low penetration macadam.
54
hasp as shown cru hed stone $3,000 to $6,000 hides including pneumatic cost surface. Smooth riding. High traffic
I
in Table and bitumen. For Ma in tenance tired trucks. capacity.
$300 to $600 including
retreatments.
is
t
or Concrete construc Concrete section very dur
to to S3 to
tion 10' wide. $10,000 able pavement which may later
6
7
to inches to $13,000. For Gravel be widened in kind.
10' Portland cement, sand, construction 8' wide, 1,000 to 2,000 or more ve- Capable of carrying all types
CO
cement con stone, (slag or $1,000 to $2,000. Total hides with supplementary Low volume traffic ca of traffic on concrete section.
crete supple gravel). Supple construction, $11,000 to gravel surface. Pneumatic pacity without supple
mentary 8' grav mentary gravel. $15,000. tires on trucks are desirable mentary surfacing.
el
surface* etc., 3" thick. For Concrete mainte but concrete section will carry
nance $100 to $200. solid tires.
For Gravel maintenance
$400. Total mainte
nance $500 to $600.
Note: Recent experiments with cement bound macadam and also with mixtures ot low cost local aggregates with cement may result
lane concrete roads at low cost.
kerosene, and the treatment of the cover chips previous to use with the
same oil. The purpose of this preliminary oiling is to induce a more com
plete covering of each particle of aggregate with the hot bitumen. The
balance of the operations is the same as ordinary penetration methods.
Retread is the road-mix coarse aggregate type. It requires less bitumen
than bituminous penetration macadam and its cost is less. Due to blading
and dragging, it has a smooth-riding surface, and, because of its coarse,
angular aggregate, the surface has non-skid characteristics. Its use and
that of the graded aggregate type of road-mix are growing.
If future traffic requirements show the need of extensive resurfacing,
another layer of road-mix, coarse aggregate type, will greatly strengthen
the existing surface at a nominal cost. The addition of new surfaces of
road-mix, sand asphalt, rock asphalt, or bituminous concrete as resur
facing on existing low-cost surfaces and as shown in Step III, may become
necessary if the condition of the existing surface requires more than
normal maintenance.
Sand asphalt, which is a mixture of local sand and bitumen, was first
built in Massachusetts and later in North Carolina, Florida, and Delaware.
It has many of the characteristics of sheet asphalt and asphaltic concrete
of the fine aggregate type. Its economy lies in the utilization of local sand
or sand gravel as found at or near the road site. Where sand is available,
but no other aggregates are procurable locally, this type of surfacing
should be favorably considered. Sand asphalt roads have been in service
in North Carolina for more than ten years, and they are still being built
in that state and Massachusetts.
Conclusions on Surfacing. — 1. There is an ever-growing use of

^low-cost types of surfacing.
2. Stage construction is justifiable when traffic conditions and funds
are insufficient to warrant high-type surfacing.
3. Effective temporary surfaces of cheap local material may sometimes
be wasted with ultimate economy, provided they have given all-weather
service and showed reduced vehicle operation and surface maintenance
costs as compared with earth surfaces.
4. The blading and dragging of the principal types of low-cost bitu
minous surfaces, including surface treatments and bituminous macadam,
result in smoother riding surfaces, lower maintenance costs, and fewer
failures than when blading and dragging are not done.
5. Engineers responsible for low-cost construction and maintenance
are studying the experience of others and adopting the information thus
obtained to their own local conditions and material.
6. In some instances low-cost surfaces have failed because the grade
line was not sufficiently elevated above the level of ground and capillary
water. This was evidenced because adjacent sections, having the same
type of surfacing but with grade lines elevated on shallow fills, did not fail.
7. There is sufficient information available on low-cost roads which,

if utilized, would make possible excellent surfaces on the majority of our
secondary and tertiary highways at an initial cost for surfacing of less
than $10,000 per mile for a width of 20 feet.
8. There is need for more accurate measurement and evaluation of
service values and road costs for all types of highway improvements.
9. Simplification and standardization of methods and specifications
are rapidly developing in low-cost road practice ; especially do the speci
fications for bitumens need standardization.
10. There is a field for development in equipment, methods, and
materials now used, or that may be used, in the construction and main
tenance of low-cost roads.
11. Mechanical equipment made low-cost roads possible, gave them
smooth riding surfaces, and only by a wider use of adequate mechanical
equipment can the physical features of the. low-cost road problem be
solved.
^ CHAPTER V
BITUMINOUS SURFACE COURSES
NE of the greatest problems facing the highway industry today is
the economical construction of durable hard surfaces for our
highways — also the resurfacing of some of our old highways which
have become very rough, and are a real menace to high-speed traffic.
Many of these highways are on through routes carrying less than
2,000 vehicles per day, excepting perhaps within a ten-mile radius of our
larger cities. Most of our heavy traffic highways have been surfaced with
high-cost pavements, but the tremendous cost for this type of construc
tion, together with the large mileage of unsurfaced highways, has brought
about a realization that we must construct less expensive roads for our
lighter through-traffic highways and secondary roads, if we are to even
approach the resemblance of an adequate hard surface highway system.
One of the best ways to combat this problem is by utilizing our old
stone, slag, and gravel roads as a base, or by constructing inexpensive
bases from suitable local aggregate and surfacing them with a low-cost
durable pavement.
GENERAL TYPES
Oiled Earth Treatment. — The practice of oiling earth surfaces is
of long standing. The results of a recent survey, however, seem to indi
cate that the practice has not as yet developed into an art and in a large
number of instances receives very little technical supervision.
Road oil applications have been generally considered as only tem
porary maintenance expedients. We believe this material has not received
the serious consideration as a construction material that it merits, if han
dled with a view to obtaining the maximum of service from its use. In
creased care and attention to a few fundamental considerations in con
nection with the use of oil on earth road surfaces or subgrades will
produce considerably improved results over the general practice of hap
hazard oil application and oiled application maintenance.
Bituminous Surface Treatments. — Bituminous surface treatments
as commonly designated are one or more applications of bitumen which
are covered by sand, gravel, stone, or slag. These successive applications
of bitumen and cover make a thin bituminous mat from to 1 inch in
thickness, which is well bonded to the base ; when more than 1 inch thick,
these dragged or mixed surfaces should be designated as road-mix. The
recent and successful innovation of dragging surface treatments during
205
construction make them approach the road-mix type in texture, appear

ance, thickness, and smooth riding qualities.
Bituminous surface treatments have been extensively used in the North
and South Atlantic States, Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, and Florida on
macadams, and in more recent years on gravels, sand-clays, chert, and
traffic-bound surfaces.
Applications of light liquid bitumens on earth roads have not met with
as much success as heavier bitumens on macadam, gravel and other sub
stantial bases. In certain instances on selected soils which were stabilized
naturally or artificially by coarse granular particles such as sand or stone
screenings they have improved the road surface. In this, as well as in all
other bituminous types, except those constructed with emulsions, the
bituminous materials should not be applied to wet surfaces. With emul
sions, moist surfaces tend to help coating the aggregates.
Bituminous Road-Mixes. — The term "road-mix" is used to desig
nate the surface obtained by mechanical mixing of aggregates and bitumen
directly on the road itself. Mixed-in-place is another term widely used
and equally descriptive.
Road-mixes are commonly from 1 to 4 inches in thickness and are
not to be confused with plant-mixes or with dragged surface treatments.
/
( JThe Fine Aggregate Type of bituminous road-mix utilizes sand or
blow-sand for aggregate ; most sections are in the experimental stage.
This type of mixture should not be confused with the graded aggre
gate types. At first, because of the considerable quantity of sand in the
graded aggregate types, one would be inclined to classify them as fine
aggregate mixtures. But as stated before, the fine aggregate mixtures
employ sandy aggregates of inferior quality and extreme fineness. The
aggregate is always the local material available on the road itself or in
close proximity thereto.
Sand-clays, sand-gravels, fine clay-gravel or blow-sands, the aggre
gates in which are much finer and of poorer quality than those of the
graded or coarse aggregate types, have been built in limited areas. Ex
perimental work on them is still in progress and they offer a potential
field for needed development.
Attention is invited to experimental work in South Carolina, Florida,
North Carolina, California, Nevada, Minnesota, and to extensive usage
in Long Island, New York.
i' /J The
Graded Aggregate Type is usually composed of gravel or stone
and sand uniformly graded from a maximum of about 1 inch size to dust.
These aggregates are as found in the road, as added to the road surface,
or as added and mixed with aggregate already in the road surface. The
type is extensively used in the Western states, the Southwest and parts
of the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, where it is known by such names as
"oil mix," "oil process," "mulch retread," and other designations.
The Coarse Aggregate Type, or macadam aggregate type, as the name
BITUMINOUS SURFACE COURSES 207
implies, is composed of aggregates whose characteristics are similar to

those commonly used in macadams. They must be hard and durable, and
preferably angular, such as crushed stone, slag, and crushed gravel.
The aggregates are uniformly graded from those passing the lj^-inch
screen to those retained on the % or J^-inch. This type, also widely
known as "re-tread," is built principally east of the Mississippi river and
west of the Atlantic coast states. Indiana, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, and
Tennessee have each several hundred miles.
Bituminous Plant-Mixes. — Plant-mix, as used here, means the

utilization of fixed or portable plants to prepare low cost surfacing mix
tures of bitumen and aggregates. They may be hot-lay surfaces or cold-
lay surfaces.
The object of jriant mixing is to insure closer control of proportions
and uniformity of mix than is possible by mixing in place on the road
surface. As a result any plant mixing produces more fully coated aggre
gates than road mixing, but requirements in specifications should not be
so severe as to discourage contractors and manufacturers from developing
plant-mixes at low cost. The process allows the use of heavier grades of
bitumen than when mixing in place on the road surface.
Whether or not the asserted extra cost of plant-mixing really exists,
and if it does, if it is justifiable, has not been fully established, but
experience and trends indicate its growing popularity where cost of
aggregates and hauling is low, or where the road needs surfacing with
aggregates which are of better quality than those found in the existing
surface.
Cold plant-mix types are steadily gaining in favor and will largely
displace the road-mix types except for relatively small jobs or for loca
tions where plant operations are not available. For this purpose we recom
mend a quick curing bitumen which permits the placing and rapid finish
ing of coarse aggregate types as contrasted with the rather slower finish
ing materials in road-mix work. The same is true with the graded aggre
gate types.
Bituminous (Penetration) Macadam Surfaces. — Bituminous or

so-called penetration macadam, was officially recognized as a surfacing in
1912 by the Association for Standardizing Paving Specifications. Their
definition was, "The bituminous penetration macadam surface consists of
crushed stone and bituminous material incorporated together by pene
tration methods."
The New England section of the United States, especially the states
of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, has long been a stronghold of pene
tration macadam construction. While the New York state roads (al
though not the state highway system) comprise a greater mileage of
penetration macadam construction than any other single type, yet in most
other parts of the United States comparatively little penetration macadam
is being built. This is undoubtedly due to the growing use of various road-
mix surfacings, which enables surfaces of extreme smoothness to be ob
tained with a minimum of labor. The best of the penetration macadam
roads of the New England district are very smooth, even at speeds as
high as 65 miles per hour, but have not the perfect smoothness which
results from bladed work.
While the cost of the entire depth of surfacing in these states exceeds
that designated as low cost, nevertheless, the penetration top course does
fall within the scope of the term and can be laid on an existing water-
bound macadam, gravel, top-soil road, or other suitable base.
This type of construction requires that top course aggregate be kept
reasonably free from dust.
W hile penetration macadam is used principally as a wearing course, it
has a very definite place as a foundation course used in the process of
stage construction. For example, in Ohio, on traffic bound surfaces, the
recommended policy is : first treatment with non-volatile liquid bitumen
which does not form a mat and which permits of the addition of aggre
gate as needed to stabilize the surface. Next, a penetration course is
frequently applied to give the structural strength required but not with
view to being the ultimate surface principally because of the soft char
acter of the aggregate. Some settlement takes place under traffic and
when final stability has been obtained, a wearing course of either road-mix
or plant-mix is placed which retains the smooth condition desired. In
addition to the straight penetration method, there is a type known as the
modified penetration type, using soft stone where the voids are filled with
screenings, dry, and compaction is obtained on the filled surface. Once it
is smooth, the surface is swept so as to show. a mosaic character and then
an application of bitumen is made at the rate of one gallon per square
yard, using a medium curing material. This penetrates to a depth of about
1 in. to V/> in. after which a seal coat of a rapid curing material is given
with crushed aggregate for cover.
OILING OF EARTH ROADS

Treating earth road surfaces with asphaltic oil can best be approached
by giving a discussion of the materials encountered and employed. Two
widely different types of natural soil roads, namely, clay and silt or sand
are susceptible to entirely different types of treatment with bituminous
materials. As might be expected, intermediate types of a silt (sand)
clay nature are susceptible to a variation between the two extremes.
A systematic investigation of oiled earth roads of various lengths
in different localities of Missouri was undertaken in 1928. Condition
surveys were made in the spring and fall of 1931.
The first conclusion drawn was to the effect that road oil of the types
included in the study is an efficient material for use in the treatment of
earth surfaces to provide all weather roads, provided applications are made
to suitably prepared surfaces, adequately drained and repeated as needed.
Also adequate drainage, both subsurface and surface, is essential to the
satisfactory service of oiled earth surfaces. Adequate drainage on flat
topography requires greater crown than is ordinarily provided on graded
earth sections. It is interesting to note, however, that lack of drainage
is about the only condition that seems to be able to prevent a fair return
on the investment in a road oiling job. The fact should be kept in mind,
in the discussion or illustration of defects, that, in the main, the effects
of practically all unfavorable conditions are generally localized and render
only relatively small areas of surface inconvenient to traffic. Oiling the
surface is, however, a splendid poor drainage detector, practically the
only areas failing completely to carry traffic being traceable to lack of
drainage. It is sometimes a problem to convince maintenance and con
struction operators that minor lack of drainage such as small shallow
dips and lack of crown, such as will permit the retention of water puddles
on the surface, constitute poor drainage. Slight exaggeration of crown
will go far to eliminate trouble from this source.
General profile is not a factor affecting the service of oiled earth
surfaces except as variations may influence the efficiency of drainage and
the character of the sub-grade material.
The type of oil, as regards basic crude source, is not a major factor,
all types yielding fairly satisfactory results with all types of soils, other
conditions being favorable. Some oils give somewhat better results than
others with particular soil types but all give fairly satisfactory results.
Variations to regular earth road oiling may be observed in different
places, such as Illinois (Sangamon County), and Minnesota. We shall not
discuss these only to state that the difference lies in the spreading of a
little sprinkling of sand or gravel over the treated surface, or the blading
of a "blotter" of earth back over the surface from previously placed
windrows on the edge of the roadway.
Materials. — The whole trend of surface treatments is toward the
development of more durable and easier maintained roadways with con
tinued betterment after each retreatment. Light oils of low viscosity have
but little cementing value, hence deteriorate rapidly and require frequent
renewal. Consequently, the use of asphaltic material purely for palliative
dust laying purposes is recommended only for special cases.
These special cases are certain locations such as, (1) a road where
traffic is light and it is desired to retain the loose condition of the sur
face, (2) a road that is to be used for a short period of time only, and
(3) a road having an aggregate surface that contains a large amount of
lumpy clay or a road surface into which aggregate is being worked. In
the first case the purpose of oiling is to simply lay the dust. In the
second instance the purpose is to hold the surface in shape for a length
of time sufficient to carry a fairly heavy volume of traffic and yet not
form a mat. In the third case it is desired to build a foundation gradually
for a surface treatment and to penetrate the earthy or clayey lumps in
the surface. This renders them friable and easily broken down by drag
ging. For this purpose the application of low viscosity, non-volatile oil,
applied several months prior to surface treatment operations will con
dition the lumps of clay so they may be broken and mixed uniformly
with the surface.
Oils. — The problem of selecting the right kind of asphaltic ma
terial for treatment of various types of soils has been gradually per
fected until, at the present time, we are able to definitely recommend
certain grades for certain soils. While there are an infinite variety of
soils suitable for oiling, only a few varieties of asphaltic material are
necessary, depending upon the character of manipulation needed to ac
complish the penetration and waterproofing of the dirt surface.
Dust-laying oils contain only a small amount of binder or asphaltic
cement, as it is desired specifically that no mat coat be formed. They
should have high penetrating qualities and be absorbed in a short time
without the application of cover.
Material SC-1 is recommended by the Asphalt Institute as a cold
application for dust prevention, and occasionally SC-2.
Specification for Liquid Asphaltic Road Materials
Specification Designation SC-1* SC-2
Water and sediment, %, less than 2 2

Flash point, degs. F., over ISO 200
Furol viscosity at 77 degs. F 20 to ISO
Furol viscosity at 122 degs. F 200 to 320
Distillation to 437 degs. F., %, less than 2
Distillation to 600 degs. F., %, less than IS
Distillation to 680 degs. F., %, less than 50 25
Float test on residue at 122 degs. F., less than. . 50 over 50

Solubility of residue in CS,, %, over 99 99
This provides for a product of very low viscosity. It may also be used
for initial treatments in the progressive method of mat formation on
soils or fine grained aggregates where gradual improvement is to extend
over a' number of years with subsequent treatments employing more vis
cous asphaltic road materials. This product is not intended to serve as
a cementing or hardening medium.
The lighter oils cannot be expected to stand up so well in the regions
• Within the viscosity limits specified, the Pacific Coast Producers will, when required, furnish
a material with a maximum Furol viscosity limit of 40 at 77° F., formerly designated 30-40
Road Oil.
where the soil carries considerable moisture, as in the more arid regions,
nor in the bond as adequately as heavier oils where the traffic is heavy.
The danger lies in using too little oil in either condition, and too much
presents a danger. Therefore, a good practical or analytical soil survey
furnishes basic information for application.
Soils. — The uniformity of penetration is controlled by the uniformity,
texture, and density of the several layers of a soil type.
Soils lacking cohesion and inclined to absorb water very readily in
quantities sufficient to cause rapid loss of stability (represented by friable
silts), may be more effectively treated with oils having ductile and co
hesive bases. Soils which possess cohesion in a high degree and which,
when in a stiff or plastic state, do not absorb additional water unless
manipulated (represented by clays), do not require treatment with oils
having cohesive bases, as water-proofing without binding will insure fairly
satisfactory results. Soils which possess properties from each of the
groups mentioned above, but cannot be placed definitely in either one, may
give better results if the quantity of oil applied is increased.
It might be of interest in this connection to give a brief statement of
the physical characteristics of the soil types in which we are interested.
For the purpose of getting the picture that we desire, we may for our
purpose forget for the moment the very excellent and detailed classifica
tion as outlined by the soil scientists and create a rough classification of
our own consisting of three general classes, clays, silts and sandy or
gravelly soils.
The clays are largely composed of particles less than .005 m.m. in
diameter.They possess high cohesion due to surface tension between such
small particles and the moisture in the voids, or, in other words, due to
the surface tension of adsorbed water. This adsorbed water is held firmly
at all temperatures up to the point of fusion of the clay particles.
Clays have no appreciable internal friction, as the particles are so
finely divided that they offer very little resistance to movement one over
the other. All physical stability in soils is dependent upon the summation
of cohesion and internal friction. Clays possess practically no internal
friction, but do possess abundant cohesion if the moisture content does
not exceed the normal adsorbed moisture. For stability, then, the moisture
content must be prevented from increasing, by the treatment with road oil
or by other means.
When dry, clay soils do, however, resist in varying degrees the en
trance of water, because the cohesion developed by the presence of the
first small quantity of water as just described tends to hold the particles
tightly together. The interstices present in this condition are so small and
the rate of infiltration so reduced that the mass is nearly sealed against
additional water until some puddling or manipulation multiplies the con
tacts and disturbs the set of the particles, with the resulting entrance of
sufficient water to produce plasticity.
In treating non-capillary clay soils, the proper preparation of the
surface is all important. After early spring blading and dragging to a
true cross-section the final blading on these soils is finished just soon
enough before treatment operations begin so that traffic may iron out the
surface to the smooth, rubbery character which is typical of such soils.
Liquid asphaltic material MC-1 is recommended by the Asphalt Institute
for the first application on these soils and after complete penetration SC-2
should be applied. The first oil hardens the clay soils and to meet the need
for occasional blading of the surface for maintenance operations and the
prevention of any cracking of a mat that may form, the non-hardening
material known as SC-2 is recommended.
The silts range in particle size from .05 to .005 m.m. in diameter. The
surface area is consequently much less than that of clay. Based on maxi
mum size, the ratio would be about one to one thousand.
Silts are not cohesive as compared to clays, because the contacts be
tween particles are reduced in proportion to the surface area and the
surface tension effect of absorbed moisture is lessened almost to the van
ishing point. At the same time, the particles are still not sufficient in size
to offer much resistance to sliding one over the other and very little
internal friction is developed, although considerably more than is the case
with clays. The combined effect of low cohesion and low internal friction
results in a less stable soil than either the clay or the sandy soil.
Due to the relatively large sized pore spaces present in the silt soil,
water percolates readily and is also drawn up to a very great degree of
capillary attraction, whereas the reverse is true in the case of clays.
Silts, due to lack of cohesion, do not become plastic in the presence
of water and consequently when confined are relatively stable. They erode
or wash easily, due to porosity and lack of cohesion. Needing cohesion,
they benefit by the addition of a ductile base oil in addition to the water
proofing furnished.
Sandy soils are made up of particles ranging in size from 2 m.m. to
.05 m.m. in diameter. They entirely lack cohesion, but due to the size and
varying with the angularity and roughness of the particles, internal fric
tion is developed to a high degree.
Soils of this type are relatively effective in supporting loads, if con
fined. If unconfined, they may have very low supporting properties and
are very easily eroded. As in the case of silts, the cohesion furnished by
a ductile base oil is an advantage.
For soils of this type of a highly penetrative asphaltic material
the use
is important, as the time for complete absorption is reduced to a matter
of a few hours. Following is the specification of a liquid asphaltic road
material recommended by the Asphalt Institute for silty soils:

Specification for Liquid Asphaltic Road Material MC-1
Specification Designation MC-1
Flash point (open lag.) degs. F
Furol viscosity at 77 degs. F 40 to 150
Furol viscosity at 140 degs. F
Furol viscosity at 180 degs. F
Distillation, per cent by volume:
Total distillate to 437 degs. F., less than 10
Total distillate to 600 degs.F., over 25
Total distillate to 680 degs. F., less than 50
Tests on residue from distillation :

Penetration, 77 degs. F.. 100 g., 5 sec 70 to 300
Ductility at 77 degs. F., more than 60
Per cent soluble in CSa. more than 99.5
This provides for a liquid product of very low viscosity for cold appli
cation, suitable for use as a primer for initial surface treatment of road
surfaces preparatory to the construction of a bituminous surface
treatment job. It is readily and completely absorbed by earth, gravel or
broken stone surfaces, where it hardens in place. While it develops con
siderable cementitiousness in place upon drying, it is not intended to hold
cover of stone chips or gravel.
W hile, as stated, this material is usually applied cold, with normal
summer temperatures, it may be warmed to not over 140 degs. F. in cool
weather to obtain better uniformity. Even at summer temperatures a
slight warming is desirable.
As the texture of the soil approaches that of sand the liquid bitu
minous material to use changes from the MC-1 to the SC-2.
All degrees of mixtures of these three general soil types are possible,
their properties being resultant properties of the mixtures.
The character of the surface immediately prior to the application of
oil is of major importance. Surfaces to which oil is to be applied should
be fairly free of dust and should have the pores open to receive it.
Final preparation of the surface for treating should consist of blading to
eliminate all dust, crust and depressions of the road surface rather than
the movement of loosened material to obtain uniform cross-sections. A
uniformly smooth surface to insure uniform distribution of traffic over
the entire roadway is essential for the proper development of the surface.
If satisfactory surface drainage has been provided, so that water will
not stay on the surface and be forced into and through the oil surface
by the action of traffic, the next important requisite to the successful oil
treatment of earth is the proper condition of the surface as regards mois
ture content. For a successful oil treatment it is necessary that' the oil
penetrate and become intimately mixed with all soil particles by the knead
ing action of traffic. The mere presence of the proper quantity of oil on
or near the surface is not sufficient. All particles must be coated or sat
urated with oil. The condition of the soil must be such that the. oil can
enter and mix with all the particles, either by direct penetration or by
manipulation and kneading under traffic. The presence of the normal
moisture content promotes the condition just stated in that the moisture
keeps open the pore spaces and facilitates the uniform distribution of the
oil. By its gradual recession or elimination, the moisture promotes uni
formity and completeness of the contact of the oil with all particles even
though the rate of penetration is retarded to some extent. The character
of surface prior to oiling, as previously suggested, is in a very large
measure dependent upon the moisture content. The presence of dust is
due to lack of moisture. Most clays exhibit volume change with varia
tions of moisture content. On drying, excessive shrinkage takes place,
resulting in the formation of shrinkage cracks and a hardened crust sep
arated into blocks by the cracks. This condition is referred to as "hard
and crusted" under surface condition survey ratings. The crust has be
come densified and hardened and the particles which, in a moist condition,
were separated by films of moisture, are now drawn into more intimate
contact through the stresses exerted by capillary pressure as the water is
eliminated. The major portion of the area of the surface is too dense and
hard to receive the oil and as a result it enters the cracks between the
surface blocks to remain in concentrated form or to distribute itself in
the more moist and consequently more receptive underlayers. The blocks
of hardened surface receive some oil by penetration around their surfaces,
but exhibit a dry and barren interior. If the blocks of crust are not too
hard, the kneading of traffic may tend to remedy the condition by helping
to redistribute the oil present in the cracks, but under extreme conditions
the blocks remain hard and unreceptive. The impact of traffic often causes
the surface-coated but unpenetrated blocks to be displaced, starting the
familiar condition of raveling and potholing.
Lack of moisture, in the case of soils which have lower volume change
with loss of moisture, such as the silts or sandy soils, is not so serious, as
the pores vacated by moisture are occupied to a considerable extent by air
and are open to the entrance of oil. Dust forms rapidly, however, on this
type of soil. If this dust is not penetrated so thoroughly as to bind it to
the underlying soil, it will cause serious peeling and raveling ; and barren
spots, insulated by dust layers against penetration, will later pit and rut
or ravel.
Owing to weather and traffic conditions, the surface to be treated can
be maintained in the ideal condition for the reception of oil for only a
very short period of time, usually not more than 24 hours.
Best results are obtained on those sections which are bladed the same
day the oil is applied. When blading at this time the roadbed should be
cut down to the zone of normal moisture content and the treatment fol
low before the moisture recedes from the exposed surface.
Contrary to general expectation, there is no apparent benefit to be

gained by raising the temperature of the oil above that required for uni
form distribution. Increasing the temperature of the oil only increases
the tendency to flow along or from the surface due to decrease in viscosity,
and is detrimental rather than beneficial.
A retarded rate of penetration tends to improve the uniformity of
distribution of the oil, thereby promoting the intimate mixture of oil and
soil particles desired.
The presence of untreated earth surfaces adjacent to oiled earth sur
faces reduces to a varying extent the effectiveness of the oiled surfaces,
particularly if the untreated surfaces are manipulated, as the untreated
earth and dust tend to adulterate and deaden the treated surface. All
surfaces, if possible, should be oiled full width.
There are strong indications that the serviceable life of the treated
road is materially shortened if traffic during the first month after applica
tion is not sufficient to furnish the desired kneading action to thoroughly
incorporate the oil into the surface. Oiled sections, that have been closed
to traffic on account of other construction activities at each end, show
extensive dusting in one to two months after application, the oil turning
a light brown in color and being dead in appearance, almost entirely devoid
of binding properties. The same tendency is almost always exhibited on
traffic lanes which, due to excessive roughness, are avoided by traffic early
in their life. The traveled lanes will remain in good condition and the
balance of the surface will dust and ravel extensively. Cover material
consisting of a thin layer of clean river sand has been applied with
beneficial results. An excess, however, must be avoided unless succeeding
applications are made to build up an appreciable mat.
Construction Methods. — Special attention is and should be given

to the preparation of the subgrades of roads to be oiled. The road is
brought to the proper cross-section and kept there by maintenance with a
motor grader. The best results are obtained when the oil is applied as
soon as possible after the road has been brought to this condition, pro
viding there is no appreciable amount of dust on the surface. The final
blading usually exposes soil with the normal amount of moisture present,
this condition being especially conducive to uniformly excellent penetra
tion of the oil. As the capillary moisture recedes from the surface, it is
replaced by the oil, enabling it to come into intimate contact with the soil
particles.
Should an obnoxious quantity of dust be present on the surface,
the
usual practice is> to wait for a rain to consolidate it. If
this procedure is
not practicable, as much dust is bladed to the side of the road ;as is
possible without disturbing the compacted surface. A rain during an
oiling operation interrupts the oiling only until the road has dried suffi
ciently to support the distributor without rutting.
In general, the quantity of oil to apply should be as follows:
For dust laying at the rate of 0.3 to 0.7 gallon per sq. yd. according
to the absorptive character of the surface. A second and even a third
application of 0.2 to 0.5 gallon per sq. yd. may be required in subsequent
months.
For silty soils a summary of surface oiling would be for the first year :
1. Preparing the surface by careful blading and dragging.
2. Final blading immediately before first application of asphaltic ma
terial.
3. First application of MC-1 at 0.5 gallon per sq. yd., and allowing
to be absorbed without cover.
4. Second application of MC-1 at 0.25 gallon per sq. yd. as soon as
first is completely absorbed.
5. Several weeks later, a third application of MC-1 using 0.25 gallon
per sq. yd. making a total application of 1 gallon in all.
Subsequent operations in following years should consist of amounts
at the rate of 0.25 gallon per sq. yd. each time as required.
For Clay soils a summary of operations would be :
1. Preparation of surface by blading and dragging.

2. Priming the surface, using material MC-1 at the rate of0.3 gallon
per sq. yd. without cover.
3. .Second application using material SC-2 at the rate of 0.3 to 0.5 gal
lon per sq. yd.
4. If possible, cover with fifty pounds of gravelly sand, followed by
dragging until thoroughly mixed, or use dust which has been bladed
to side.
5. Reblading as needed to maintain smooth surface.
The following spring a retreatment is advisable. Material SC-2 is
applied at the rate of 0.2 to 0.3 gallon per sq. yd. accordingly as needed
to liven and renew surface. A light cover coat is advisable.
For sandy soils a summary of surface oiling operations would be :
1. Preparation of the surface by blading and dragging.
2. Blading to roadside about one inch depth of surface just before
initial application of asphaltic material.
3. Application of about 0.7 gallon per sq. yd. of material SC-2.
4. Blading back of earth previously removed, and continuance of
blading until surface is smooth and even.
5. Several months later, scarifying of surface, reblading and repeat
ing of operations one to four.
6. Make retreatments as necessary.
No apparent benefitis obtained by raising the temperature of the oil
for application above that required to insure against clogging of the dis
tribution nozzles. Increasing the temperature of the oil facilitates and
increases run-off from the surface due to decreased viscosity and is detri
mental rather than beneficial.
Cover material is used only if it is found necessary to soak up some

of the oil because of extremely slow penetration. If puddles of oil form
on the surface and remain, then earth is added as a blotter. Otherwise no
cover material is added to oiled earth roads.
Ordinary traffic is detoured around oiling jobs, being returned to the
road only when all the oil has been absorbed. In addition to the hazard
and nuisance caused by the slick condition and the spattering of fresh
oil under traffic and the accompanying interference with the smooth and
continuous operation of the oiling by traffic, a serious effect of early
traffic on a freshly oiled road is the interruption and disturbance of uni
form absorption of the oil by the surface. If no detour is available for
the accommodation of traffic, the road is oiled by halves. In these cir
cumstances, some of the traffic will be forced to use the freshly oiled side,
rutting or marring to some extent the newly oiled subgrade.
The oil is discharged from pressure distributors at about 35 pounds
pressure. The temperature of the oil as applied varies from 120° F. to
200° F. A good rule is to obtain an oil temperature of at least 140°
F. The permissible moisture in the earth is limited to the amount present
when ruts do not develop under the weight of the distributor. The quan
tity of oil per square yard is controlled by computing from the measured
gallonage of the truck-load the length of the road to be covered by the
load. This distance may be chained off and flag-staked for the truck-
driver to reach at uniform speed while distributing the truck-load.
Maintenance Methods. — Dragging or blading of a good oiled earth
surface is generally considered harmful by engineers in Missouri. When
reshaping is necessary, a retreatment should be given the oiled surface.
A road that is to be reoiled is usually gone over by the Baker disc
prior to the application of oil. This machine consists of sets of steel discs
set at a slight angle to the center-line of the road so that the weight rests
on the discs. The discs turn as the machine proceeds, resulting in a row
of narrow longitudinal cuts produced by shear. This action does not
produce or permit progressive skinning or peeling. The axles on which
the discs are mounted can be raised or lowered as may be necessary to
make more shallow or deeper cuts in the surface. Those not familiar with
this piece of equipment will be interested to find that it furnishes a very
efficient method for smoothing out almost any type of bituminous surface.
The disc is followed immediately by a multiple blade maintainer which
mixes the loosened material and moves it to any depressions. A motor
grader follows this machine and finishes the smoothing and leveling
nrocess. Thus with one passage, the humps are removed, the depressions
are filled and the entire surface is smoothed. The loose material will rebind
with the surface if reoiling follows this operation within a reasonable
length of time. Most of the fine shavings will, however, be blown or
washed away or lashed off the roadway by traffic if much time elapses
between the smoothing operation and the application of the oil.
Surfacedefects of limited area are, when necessary, maintained by

patching. A
mixture of earth and the type of oil used in the original oiling
are used for filling material. The hole to be filled is cleaned of all loose
and foreign material and the patching material is tamped in and given to
traffic.
The successful patching of a surface of this kind seems to be largely
dependent upon the curing of the patching material prior to use. Mix
tures made by hand can be stockpiled for long periods. Another method
for obtaining patching material in a cured condition, with a minimum of
effort, is by digging* a pit to a depth at which soil containing the normal
amount of moisture is reached. This pit can be filled with oil and nature
does the work. When patching material is desired, it is readily obtained
by digging from the pit and is available the year round because it never
freezes.
Extensive defects may be successfully patched, if desired, by ex
cavating to a depth of about 6 in. and filling with a mixture of chat and
asphalt cut-back with kerosene, following with a light covering of dry
earth.
Conclusions Drawn from an Oiled Road Investigation*

Missouri Experimental Work
1. Road oil of the types included in this study is an efficient material

for use in the treatment of earth surfaces to provide all-weather roads,
provided applications are made to suitable surfaces, adequately drained,
and repeated as needed.
2. The of oil, as regards basic crude source, is not a major
type
factor, all types yielding fairly satisfactory results with all types of soils,
other conditions being favorable.
3. Adequate drainage, both subsurface and surface, is essential to the
satisfactory service of oiled earth surfaces. Adequate drainage, on flat
topography, requires greater crown than ordinarily constructed on graded
earth sections.
4. General profile is not a factor affecting the service of oiled earth
surfaces except as it may influence the efficiency of drainage and the
character of the subgrade material.
5. To reduce the effects of erosion on noncohesive types of soils, oil
should be applied on the full width of roadway.
6. All types of soil previously discussed can be efficiently treated with
road oil.
7. The soil type is an effective factor because of the physical char
acteristics of the various soil layers exposed to the application of oil. The
physical characteristics of the subgrade soils affect the final results accord
ing to whether the soils require only the water-proofing qualities of the oil
•From Public Roads, official publication of the U. S. Bureau of Public Roads.

or in addition require an increase in their cohesive properties. The con

dition of the surface with respect to dust, hardness of crust, and moisture
content at the time of application of the oil is directly reflected in the
physical characteristics of the soils. The uniformity of penetration is
controlled hy the uniformity, texture, and density of the several layers
of a soil type.
8. Soils lacking cohesion and inclined to absorb water very readily
in quantities sufficient to cause rapid loss of stability may be more effec
tively treated with oils having ductile and cohesive bases. Soils which
possess cohesion in a high degree and which, when in a stiff or plastic
state, do not absorb additional water unless manipulated, do not require
treatment with oils having cohesive bases, as waterproofing without bind
ing will insure fairly satisfactory results. Soils which possess properties
from each of the groups mentioned above, but cannot be placed definitely
in either one, may give better results if the quantity of oil applied is
increased.
9. The character ofthe surface immediately prior to application of
the oil is of major importance. Surfaces to which oil is to be applied
should be fairly free from dust and should have pore spaces open to
receive the oil. Final preparation of surface for treating should consist
of blading to eliminate all dust, crust, and depressions of the road surface,
rather than the movement of loosened material to obtain uniform cross-
section. A uniformly smooth surface to insure uniform distribution of
traffic over the entire roadway is essential for proper development of the
surface.
10. The presence of sufficient moisture in the surface is essential in
order that the pore spaces be kept open and free to receive the oil. Sur
faces free from moisture tend to become dusty and hardened, causing non
uniform and selective penetration.
11. Weather conditions are a factor to the extent that they may
influence the moisture content of the surface, the rate of penetration, and
the quantity of oil, if loss occurs due to rainfall immediately following
application.
12. Within
the ranges observed in this study there did not seem to be
any significant effect of air temperatures except that they might have
served to speed or retard changes in the moisture content of the soil.
13. There was no apparent benefit obtained by raising the tempera
ture of the oil for application above that required for uniform distribu
tion. Increasing the temperature of the oil increased the tendency to
flow along or from the surface by decreasing the viscosity of the oil and
was detrimental rather than beneficial.
14. A retarded rate of penetration tends to improve the uniformity
of distribution of the oil, thereby promoting the intimate mixture of oil
and soil particles which is desired. Nonuniform penetration, which usually
accompanied a rapid rate of penetration, failed to produce the results

desired.
15. The presence of untreated earth surfaces adjacent to oiled earth
surfaces reduces to a varying extent the effectiveness of oiled surfaces;
particularly if the untreated surfaces are manipulated, as the untreated
earth tends to deaden the treated surfaces.
16. Nonmutilative traffic is highly beneficial to oiled earth surfaces,
as such traffic tends to knead the oil into intimate contact with the soil
particles. This intimate association is a primary requisite for successful
treatment of earth with oil.
17. Mutilative traffic seriously impairs the service rendered. Such
traffic should be prevented or minimized; to the extent possible.
18. Dragging or blading of a good oiled earth surface is harmful. N
When reshaping is necessary a re-treatment must be given to restore the

oiled surface.
BITUMINOUS SURFACE TREATMENTS

Many road systems already contain large mileages of untreated sur
faces which are in excellent condition to serve as a base to receive surface
treatment. Surface treatment of these roads will improve their service
to traffic and prepare them to cany increased traffic volume. As traffic
increases in volume, maintenance of an untreated surface becomes ex
ceedingly costly. Surface treatment will assist in stabilizing maintenance
cost by eliminating the necessity of frequent dragging and by retarding
the loss of surface material. In many areas where the supply of materials
for replacing the untreated surface is exceedingly limited, conservation of
this material justifies the expense of surface treatment regardless of the
traffic demand.
The subject of bituminous specifications is receiving special attention
by the Bureau of Public Roads, the Asphalt Institute, and various tar
products producers, as well as the American Society for Testing Ma
terials. These agencies will ultimately develop specification standards for
these materials.
They believe, however, that it is important to incorporate them in a
specification which will have reference not only to bituminous materials,
but to the selection and quality of the non-bituminous or mineral materials,
and the details of construction methods. On state and county roads sur
face treatments have been used quite extensively.
In city residential sections where light traffic only has to be cared for,
it has been found that surface treatments as outlined herein solves city
problems very satisfactorily.
Prior to any low cost improvement of a roadway, a survey should be
made at least 90 days in advance of the treatment, and immediate steps
taken to bring the roadways to a proper section and good riding grade.
It is poor economy to put a good low cost road on a poor riding surface.
In addition
to this sectioning there are bound to be areas in which
the common factor of stability is far below the average for the road.
These areas must be stabilized with aggregate so that the entire road
presents as uniform a single type as possible.
In low cost county roadways there are two types to be considered
which must be taken up separately :
1. Those well-compacted and solid types from which all loose ma
terials can be swept satisfactorily.
2. Those poorly compacted types, such as loose gravel, chert, cinder,
etc., which cannot be swept satisfactorily.
BITUMINOUS SURFACE TREATMENTS ON SOLID BASES

Being already hardened and consolidated, bonded surfaces do not re
quire as much priming operation as loose surfaces, but, in all other re
spects the treatments are similar. Repeated blading and dragging of the
road surface should be carried forward during the spring months. It is
usually desirable to allow this type of untreated surfacing to go through
one or more winters in order that it may obtain the proper stability.
Well Compacted and Solid Bases. — The surface should be thor

oughly swept to remove all dust, dirt, trash, etc., the swept-off mate
rial being left in a windrow at the margin of the road to prevent the
prime material flowing from the crown into the gutters. This will also
permit the building up of a. heavier section along the edges, instead
of losing the bituminous material which otherwise would dribble off
into the gutters.
For original treatments using fluid bituminous products the applica
tions consist of a primer to harden and consolidate the surface followed
by a single seal coat which is covered with aggregate, broom dragged and
rolled! Y^Tiere hot bitumen is used for the seal coat the process consists
of the griming operation, followed by two applications of asphalt cement
with appropriate sizes of cover material, each one thoroughly rolled. With
emulsified asphalts usually 2 applications are made for the seal coat. Both
are dragged and rolled. A prime coat is as essential for emulsion treat
ments as with other bituminous materials. The construction processes
otherwise are similar.
Prime Coat. — The rate of application of prime material should vary
with the porosity of the base material. As a general rule, 0.2 gal. per
sq. yd. should be the low limit and 0.5 gal. should be the top limit.
The function of a prime coat is to penetrate into the base and to bind
together the penetrated surface. This will give a bituminous character to
the surface of the base to which the second coat can more readily adhere.
The amount of bitumen to use will depend entirely upon the character
and condition of the base. Some bases are verv dense, will not absorb
over 0.2 gal. per sq. yd. The exact amount can only be determined by
experience and any quantity in excess of what the base will absorb isa
vaste.
The of emulsions for prime coats on solid bases is not generally
use
However, it is claimed that emulsions may be used if the sur
face is first watered or is in a very moist condition.
/Accepted.
In the use of tars the preference seems to be for no cover material
on the prime ; simply allow penetration and keep the road closed. If the
road cannot be closed, a small' amount of cover material must be added,
say from 10 to 15 lb. per sq. yd.
In of liquid asphaltic products for the prime, the preference
the use
is for rolling in from 10 to 15 lb. of cover material. With the road prop
erly primed, it is best to allow from 2 to 3 days to elapse prior to the
application of the seal coat. This allows the material to properly pene
it,
trate and set, and in case traffic has to be turned on any weak spots
will show up prior to the sealing and may be repaired.
Covering Materials. — Covering material shall be clean, hard, tough,
crushed gravel or clean, tough, durable limestone, trap rock, or other
;
suitable material having percentage of wear of not more than five (5)
a
;
or clean, crushed slag weighing not less than seventy (70) pounds per
cubic foot when compacted to refusal by shaking.
The aggregate shall be uniform in quality, free from dust, dirt, clay,
or other foreign matter, and uniformly graded from in. to in. in size.
Y%
J4
The use of gravel other than crushed lesssatisfactory, as does
is
it
not usually develop adhesion of bituminous materials and cover to
a
sufficiently thorough degree.
Application Seal Coat and Cover Material. —Usually the roadway
of
has become dirty with clay or other foreign matter upon the surfaces and
sweeping considered necessary prior to the application of the seal coat.
is
Rates of application of bitumen for the seal coat should be from 0.25 to _
0.5 gal. per sq. yd. for emulsions apply from 0.33 to 0.4 gal. per sq.
;
yd. twice, spreading cover chips between applications.

The cover material should be applied either by hand or spreading
machines and dragged with long base drag, broom drag, or brush
a
a
a
drag as soon as possible after applying cold seal coat. The sooner roll
a
ing can start on the cover material the better the final results will be
if
the seal coat hot application bitumen; cold application material

if
is
is
a
used no rolling need be done. One of the biggest faults found on this
work insufficient rolling or compaction when using hot application
is
bitumens. Be careful not to break up the edges, however. Dragging

is
usually omitted on hot applications.

Allow 5% of cover material per sq. yd. for whip off, when estimating
quantities required. well never to stint cover material. For the
It
is
various materials used in covering seal coats, the following amounts should
be used :
Slag 25 to 40 lb. per sq. yd.

Stone 30 to 50 lb. per sq. yd.
Crushed gravel 33 to 55 lb. per sq. yd.
Experience has demonstrated that in the portion of the country where

freezing does not occur, the cover material on secondary roads may bf
reduced to 30 lb. per sq. yd. for slag and other materials in proportion.
A low-cost surface treatment of the above type can be constructed for
a contract price not in excess of 20c per sq. yd. in most sections of the
country. It will carry from 300 to 750 vehicles per day. At the end of
a year it should have a follow-up seal coat, after which it is good for
three to four years until traffic increases to such an extent that it is out
side the top limit of the carrying capacity of the base.
It is suggested, however, that in those sections of the country where
heavy frost prevails, it may be better to retreat the bituminous surface
with 0.2 gal. per sq. yd. of cold application material each year rather
than 0.4 or 0.5 over a period of two or three years.
Materials — Aggregates. —Covering

material should be clean, hard,
tough, crushed gravel ; tough, durable limestone, trap rock, or
or clean,
other suitable material having a percentage of wear of not more than five
(5) ; or clean, crushed slag weighing not less than seventy (70) pounds
per cubic foot when compacted to refusal by shaking.
The aggregate should be uniform in quality, free from dust, dirt,
clay, or other foreign matter, and uniformly graded from % in. to in.
;n size.
The use of gravel other than crushed is less satisfactory, as it does
not usually develop adhesion of bituminous materials and cover to a
sufficiently thorough degree.
Bituminous Materials. —The bitumens used for surface treatments have
varied all the way from thin bitumens applied cold up to heated materials
applied at 250° or 300° F. For the more fluid cold applications sand may
be used for cover, but heavier and hot applications require the coarser
materials. Frequently bids are asked on tar or asphalt, either hot or cold,
to secure competitive prices. Some state specifications are written to
include these several classes of bitumen and various classes of cover ma
terial. In some instances a definite class of bitumen and cover are speci
fied and a single class of bitumen or cover may be used from year to year
even though several alternatives may appear in a specification. The re
verse is also true, some states using either tar or asphalt, or1 tar and
asohalt on various projects. The reader is urged to study the section on
"Interpretation of Tests" in the chapter on Testing before attempting to
adopt specifications for bituminous materials.
Prime Coat. — The prime coat to be used, on such surfaces as gravel,

water-bound macadam, chert, shale, sand, clay, topsoil, etc., should be
either :
(1) Tar, grade T.C.1 or 2 (cold)
(2) Asphalt, grade MC-1 (cold)

For prime treatment of "well-compacted and solid bases," tar is more
generally preferred, but wholly satisfactory results are also reported as
having been obtained by use of the asphalt primes for which specifications
are given.
These materials shall meet the following physical and chemical re
quirements :
(1) Tar, grades T.C. 1 and 2 (cold).

Minimum Maximum
Specific Gravity at 25V250 C 1.11 1.18
Water, per cent by volume 2
Specific Viscosity, Engler
50 cc at 40° C. T.C. 1 8 13
50 cc at 40° C. T.C. 2 13 \ii
Distillation 100 grams
Per cent by weight to 170° C 7
Distillation Residue
Softening Point °C. (R & B) 60
Total Distillate at 300° C.
Specific Gravity 38°/38° C 0.96
Total Bitumen (Soluble in CSa)
Per cent by weight 89 98
Application Temperature "F. (approx.) 60 150
METHOD OF TESTING
Tests of the properties of the material shall be made in accordance
with the following methods :
Water— A. S.T.M. Standard Method D95-30; A.S.T.M. Standards. 1930,
Part II, p. 556.
Specific gravity—A.S.T.M. Standard Method D70-27; A.S.T.M. Stand
ards, 1930. Part II, p. 664.
Specific viscosity — U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 1216,
Revised Sept.. 1928, p. 85.
Distillation test— A.S.T.M. Standard Method D20-30; A.S.T.M. Stand
ards, 1930, Part II, p. 642.
Specific gravity of distillate— A.S.T.M. Tentative Method D38-30T ;
Proc. A.S.T.M., 1930, Part I, p. 1152.
Note — Since specific gravity 38°/38° C. is required, the calculation does not
involve the relative density of water at 38° C. and at 15.5° C. and the specific
gravity 38° C./1S" C. shall not be multiplied by the factor 0.99393.
Softening point— A.S.T.M. Standard Method D36-26; A.S.T.M. Stand

ards. 1930, Part II, p. 650.
Bitumen (soluble in carbon disulphide) — A.S.T.M. Standard Method
D4-27; A.S.T.M. Standards, 1930, Part II, p. 633.
(2) Asphalt, grade MC-1 (cold).

Furol Viscosity
Maximum
50 cc at 77° F. 150
Distillation
Per cent by volume to 437° F. 10
Per cent by volume to 600° F. 25
Per cent by volume to 680" F. 50
Tests on Residue
Penetration 77° F., 100 g. 5 sec. 70 300
Ductility 77° F. 60
Soluble in CSa. 99.5
METHOD OF TESTING
* Methods of testing liquid asphaltic materials specified in this book
are as follows :
Flash Point (Open Tag-).— Method approved by the Bureau of Explo

sives as follows :
The Tagliabue open-cup flash tester shall be used.
The instrument shall set firm and level.
Fill the metal of at least 20° F.
bath-cup with water, at a temperature
below the probable flash point of the oil to be tested, leaving room for dis
placement by the glass oil-cup, which is then placed in the bath.
Fill the glass oil-cup with the oil to be tested to within % inch of its
upper level edge. See that there is no oil on the outside of the cup, or upon
its upper level edge, using soft paper to clean the cup.
Remove air bubbles, if any, from the surface of the oil before first trial
for flash is made.
At the proper trial temperatures, notetd below, try for flash with a
small (not over inch) bead of flame by drawing it quickly and without
%
pause across guide-wire from left to right.
the
For materials which may be expected to flash at about 80° F., try for
flash first at 70° F., then 75°, 77°, 79°, 81°, 83°, and 85°. For other ma
terials try for flash first at a temperature about 20° F. below the expected
flash point and then try for flash at every 5° F.
The first or initial flash obtained is called the flash point.
Flash Point (Cleveland Open Cup) .—American Society for Testing
Materials, — Standard Method D92-24.
Furol Viscosity— A.S.T.M. Standard Method D88 30.
Distillation —A.S.T.M. Standard Method D20-30 with the following ex
ceptions :
Sample distilled shall be 200 cc, the weight of this volume to be calcu
lated from specific gravity at 60° F.
Bulb of thermometer shall be immersed to a point inch above bottom
of flask.
Condenser shall be water-cooled.
Distillate shall be collected in 100-cubic-centimeter graduated glass
cylinders and the amount of distillate shall be reported in percentages by
volume of water- free material.
• of methods for which references only have been given will be found
Detailed descriptions
in the following publications: (1) Standard A.S.T.M. methods — A.S.T.M. Book of Standards,
19.10, PartII; (2) Tentative A.S.T.M. methods— A.S.T.M. Book of Tentative Standards, 1929;
(3) Am. Assoc. of State Highway Officials
— U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin No. 1216.
Distillation shall be stoppedF. and the amount of distillate

at 680°
read to the nearest cubic after the condenser has been allowed
centimeter
to drain thoroughly into the receiver. The total residue shall then be poured
immediately into an 8-ounce tin and allowed to air cool without covering
to a temperature below its fuming point suitable for pouring. It shall then
be stirred and poured into proper receptacles for additional tests.
Temperatures observed in the distillation test shall be corrected for the
effect of the altitude of the laboratory in which the test is made. (See
A.S.T.M. standard method D86-30.)
Float Test — American Society for Testing Materials, — Standard Meth
od D139-27.
Penetration— A.S.T.M. Standard Method DS-2S.
Ductility— A.S.T.M. Tentative Method D113-32T.
Solubility in Carbon Disulphide— A.S.T.M. Standard Method D4-27.
Water and Sediment— Standard Method D96-30.
Alternate for asphalt prime (cold) specification used by District of

Columbia.
Minimum Maximum
Gravity (Baume) 12.15 17.5
Flash Point (open cup) "F 135 175
Viscosity (Furol —122° F.) 45 60
Specific Viscosity (Engler 122° F.) 10 15
Specific Gravity (60° F.) 95 .975
Tests on Residue
Distillation
to 600° F 25% 35%
to 680° F 37% 47%
Float Test, seconds 110 175
Penetration 77° F 150 200
Per cent soluble in CSi 99.85
Seal Coat. — The seal coat should be one of the following materials :
(1) Tar, grade T. C. 6 (cold)

(2) Tar, grade T.H. 1 (hot)
(3) Asphalt, RC-1 (cold)
(4) Asphalt,AH-1 (hot)
(5) Asphalt emulsion, A.E. 1 or 3.
Seal is applied either as the second application on surfaces primed with

material meeting specifications under "prime" or as a retreatment on
previously treated surfaces.
Seal is the same, whether for use on "well-compacted and solid bases"
or "poorly compacted and loose bases." The prime coat is expected to
erase all distinction between these two types of bases. Factors such as
rapidity of drying, adherence of cover, moisture in the aggregate, type of
aggregate, susceptibility of final surface to skidding, durability, and econ
omy under particular traffic and climatic conditions would probably influ
ence the choice of material for use in any special case.
Seal coat materials shall meet the following physical and chemical re
quirements :
(1) Tar, grade T.C. 6 (cold).

Minimum
Specific Gravity at 25V25° .. 1.14 1.22
Water, Per Cent by Volume 1.0
Specific Viscosity (Engler)
( 16 22 (a)
SO cc at 50° C
1 26 36 (b)
Distillation 100 Grams
Per Cent by Weight to 170° C 5
Per Cent by Weight to 235° C. 20
Total Distillate to 300" C.
Specific Gravity 38°/38° .. 0.98
Total Bitumen (Soluble in CSi)
Per Cent by Weight . 89 98
Application Temperature °F. (approx.) ..100 150
(a) For use in cold weather

(b) For use in hot weather.
METHOD OF TESTING
Methods of testing are listed under the "Prime Coat" given ahead in
this chapter.
(2) Tar, grade T.H. 1 (hot).

M inimum Maximum
Specific Gravity at 2SV2S" 1.18 1.24
Water, Per Cent by Volume 0
Float Test at 32° C, sees 60 150
Distillation 100 Grams
Total Distillate to 300° C.
Specific Gravity 38°/38° C 1.02
Total Bitumen (Soluble in CSi)
Per Cent by Weight 80 95
Application Temperature °F. (approx.) 175 225
METHOD OF TESTING
Same as methods listed under "Prime Coat" given ahead in this

chapter.
(3) Asphalt, RC-1 (cold).

Minimum Maximum
Flash °F 80
Furol Viscosity
50 cc at 122" F 80 160
Distillation
Per Cent by Volume to 374° F S
Per Cent by Volume to 437° F 12
Tests on Residue
Penetration 77° F. 100 g.. 5 sec 60 150
Ductility 77° F 60
Per Cent Soluble in CS. 99.5
METHOD OF TESTING
Same as methods listed under "Prime Coat" or in the standard tests

of the American Society for Testing Materials.
Alternate for asphalt seal (cold) (specifications used by the District of
Columbia).
Minimum Maximum
Specific Gravity 60° F 0.91
Flash Point (open cup) °F 100 125
Specific Viscosity (122° F.) 18 25
Tests on Residue
Loss 5 hours, 50 gr., 325° F 25%
Penetration 77° F., 50 gr., 1 sec 20
Parafine Scale (Holder) 25%
Adhesiveness (Osborn) 200 sec.
Soluble in CS, 99.0%
(4) Asphalt, AH-1 (hot).

The asphalt cement shall be free from water, shall be homogeneous, and
shall not foam when heated to a temperature of 175° C.
Minimum Maximum
Penetration, 77° F.. 100 g., 5 sec 150 200
Total Bitumen Soluble in CS*, Per Cent 99.5
Proportion of Bitumen Soluble in CCL,
Per Cent 99.0
Ductility, 77° F.. centimeters 30.0
Flash Point. °F 347
Loss at 325° F., 5 hours, Per Cent 2.0
Penetration of Residue at 77° F., 100 g.. 5 sec,
as compared to penetration before heating,
Per Cent 60.0
METHODS OF TESTING
Same as methods listed under "Prime Coat" or in standard tests of

the American Society for Testing Materials.
(5) Asphalt emulsion, grade A.E. 1 (quick setting).

The emulsified asphalt shall consist of asphalt uniformly emulsified
with water and shall not contain more than one per cent total of alkali.
clay, fatty acids and other emulsifying or stabilizing agents, including

petroleum acids. When tested as hereinafter specified, the emulsion shall
conform to the following requirements :
Specific Gravity 25V25" C. (77° 177" F.) Not less than 1.00
Viscosity — Saybolt Furol —60 cc. — at 25° C.
(77° F.) Not more than 55 sec.
Residue at 163° C. (325° F.) 3 hrs.— 50 gr.. . Not less than 55 per cent
Total combined amount of all saponifiable substances,
including petroleum
Yt,
acids Not more than of per cent
1
Settlement, 10 days Not more than per cent
i
Dcmulsibility Not less than 60 per cent
The petroleum asphalt contained in the emulsion shall conform to the

following requirements
:
Penetration at 25° C. (77° F.) 150 to 200

Solubility in carbon disulphide Not less than 99 per cent
Ductility at 25° C. (77° F.) Not less than 60 cms.
Loss at 163° C. (325° F.) — hrs Not more than 3.5 per cent
5
SAMPLES
Prior to Purchase. — Each bid, offer, or proposal to furnish emulsified
asphalt, or for construction involving the furnishing of emulsified asphalt,
shall be accompanied by one-gallon sample of the emulsified asphalt. Prior
a
to the award of the order or contract, the sample shall be tested by the
buyer and fails to comply with the specification requirements
if
the bid
it
accompanying the sample shall be rejected. The sample shall be taken,

under the supervision of the buyer, from factory storage containing not
less than 20,000 gallons of the emulsified asphalt and shall be kept in clean
a
air-tight sealed glass container at temperature of not less than 40° F.
a
until tested.
From Each Lot or Shipment. — At least one sample of not less than one
gallon shall be taken from each lot or shipment of the emulsified asphalt
after arrival at destination. The samples shall be stored in clean air-tight
glass containers at temperature of not less than 40° F. until tested.
a
METHODS OF TESTING
Emulsified Asphalt. — The methods of testing shall be as follows

:
Specific Gravity — A. T. M. Standards, Designation D 70— 27;

S.
Viscosity — A. S. T. M. Standards, Designation D 88 — 26;

Residue at 163° C. — A. S. T. M. Standards, Designation — 30 except
D
6
that determination of residue shall be the average of three 50-gram

samples, heated for hours
dish or beaker not less than inches in
in
a
3
diameter and of sufficient

depth to prevent overflow:
Amount of Saponifiable Substances, including petroleum acids, soaps,
fatty or resinous acids and sulphonated oils accordance with Test Meth
in
od 37-E, as described on Page 753 of the Third Edition of "Asphalt and

Allied Substances," by Abraham;
Settlement — Two 500-cubic centimeter samples shall be tested for set
tlement and the average residue obtained from the top 50 grams shall not
vary more than per cent from the average residue obtained from the
3
bottom 50 grams. The settlement test shall be made as follows

:
Five hundred cubic centimeters shall be placed in an air-tight cylindrical

glass container having an inside diameter of from 4 to 5 centimeters and

allowed to stand for 10 days at laboratory atmospheric temperature. Fifty
grams shall then be siphoned from the top of the container, care being
taken not to disturb the remainder of the content. Approximately 400
cubic centimeters shall then be removed with the siphon. The remaining
50-gram sample, including all sediment, shall then be removed from the
bottom of the container. The samples taken from the top and bottom of
the container shall then be tested for "Residue at 163" C";
DemtUsibility — Three 100-gram samples shall be tested for demulsibility
and shall have an average asphalt residue of not less than 60% of the aver
age residue obtained in the previously made test for "Residue at 163" C,
hereinbefore described. The demulsibility test shall be made as follows:
One hundred grams shall be placed in a tared 600-cubic centimeter glass
beaker and 35 cubic centimeters of .02 normal solution of calcium chloride
shall be added during a period of approximately 2 minutes, being continually
stirred with a glass rod. The emulsion and calcium chloride solution shall
be at a temperature of approximately 77° F. during the time of
maintained
adding the re-agent and stirring. The contents of the beaker shall then
be drained through a 14-mesh iron wire sieve and the unbroken emulsified
asphalt in the beaker and on the rod shall be rinsed through the sieve with
distilled water until there is no appreciable discoloration of the rinsing
water. The beaker, rod and sieve shall then be dried in an oven at 163° C.
for 3 hours and weighed. The percentage of asphalt residue deposited in
the beaker and on the rod and sieve shall be taken to be the difference be
tween the weight of the beaker, rod and sieve after drying, and their
tared weight, determined at the beginning of the test.
Asphalt — Residue. — The methods of testing the petroleum asphalt and/or
residue contained in the emulsion shall be as follows :
Penetration — A. S. T. M. Standards, Designation D 5— 25 ;
Ductility— A. S. T. M. Tentative Standards, Designation D 113-26T;
Loss at 163° C— A. S. T. M. Standards, Designation D 6—27 ;
Solubility Carbon Disulphide — A. S. T. M. Standards, Designation
D 4-27.
(6) Asphalt emulsion, grade A.E. 3 (quick setting).

A.E. 3 (for wet aggregate or flinty, glossy aggregate) must be warmed
to apply.
A.E. 3 shall be a homogeneous emulsion of asphalt, water, and emulsi
fying agent. It shall be miscible with pure water in all proportions and
shall show no separation of asphalt after thorough mixing, within thirty
days after delivery, provided separation has not been caused by freezing.
It shall conform to the following requirements :
Emulsifying agents Not over one per cent.
Miscibility No appreciable separation in 2 hours.
Coating It shall not show appreciable separa
tion when mixed with clean wet stone for
three minutes and shall coat the stone
thoroughly.
Specific Gravity— 25V250 C. {77" 177" F.) Not less than 1.00
Residue at 163° C. (325° F.) 3 hours. 50 grams
Not less than 65 per cent
Viscosity, Furol, 77° F 30 to 100
The petroleum asphalt contained in the emulsion shall conform to the

following requirements :
Penetration at 25° C. (77° F.) ISO to 200
Solubility in Carbon Disulphide Not less than 99 per cent
Loss at 163° C. (325° F.) 5 hours Not more than 3.5 per cent
METHOD OF TESTING
Emulsified Asphalt. — Samples of not less than
one gallon of emulsified
asphalt from each lot or shipment shall be stored in clean air-tight glass
containers at a temperature of not less than 40° F. until tested. The methods
of testing each sample shall be as follows :
Miscibility and Coating — A. S. T. M. Tentative Standards, Designation
D 244—28 T ;
Specific Gravity — A. S. T. M. Standards, Designation D70 — 27;
Residue at 163° C— A.
S. T. M. Standards, Designation D6— 30, except
that determination residue shall be the average of three 50-gram
of
samples heated for 3 hours in a dish or beaker not less than 3 inches in
diameter and of sufficient depth to prevent overflow.
Asphalt — Residue; — The methods of testing the petroleum asphalt and/or
residue contained in the emulsion shall be as follows :
Penetration — A. S. T. M. Standards, Designation D 5— 25 ;
Solubility Carbon Disulphide and Ash — A. S. T. M. Standards, Designa
tion D4— 27;
Loss at 163° C— A. S. T. M. Standards, Designation D 6—30.
Specification A.E. 1 requires a residue of not less than 55 per cent.

Up until recently emulsions having a 50 per cent residue were almost
exclusively used for penetration work. The lower asphaltic content re
sults in somewhat lower viscosity, which aids penetration. The 55 per
cent emulsion is sufficiently fluid for most surface treatment work for seal.
Specification A.E. 3 requires a greater percentage of residue and is
recommended for wet aggregates or for non-absorptive, flinty, or glossy
aggregates.
The emulsion specification is an open specification on which competi
tive bids are always received from a number of independent producers.
Specification A.E. 1, exactly as written, has been used by many gov
ernmental road building organizations and is strictly competitive. The de-
mulsibility clause of 60 per cent in this specification is a bit rigid— particu
larly for inexperienced manufacturers. We believe that an emulsion which
is sufficiently quick-breaking for all types of penetration and surface treat
ment work should show a demulsibility of 80 or 90 per cent, but are not
recommending such a specification for adoption, because it might be
criticized as being non-competitive.
Some states, at the request of manufacturers who were not too sure
of their own processes, have specified 45 per cent demulsibility. and a
compromise specification is now being promulgated by the Federal Speci
fication Board in which the demulsibility is placed at 40 per cent. We
believe that 40 per cent is much too low to insure the necessary quick-
setting properties, and the manufacturers whose protests led to this low
limit of 40 per cent, at hearings a year ago, are now producing a much
better emulsion and in several instances we have records of their products
running as high as 70 per cent.
The settlement test described in this specification is of utmost im
portance and can be met by any capable manufacturer.
The two paragraphs on sampling emulsions are also quite important.
The requirement as to sampling prior to purchase is in substance the speci
fication which has been used by the state of New York for a number of
years.
The methods of testing set forth in this specification are those most
commonly used in state laboratories throughout the country. In some
cases the distillation test (A.S.T.M. D-244 28-T) is used instead of the
residue at 163° C. test described in this specification. The test as de
is,
scribed in the specification however, very much more simple and
inexpensive and fully as accurate as to results as the distillation test.
is
The foregoing bituminous specifications for both "prime" and "seal"

are few in number. They call for materials which can be obtained from
any of the principal producing companies and when used in accordance
with the conditions prescribed, they will produce uniformly satisfactory
results in surface treatment at lowest possible costs consistent with good
workmanship. Reference in specifications to the physical and chemical
requirements as suggested will do much to remove the mystery concerning
bituminous materials designated by trade names only. Conflicting test re
quirements are another source of confusion
The specifications given are offered in an effort to bring about stand
ardization of bituminous materials for surface treatment.
Many users of bituminous materials, however, do not have ready
access to testing laboratories and, rather than bother about preparing
technical specifications for these materials, they will be much better off
they purchase materials from reputable manufacturers.
if
Construction Methods. — They are similar in the several states,

although the materials are not. The surface may be closed to traffic or
treated one-half at time. Employment of a long base piece of equipment
a
urged. The method of treatment simple and consists of

is
is
a. The application of the prime coat of bitumen from power dis

a
tributor. The rate of application from 0.2 to 0.5 of gallon per sq. yd.
is
A cover of mineral aggregate for the prime coat usually omitted to

is
permit maximum penetration. If used, the quantity should be small. The

prime coat allowed to penetrate from several hours to several weeks.
is
During this time weak spots in the surface are corrected.

The second application of bitumen, sometimes called the seal coat,
b.
applied from power distributor. The rate of application for cold liquid
is
products from 0.25 to 0.35 of gallon per sq. yd. A few states, for
is
example California and New Hampshire, apply about 0.2 gallon for the
second application and 0.3 for the prime coat.
If hot bituminous materials are used, the rate of application should be

from 0.4 to 0.5 gal. per sq. yd.
c. Cover is immediately spread on this application from piles along
the road or suitable spreading devices attached to a truck. The amount
of cover varies with its character and the class and amount of bitumen
used. If the bitumen is a heavy material applied hot and stone chips or
dense slag is the cover, the amount varies from 35 to 50 pounds to the
sq; yd. If the bitumen is a cold application material, and sand is the cover,
it may be applied in 1 or 2 separate spreadings until the surface will "take
up" no more and "bleeding" ceases. The amount usually varies from 15
to 30 pounds per sq. yd.
A good rule of thumb for the amount of cover coat is 10 pounds per
0.1 gal. of bituminous material.
d. If this application is a hot bitumen, the cover of coarse chips or
gravel is evenly spread by brooms and at once rolled with a power roller.
In this case dragging is not done. If the bitumen is a cold application
material, the surface is usually dragged with a long base unit to an even
contour. Coarse cover is usually rolled, but fine cover may or may not
be rolled.
e. A seal coat may or may not be applied at once, but should be ap
plied during the season. When the surface is open or inclined to ravel, the
seal coat is indicated.
There has been a tendency on the part of many road officials to use
too heavy applications of bituminous material. Sometimes as much as
Yz -gallon per square yard has been used where % -gallon or less would
have done the job. It is the excess material which causes trouble. Too
little will do less harm than too much.
The amount and quality of the covering material will do much to make
fresh treatments safe and easy to drive over. Here the rule given above
for bituminous material should be reverse. If any error is made it should
be on the side of more cover rather than less. The excess will be brushed
to the side of the road and will not be entirely wasted, but assist in
strengthening the road shoulders.
For city streets larger quantities of cover are used than on rural high
ways, to reduce displacement of the treatment by traffic and the possible
spattering of vehicles with bitumen.
These various methods for carrying on surface treating operations
with the least amount of inconvenience to the traveling public are listed
below :
Selection of proper type of bituminous material.
Correct amount of bituminous material per square yard.
Adequate covering material of the proper quality.
Planning time of application to avoid maximum traffic.
The use of the drag after covering to hasten the drying action where
cold materials are used.
Treatment of half of the road at a time.

Adequate detours where necessary.
All of these operations have been successfully used and their use will
make it possible to have many miles of safe, dustless, low-cost roads at
a minimum of inconvenience to the motorist.
Maintenance Methods. — The completed surface treatments, re

gardless of the method of priming, are maintained in the same manner.
Without any prime coat there is more tendency for the mat to peel off due
to the lack of bond and the fact that the old surface is not stabilized and
waterproofed to as great a depth.
The maintenance consists in patching pot holes and deeply raveled
places with cold patch mixture of stone or gravel and bitumen. Places
which are not deeply raveled are given a light (0.2 to 0.25 gal. sq. yd.)
application of bitumen and lightly covered.
Retreatments of the entire surface are customary and necessary at
intervals of one, two or three years. In the course of a number of years
the retreatments build up a mat of -inch or more in thickness. This
l/i
may then become unstable during the warm summer months and be dis
placed into ridges by traffic unsuitable materials or improper construc
if
tion methods are used. A remedy for this condition, as used in Philadel
phia, consisted of spiking up the road, redistributing the bituminous cov
ered stone to proper cross section, adding as much clean J^-inch stone
a
as necessary to absorb the surface tar or asphalt, and then rolling thor
is
oughly with 10-ton roller. After this rolling seal coat of hot tar or
a
asphalt at a rate of to -gallon per square yard applied. The seal

Y$
Yi
is
coat then covered with 30 pounds per square yard of to ^J-inch

is
l/2
trap rock chips and rolled with 10-ton roller. This method reported
is
a
to be effective and satisfactory on the Lincoln Highway, Philadelphia-

New York route. Scarifying, reshaping, and retreating will produce best
results.
In the case of surface breakage or irregular surface over consid
a
erable area, may be as economical and more satisfactory to lightly

it
scarify the entire surface treatment. The broken up surface then disc
is
harrowed, spread with road blade and rolled. Bitumen then applied,
is
a
,
followed by suitable cover.

I
The serviceability of the bituminous surface treatment dependent

is
upon careful and intelligent maintenance applied promptly as required.

The patrol system of maintenance almost essential for all but water-
is
bound macadam foundations, as the surface should be under constant

observation to detect and correct defects as they develop and prevent
deterioration which takes place very rapidly the original trouble not
is
if
promptly eliminated.
J
The state of Connecticut treats many miles of gravel roads, using cold
bitumens. applied in small quantities, usually not more than or
It
is
^-gallon per square yard on retreatments. They immediately cover

it
with coarse sand or fine gravel. Ample cover is used so that traffic will
not pick up the bitumen. The cover is dragged with a sled drag, a broom
drag, or a chain drag, which accomplishes two things — the road surface
is made much smoother, since the drag cuts off the high spots and fills in
the low ones ; and the bitumen and covering material is thoroughly mixed
so that the drying time is greatly reduced. Some of the other New Eng
land states accomplish the same result by the use of a brush drag, which
is essentially a bundle of brush dragged behind a truck. This stirs up the
bitumen and cover and hastens the drying action.
vConstruction Cost.— The initial construction cost of prime coat and
cover varies from $700 to $3,000 per mile for an 18-foot width, depend
ing on local conditions and the class of materials used.
In the Southeast initial construction costs per mile on a 20-foot surface
for priming material and heavy application with cover, complete, on
sand-clay or topsoil surfaces average $1,500 to $2,500. A seal coat treat
ment will run $500 to $1,000 per mile complete.
Maintenance Costs. — Averaged over a period of 5 or 6 years, the

maintenance cost of these retreatments on stone macadams ranges from
$100 to $300 per mile for an 18-foot width. On the less stable bases
where more frequent scarifying may be necessary or heavier retreatment
required, the maintenance costs may be doubled for an equal amount of
traffic.
— On account of the comparatively thin skin of surface
^Service.
treatment, the greatest service in cost per vehicle mile will be on the well-
compacted macadams. The treated macadams and gravels which are not
scarified at periodic intervals are not in general as smooth riding as the
surfaces which are scarified, dragged and retreated. Dragging makes a
smooth-riding road. Successive applications which build up a thick-
unstable mat or the effect of frost or an unstable base may cause a rough-
riding surface. The omission of a prime coat, or insufficient cleaning of
the base, may be the cause of the treatment peeling from the base under
the action of traffic.
Some statements claim traffic up to several thousand vehicles per day,
the average, however, is much less and does not exceed 800 to 1,000.
BITUMINOUS SURFACE TREATMENTS ON LOOSE BASES

A surface treatment which correctly bonds and surfaces sandy gravel
will be found satisfactory for all varieties of loose surfaces except for an
adjustment in the amount of bituminous material required made necessary
by variation in porosity of the granular particles. This is a simple matter
of experiment, the details of procedure in all other respects being identical.
Poorly Compacted and Loose Bases.— Included in this class would
be fine, sandy gravels, cinders, and granular materials of a similar nature
whose immediate surface is loosely bonded. Surface treatments of this

class of material,
in some respects, have been found unsatisfactory, but
invariably it hasbeen due to improper methods of construction. It is
necessary first to
consolidate the surface before a mat coat can be built
up. Mixed prime treatment is particularly applicable to surfaces from
which the dust cannot be completely removed prior to treatment, as the
priming material saturates such dust particles, penetrates the upper por
tion of the road, and puts it in condition to receive the heavier bituminous
product of the final application and its cover. The priming material
should be applied only in sufficient quantity to be absorbed by the road
surface within from 24 to 48 hours, so that it will not pick up under
traffic. It should not be covered with mineral aggregate, but should re
ceive directly the heavier bituminous seal coat after it has been mixed
with the loose portion of the base by long base drags, multiple blade
maintainers or other suitable equipment. Then -^-inch aggregate, free
from dust, should be mixed in and thoroughly compacted by rolling. If
dust is present, it is apt to sift over the treated surface and prevent the
large particles from adhering firmly.
Surface treatments in general will not make an old rough surface
smooth, and it is therefore necessary to bring the road to a true, uniform
contour before applying the treatment as described. This is ordinarily
done before the priming material is applied, but excellent results have
been obtained in the state of Washington by means of two applications
of priming material, the first made as previously described and the sec
ond applied at the rate of 0.2 gal. per sq. yd., which is then covered with
crushed stone or gravel from one-half inch to dust, applied at the rate of
50 to 60 cubic yards per mile. This treatment is then worked over the
road with suitable equipment so as to true up the surface with a mixture
of the aggregate and bituminous binder. A heavier bituminous product
is then applied at the rate of 0.35 gal. per sq. yd., and covered with 24 to
J^-inch mineral aggregate.
Where the old road is very rough a coarse aggregate treatment, such
as later described, is to be preferred unless the old road is first scarified
and reshaped.
The distinction between a mixed prime coat for loose bases and a
penetration prime coat for solid bases is evident from the foregoing. In
general, single treatments should never be made except on previously
/ treated surfaces.
Materials. — Bituminous materials for surface treatment may be
divided into two general classes according to use as either '"prime" or
"seal." and are herein so divided. For each use specifications covering
both tars and asphalts are suggested. The prime coat, or first application,
is usually a cold liquid tar, T.C. 1 or 2, or a cut-back asphalt, MC-1, or
a slow breaking emulsion, A.E. 2. The second coat is the same as the
first. The final application is a heavier bitumen, such as a hot asphalt.
AH-1, or a hot tar, T.H. or a heavy cold tar, T.C. 6, or a cold cut-back
1,
asphalt, RC-1, or a quick breaking emulsion, A.E. 1 or 3.
Specifications of materials vary with different combinations of bitu
minous materials and mineral aggregates, depending on local conditions.
In preparing specifications the reader is urged to study the chapter on the
"Interpretation of Tests."
Construction Steps. — The various steps for surface treatment on

poorly compacted loose bases may be summarized as follows :
a. Apply priming bitumen at the rate of 0.3 to 0.5 gal. per sq. yd.
b. Mix thoroughly with suitable equipment. Special machinery is
available for this work.
c. Apply from 10 to 15 lb. of fine aggregate per sq. yd. and spread
uniformly. This is often omitted.
d. Apply priming bitumen at the rate of 0.2 to 0.3 gal. per sq. yd.,
and allow penetration until bitumen hardens. Traffic should be permitted
to use the subgrade.
c. Use a long base drag and smooth or shape to final section.
/. This type of road must be let stand not less than two days for
the best results, longer is better. Traffic kneading will be beneficial during
this period.
g. The seal coat should then be applied identical with that outlined
for well-compacted and solid bases.
Many engineers question the application of any aggregate in the prim
ing and mixing operation, but experience in most cases has proven the
value, many times over, of the material introduced here. The manipu
lation of loose tops without the additional aggregate tends to promote
pushing and shoving, while loose tops treated with a small amount of
aggregate worked into the mixed prime rarely, if ever, push or develop
bituminous rolls.
The Asphalt Institute in their Manual No. 2 recommends that prime
material MC-1 be applied first at the rate of 0.5 gal. per sq. yd. and al
lowed to penetrate. No mention is made of mixing the prime coat. Loose
surfaces are particularly liable to rhythmic corrugations and dragging a
light cover coat on the prime with a long base/iroom drag tends to fill
these corrugations and keep the surface smooth to receive the seal coat.
The priming operation on loose and poorly compacted bases is the most
important part of the entire surfacing job.
In bituminous surface treatments a variety of bitumens and cover are
included in specifications. This is somewhat confusing, as the materials
actually used do not always represent such wide variations. The coop
erative simplification scheme of the Bureau of Public Roads, the refin
eries, the Asphalt Institute, and the state testing engineers will go a long
way towards clarification of this situation.
Examples of Service. — Following are examples of surface treat

ments in different sections of the country on different types of soils or

bases.
In Maine, New Hampshire, and Wisconsin, on gravel roads where
similar materials and methods are used, a cold tar is the binder. The
cover is coarse sand or fine gravel.
In California, on crushed stone and gravel roads "fuel oils" of high
asphaltic content and emulsions are specified for prime and second appli
cation. They have an asphaltic content 60 to 70 per cent. Light "road
oils" having a higher asphaltic content are also used for second applica
tion. They are applied cold or slightly heated. The cover material is hard
crushed aggregate.
In Oregon, on crushed rock and crushed gravel roads asphaltic oils
and tars, have been used. The prime coat, when asphaltic oils are used, is
a 60 per cent asphalt fuel oil with a cover of screenings. The second coat
is 95 per cent asphaltic oil applied hot and covered with to J^-inch
-)4
screenings. Light and heavy tars are applied in similar manner.
a
In New Mexico, asphaltic oils are used for prime coat and specially
a
prepared heavier asphaltic cut-back used for the
is
second application.
Coarse sand used for the cover.
is
In South Carolina, on selected sand clay and clay-gravel, after some

experimentation with various bitumens and cover, present practice calls
for cold tar prime coat without cover and hot asphalt second applica
a
a
tion. The cover for this coarse chip passing the 1^4 -inch and retained
is
a
on the 34-inch screen, when using local granite.

In Virginia and North Carolina, for surface treatments of selected
sand-clay and clay-gravel roads, variety of materials are specified and
a
have been used. These included prime coats of cold tar or asphalt; second
applications of cold tar or cold asphalt, hot tar or hot asphalt, and cut
back asphalts. The cover used has ranged all the way from coarse sand
to stone chips and gravel. A light bitumen for prime coat with little
a
or no cover and heavier bitumen for a second application with coarse

a
chips are in favor.

In Ohio, on traffic-bound stone, slag and gravel surfaces, best results
are claimed for cold tar prime and second coat of heavy tar or asphalt.
a
The preferred cover hard crushed stone chip up to 1-inch in size.

is
a
In Florida, on lime rock base, excellent results have been obtained with
cold tar prime and hot second coat of heavy asphalt and coarse slag
a
a
chips. The use of sand as cover has been abandoned.

Modifications.* — The fact that the heavier bituminous materials
used in surface-treatment work are only slightly affected by moisture
and that this treatment forms nonporous surface mat which largely
a
prevents the escape of the air under the surfacing, and thereby tends to
prevent the rise of moisture from the subgrade, probably responsible
is
for the good behavior of this type. The present attempt to use heavy
•From Public Roads, official publication of the U. S. Bureau of Public Roads.
asphaltic oils or soft asphalt cements of both the cut-back and emulsion
types is motivated by the desire to obtain not only a more stable and
wear-resistant surface, but also one that will resist the action of moisture.
Surface treatments are used not only on crushed-stone and crushed-
gravel macadams, but also on old and new oil-mixed surfaces. Several
types of surface treatment differing' primarily only in thickness and meth
ods of construction are used, depending largely on the surface to be
treated.
Armor Coat. — In California the so-called "armor coat" is used ex
tensively. It is constructed essentially in accordance with the following
outline :
1. Thoroughly sweep the old surface and prime with one-half gallon per square
yard of 50 to 60 fuel oil.
2. Apply hot about one-eighth to one-fifth gallon per square yard of 95 per cent
grade road! oil (350 penetration asphalt).
3. Cover with three-fourths to one-half inch crushed stone or gravel at the rate
of 50 to 60 pounds per square yard.
4. Blade for smoothing and roll lightly.
5. Apply about three-eighths gallon per square yard, of the same grade of road oil
6. Cover with one-half to one-eighth inch crushed stone or gravel at the rate of
about 20 to 30 pounds per square yard.
7. Roll lightly.
A fairly hard asphalt cement cut-back with a distillate of the kerosene

type which penetrates well and is fairly quick drying, or a fluid residual
from certain types of cracking-plant process, should prove highly satis
factory for this purpose, as should proper emulsions. Light tar of 8 to 13
viscosity is being used extensively in the East, but is not available in
the West.
Emulsions made of heavy road oils and high-penetration asphalt ce
ments are coming into rather extensive use on surface treatment work.
The Asphalt Institute recommends that a soft asphalt cement always be
used instead of a road oil. Soft asphalts of 200 penetration should be
used in the East.
Multiple Lift. — Oregon has more recently been using what is termed a
"multiple lift" type of surface treatment when a thickness greater than
that obtained by the common treatment is desired. A thickness of 2y2
inches or more can be obtained by this method. One advantage of this
process is that the thickness of the surface mat can be varied to suit the
traffic and base conditions on a particular project. The steps involved
and the materials used are as follows:
1. Thoroughly sweep the existing road surface.

2. Apply a tack coat of about 0.15 gallon per square yard of 95 per cent road
oil, hot (350 penetration asphalt).
Va,
3. Cover with 50 to 60 pounds per square yard of VA to inch crushed aggrr-

gate.
Smooth by blading lightly and roll.
5. 4.
Apply about one-third gallon per square yard of the same type oil.
6. Cover with about 30 pounds per square yard of three- fourths to one-half inch
crushed aggregate.
7. Smooth as before and roll.
8. Apply about one-fourth gallon per square yard of the same oil.
9. Cover with about 30 pounds per square yard of one-half to one-eighth inch
crushed aggregate.
10. Smooth as before and roll.
Sometimes the final treatments, items 8, 9, and 10, are repeated to

give a better sealed surface. Greater thickness is obtained by increasing
the number of "lifts"; that is, by doubling or trebling the number of
treatments given under items 3, 4, and 5.
The cost of a 2J/2 -inch mat constructed in this manner is rather high.
This fact is due to some extent to the many steps involved in the con
struction. To obtain the same thickness of mat, a road-mix method of
construction would be more practical and probably more economical. How
ever, the heavy bituminous material would have to be designed for cold
application and mixing.
Partial Emulsification Used in Oregon. — Oregon has recently devised
a method of partially emulsifying the hot oil for surface-treatment work,
particularly for treatments using heavy oil. The plan is to combine water
and an emulsifying agent, such as soap, with the hot oil at the instant it
strikes the stone. This is accomplished by means of a second spray bar
attached so that a spray of water is directed against the oil spray. About
10 per cent of water is required. The use of this method results, it is said,
in better covering and penetration of the aggregate.
Washington Practice. — In Washington surface treatment is used not
only on the crushed gravel and stone macadams, but to a large extent on
such bituminous surfaces as are built. The treatment is similar to the light
treatments used in Oregon and California, with the exception that two
successive prime applications of light oil are applied. Here, as in other
sections where light oil has been used for priming the base, considerable
peeling and raveling have occurred under traffic during the hardening of
this material. This difficulty was overcome in many instances by mixing
the excess primer with fine material bladed in from the shoulders. Light
blading of this material over the surface of the roadway has corrected
many of the irregularities prior to the application of the heavier surface-
treatment oil.
The riding qualities of the surface-treated roads in general compare
favorably with those of the road-mix types.
BITUMINOUS ROAD-MIX SURFACES

There are three distinct types of road-mix treatments. They are dif
ferentiated by the character and size of mineral aggregates used. In the
fine aggregate type the aggregate consists of sand and material less than
J4-inch screen size. In the graded aggregate type the aggregate consists
BITUMINOUS SURFACE COURSES . 241
of continuously graded material ranging from material passing a 1-inch

screen down to and including dust. In the coarse aggregate type the
aggregate is an open graded, crushed product, such as stone, slag, or
gravel, sized from that which passes a 1^2-inch screen to a ^4-inch screen
and is free from dust.
There are, of course, slight variations to these aggregate gradings.
The methods of construction, likewise, vary. Final compaction is secured
either by traffic or by rolling or both.
This process presumes prior construction of a roadway of strength
ample to carry the loads, which implies a sufficient thickness of surface
material and also compactness beneath the bituminous mixture. A layer
of fine, loose material between the compacted base and the treated surface
should be avoided. Mechanical operations will be difficult where the road
metal contains any considerable quantity of large stone, but are simple
on crushed rock or gravel. The presence of heavy clay binder is objec
tionable. The viscosity of the bitumen used is an important factor also.
It must not be too heavy to mix with the road metal readily at prevailing
J temperature.
Proportioning Bitumen. — Quantity is even more critical ; an excess

results in rutting and other displacement ; a deficiency causes raveling.
Heretofore the only gauge has been the appearance of the mixture, but
the similarity to other asphaltic types and the expense and unreliability
of cut-and-try methods suggest the possibility of utilizing a modified form
of the stain test, once common in sheet asphalt practice.
Stain Test. — Inasmuch as the success of the road-mix method for
fine and graded aggregate types depends upon correct gauging of bitumen
requirements and upon uniform mixing, an attempt was made by C. L.
McKesson and W. N. Frickstad. and reported in the official publication
of the U. S. Bureau of Public Roads, to find a field test which would
be of value to those carrying on such work. A modified form of the pat
stain test was studied. This test cannot be made on samples contain
ing coarse sand or gravel. It is, therefore, necessary to prepare samples
for test by removing coarse particles, and it is also necessary that the sam
ples be heated. The stain test as finally developed is described as follows :
The sample from the roadway is first warmed. The fine material is
then separated from the coarse by passing through a 10-mesh sieve. This
can be readily accomplished by rubbing gently with the fingers and by
loosening the fine particles that adhere to the coarse. The particles which
do not pass the 10-mesh sieve may be discarded. The original sample
should be of sufficient size td provide about 1 pound of material passing
the 10-mesh sieve. This 10-mesh material is heated to approximately the
boiling point of water, which may be conveniently accomplished by placing
the sample in a fruit jar or can and allowing it to remain partially sub
merged in the boiling water for a period of about one hour. The heated
mixture is then dumped in a pile on the center of a sheet of white type
writer paper and leveled to a thickness of about 1 inch, when another

sheet of paper is placed on top. A wooden block 2 inches thick is placed
on top of the paper and to this are delivered five blows from a 2-pound
hammer, falling freely for a distance of about 1 foot. The two papers
are then removed from the asphaltic mixtures and the stain produced
indicates the relative amount of bituminous! cement in the sample.
Satisfactory surface mixtures will produce a light yellowish brown
stain, in which the impression of the individual sand particles may be dis
tinguished and which is not blurred or blotched. A heavy stain indicates
the presence of excess bitumen, which is not only uneconomical but also
causes displacement under traffic.
In developing the stain test, samples of completed surface mixtures
were taken from the sections of treated crushed gravel roads, and also
for comparative purposes from oiled earth and sand roads and shoulders.
Examined in the light of the stain, tests and the observed behavior, it
is apparent that the amount of bitumen required in both the crushed
gravel and earth mixtures varies with the grading of the material.
Density Method. — The method of calculating quantities of bitu
men required for graded aggregate surfaces is given in the section of
this chapter dealing with the "Graded Aggregate Type." It is based on
void determination.
Surface Area Method.
— This method is based on a sieve analysis
of the aggregate. The method has found favor for cold application ma
terials in the western states. It will be completely discussed in the sec
tion on "Graded Aggregate Type."
FINE AGGREGATE TYPE

General Description. — Fine aggregate type of road-mix construc
tion is a bituminous mixture composed of the existing road material mixed
thoroughly with bitumen, either a tar, a medium curing cut-back asphalt,
or a stable slow-breaking mixing emulsion, in which all mixing is done
mechanically on the road. A few requisites for the success of this type
of construction are: medium or light traffic, sandy soils, good drainage,
hard base bitumen, and sufficient thickness. It- is advisable to err by hav
ing excess thickness rather than too thin a treatment.
This type of surface, so far, has been quite successful in Florida, but
is still in its experimental stage. The bitumen used was an asphalt cut
back. Tars are also used for this type work. The data from which most
of the material for this section was prepared are contained in a report
on "Mixed-in-Place Sand Asphalt" construction in Florida by H. C.
Weathers, testing engineer, State Road Department.
Materials. — When a project of this type is proposed for road-mix
construction the first step to take is to have a material survey made by a
competent engineer. During this survey drainage is inspected, and if the
project is not drained adequately, it must be corrected for drainage before
any other work is to be done. This is essential for any type of surface,
and more so for this one. Assuming drainage is satisfactory, the material
survey is then made by obtaining representative samples from the surface
to a depth of 8 or 10 inches of the existing road material. These samples
are taken at close interval or whenever the character of the material
changes, either in quality or gradation. The samples are then analyzed for
percentages of silica, clay, loam, silt and foreign matter, and sieve analyses
are made to determine the gradation of the sand. It is preferable, of
course, to have a well-graded coarse sand ; however, if this does not exist,
it is not advisable to import material to correct the grading, unless it can
be obtained locally at a very small cost. The finer the sand in size the
more bitumen will be required, and in some cases it may be economical
to blend coarser sand with the fine to reduce the quantity of bitumen re
quired, if it can be accomplished more economically than the difference
in quantity of bitumen required. Another advantage to be gained would
be the increase in stability of the mixture; however, this is not recom
mended unless for economy.
After the tests are completed, a study of the results should be made to
determine the suitability of the material. A small percentage of clay,
loam, silt, or foreign matter will make no material difference. However,
if the percentage of clay is higher than about 10 or 15 per cent, the ma
terial will not mix uniformly with bitumen, and success will be endangered.
Any material containing 10 per cent or more of clay should be considered
unfit for use. A few typical gradations of sand from active construction
projects are listed below :
Mechanical Analysis of Sand
Pass. 10 Pass. 40 Pass. 80 Passing
Ret. 40 Ret 80 Ret. 200 200
54.9 41.0 3.6 0.S
38.0 54.6 42 32
29.2 65.4 3.4 2.0
20.8 74.6 2.4 2.2
25.0 702 3.0 2.0
The above grades of sands have made successful mixtures. However,

sands of different gradingwill no doubt prove as satisfactory.
The asphalt used in Florida was free from water and other decom
position products and was cut-back with naphtha. It met the following
requirements for physical and chemical properties:
Min. Max.
1. Specific Viscosity Engler (1st 50 cc at 50° C.) 18 30
2. Asphaltic Content at 100 Penetration 68
3. Penetration at 77° F. on residue from 325° F. Loss 200
4. Bitumen Soluble in CS, 99.5% ..
5. Per Cent of Total Bitumen Insoluble in 86° Naphtha 15 %
6. Distillation A. S. T. M.— D20-30:
Per Cent up to 150° C 5 10
Per Cent up to 200° C 20 29
Per Cent up to 205° C 32
The penetration of the base asphalt, before cutting back with naphtha
should be between 85 and 100 penetration. Asphalt Institute product
MG-2 would be suitable also. Reference is made later in this text to
asphalt grades and types of work as recommended by the Institute.
The above material was found to be more atisfactory than any of the
others experimented with, although on one project, where the existing
road material contained a high percentage of silt, loam and some clay,
mixing was affected by a tendency of the material to ball with the bitu
men. To eliminate this, or to obtain better results, it was found necessary
to alter the above specifications by specifying the penetration of the base
asphalt to be 100 to 120. This gave a little softer grade of material and
one which mixed more readily. For asphaltic materials, however, it is
recommended that a base asphalt of 85 to 100 penetration be used.
On some Minnesota work, a tar meeting the following specifications
was used :
Min. Max.
Specific gravity, 25° C. (77° F.) 1.120
Water 2.0
Specific viscosity (Note 1), Engler 50 ccs. at 40° C. (104° F.) 18 35.0
Total bitumen (soluble in carbon disulphide) 88.0
Distillation test on water-free material
Total distillate, by weight, 0-170° C. (32 to 338° F.) per cent 5.0
°
Softening point of residue from distillation test. C 60.0
Note 1 : The viscosity of the material will be subject to variation within the
limits designated, as may be directed by prior instructions furnished the producer,
in order to meet the local and varying conditions of temperature and pavement. It
is suggested that the following ranges of specific viscosity be used : 18-25 ; 25-35.
An emulsion specification suitable for this work would be as follows:

Specifications AE-2
Emulsified asphalt for mixing with fine aggregate shall be a homogeneous emul
sion of asphalt and alkaline water containing a total of not more than 1% of emul
sifying and stabilizing agents. It shall be miscible with pure water in all propor
tions and shall show no separation of asphalt, after thorough mixing, within thirty
days after delivery, provided separation has not been caused by freezing. It shall
conform to the following requirements:
Viscosity— Saybolt Furol— 60 cc. at 25° C. (77° F.).Not more than 100 sec.
Miscibility No appreciable separation in 2 hrs.
Coating It shall not show appreciable separation when
mixed with Portland Cemenr"
Specific Gravity— 25V25° C. (77°/77° F.) Not less than 1.00
Residue at 163° C. (325° F.) 3 hrs. 50 grams Not less than 55%
Demulsibility Not more than 5%
Settlement Not more than 3%
The petroleum asphalt contained in the emulsion shall conform to the following
requirements :
Penetration at 25° C. (77° F.) 150 to 200
Solubility in carbon disulphide Not less than
98%
Loss at 163° C. (325° F.) 5 hours Not more than 3.5%
Coating Test. — To one part, by volume, loose measure, of dry portland cement,
shall be added two parts, by volume, of the emulsion to be tested. The Portland
cement and emulsion shall be thoroughly mixed for a period of 10 minutes and! at the
expiration of this period there shall be no appreciable breaking or separation of the
emulsion and the mixture shall be uniform and smooth.
Demulsibility Test. — Three 100-gram samples shall be tested for demulsibility
and shall have an average asphalt residue of not more than 5 per cent of the average-
residue obtained in the test for "Residue at 163° C." The demulsibility test sâll be
made as follows :
One hundred grams shall be placed in a tared 600-cubic centimeter glass bfcaker
and SO cubic centimeters of 0.1 normal solution of calcium chloride shall be added
during a period of approximately 2 minutes, being continually stirred with a glass
rod. The emulsion and calcium chloride solution shall be maintained at a temper
ature of approximately 77° F. during the time of adding the re-agent and stirring.
The contents of the beaker shall then be drained through a 14-mesh iron wire sieve
and the unbroken emulsified asphalt in the beaker and on the rod shall be rinsed'
through the sieve with distilled water until there is no appreciable discoloration
of the rinsing water. The beaker, rod and sieve shall then be dried in an oven of
163° C. for 3 hours and weighed. The percentage of asphalt residue deposited in
the beaker and on the rod and sieve shall be taken to be the difference between the
weight of the beaker, rod and sieve after drying, and their tared weight, determined!
at the beginning of the test. r
Fig. I. — Rear View of a Finishing Machine Working on Timber Side Forms
This specification covers a 55 per cent emulsion, which is suitable for

mixing with fine aggregate under most difficult mixing conditions. Such
an emulsion must of necessity have a high degree of stability and the
coating test described in this specification is much more severe than the
stone coating»test specified by the A.S.T.M. (D-244 28-T). The A.S.T.M.
stone for coarse aggregate mixtures, but does
coating test is satisfactory
not insure sufficient mixing properties for fine aggregate mixing. The
material described in this specification will mix readily with portland
cement, sand, and stone. In fact, mixtures of this type are now being
used quite extensively in the construction of inside floors, tennis courts, etc.
The methods of testing in specification AE-3 are the same as to settlement,
residue at 163° C, and viscosity, as those in AE-1, described in the sec
tion on "Bituminous Surface Treatments," for quick-setting emulsion.

The demulsibility test, however, is made with a stronger solution of
calcium chloride. The weaker solution of calcium chloride used in the
test method described in specification AE-1 does not properly differentiate
between the various grades of mixing emulsion. The viscosity, miscibility,
and coating tests in AE-2 are necessary for mixing emulsions, but are not
included in specification AE-1 for the penetration grades.
Bitumen Required. — The amount needed to make a good job va

ries with the nature and grading of the mineral material to be mixed.
In this respect, this type of mix follows the theory of all bituminous mix
tures in which the quantity of bitumen must be sufficient to coat each
individual particle of the mineral aggregate and a slight excess to fill voids
and produce durability. Finer graded material contains more individual
particles per unit volume, therefore, there is more surface area to be
coated and more bitumen is required.
The surface character of the material also influences the amount of
bitumen necessary, as a rough surface will require more bitumen than a
smooth one. In view of this fact, and also the great changes in gradation
of the road material in different locations, and even on the same project,
it has been impossible to date to adopt a definite table of quantities of
bitumen necessary for this type construction.
The method used at the present time for determining the amount
necessary to produce a satisfactory mixture is a combination laboratory
investigation and trial mix in the field. Samples of the material are an
alyzed for quality and gradation in the laboratory and small batches made
up. From the results of this study the field engineer is furnished with an
approximate quantity of bitumen necessary for good results. He then
uses his own judgment after trying a section using the predetermined
quantity, and from visual inspection of the actual road mix he may vary
the quantity as may be necessary, to accomplish satisfactory results. The
final mixture, after the last application has been sprayed and the mate
rials thoroughly mixed, should have a black, glossy appearance. Any mix
having a brownish color is too lean and should be reworked with more
bitumen and mixing continued until the black appearance is produced. The
stain test described in the preceding section will furnish a field check on
laboratory results.
On the work completed in Florida to date the quantity of bitumen
has averaged about 5 gal. per sq. yd. of pavement of 6 inches compacted
thickness. Some sections have required as little as three gallons and others
as much as 6.5 on account of the grading and quality of the material.
Naturally, a thinner surface will require less bituminous material.
Following is a table showing some of the typical sand gradings used
on active projects and the quantity of bitumen used to produce satis
factory results:
Sand and Asphalt Rbouirements

Gallons of Oil
Mechanical Analysis of Sand Per Sq. Yd.
Sample Pass. 10 Pass. 40 Pass. 80 Pass. Mix Approx.
No. Ret 40 Ret. 80 Ret. 200 200 6 In. Thick
1 54.9 41.0 3.6 0.5 3.20
2 38.0 54.6 4.2 3.2 3.85
3 29.2 65.4 3.4 2.0 4.00
4 28.6 66.4 2.8 2.2 4.00
5* 28.6 68.2 1.4 1.8 4.20
6 20.8 74.6 2.4 22 4.70
7 33.0 60.8 3.8 2.4 5.00
8 25.0 70.2 3.0 2.0 5.50
Remarks : Please note as the material changes from coarse to fine the
quantity of bitumen must be increased. This agrees with the theory that
riner graded aggregates have more surface area. However, sometimes this
theory is upset as the quality and shape of the individual particle of the
material plays an important part, as is illustrated by Sample 7. This is
a slightly coarser material in that it contains more 10 and less 40 than
samples 4, 5, and 6 with the 80 and 200 mesh material being about the
same, yet number 7 requires a little more bituminous material.
Construction Methods. — After the proposed project has been in

vestigated and found satifactory for a bituminous road-mix construction
it is advised that a four-mile section be selected on which to start and be
completed before starting another section. This was found by experience
to give best results, for if an entire project of several miles, or a section
greater thanj four miles is undertaken, trouble will be experienced in
mixing and a waste of bitumen will probably occur due to rapid evapora
tion of the volatiles before mixing is complete.
Since projects adaptable to this type of construction are sandy, haul
ing bituminous material in the pressure distributor is difficult. It is neces
sary to boost the power of the distributor with a tractor, for the first
application of bitumen. For this reason it is suggested that a starting
point be made midway of the four-mile section previously selected. Start
ing at the center of the four-mile section, a sub-section of 2,500 feet is
treated with approximately two gallons of bitumen per square yard dis
tributed in one application. This will aid in hauling material through the
section without getting stuck with the distributor under its own power.
Before any mixing of this section is attempted, operations are moved to
the extreme end of the two-mile section, and this is worked back toward
the center starting point, in small sections of one-third of the two-mile
section (approximately 3,300 feet), and completed before starting on the
next one-third section. This operation is continued until the center start
ing point is reached, then the other half of the original four-mile section
is worked in the same manner.
After the previously mentioned two gallons of bitumen per square
yard has been applied the road for its entire width, and length of the
3,300-foot section being constructed, is plowed thoroughly with a three-

furrow gang plow. The material is uniformly loosened up for a depth of
seven or eight inches.
Windr owing. — When the material has been uniformly plowed to the
proper depth, the tractor drawn road grader with a 12-foot blade is used
to push the material from the center to the shoulders, to a depth of ap
proximately 3 inches, and store the pushed out material in two windrows
on each side of the road, completely clearing the 20-foot width, or the
plan width the pavement is to occupy. The full 20-foot width is then
treated with about three 0.4 gallon applications of bitumen per square
yard.
Disc Harrows Used for Mixing. — Then a tractor-drawn 22-inch disc
harrow mixes the bitumen and sand. This piece of equipment is used
immediately after each 0.4 gallon application. Quite often for best results
two or three harrow units are used in tandem, and these run continuously
so that each application of bitumen is cut into the road material before
the next application is made. After sufficient numbers of applications have
been made, and a uniform, black mix has been obtained for a depth of,
about four inches, the windrowed material, which was previously worked
out onto the shoulders, is pulled back into place with the grader and dis
tributed uniformly over the 20-foot width of mixed material. While this
is being pulled back into place, a 0.4 gallon per square yard application of
bitumen is made and the mixing continued with disc harrows and grader.
Additional 0.4 gallon applications are then made and mixing continued
until about 1.2 to 1.5 gallons of bitumen have been applied, or more
applications if necessary. These figures of 1.2 to 1.5 gallons are exclu
sive of: the first two gallons applied at one application. After this quan
tity has been distributed, and mixing with harrows and grader continued
sufficiently, the mix will have a uniform, black appearance.
The next mix is obtained by mixing with harrows and rolling the ma
terial back and forth from center to edges of the road several times
with the grader. At the same time the edges should be plowed with the
three-furrow gang plow to obtain uniform depth of mixture on edges and
quarters. If this is not done, there will be uneven thickness of mix at
these places, as it is very difficult to obtain a uniform depth on the edges,
without the use of the plow. After this is accomplished, the harrows are
taken off and the mixture is lightly windrowed with the graders. The
grader wheels should have wide flanges. The final mixing and finishing
are done with a mixing machine.
Operation of Mixing Machine. — When graded out smooth and to the
proper contour, the mixing machine is used. This machine has diagonal
steel blades running in opposite directions. It is run over the mixture two
or three times until the materials are uniformly mixed and have a black
appearance to a depth of 2 or 3 inches on top. The completed pavement,
while one course, tends to have a base and wearing course. The three or
four inches which were mixed at first tend to act as a base and as a rule
should contain less bitumen than the upper three inches, which are con
structed from the windrowed material.
All of the before mentioned procedure is accomplished on the same
day. This is essential, because if more time is taken the bitumen will lose
its volatiles by evaporation and make mixing difficult, which might re
quire additional bitumen to obtain desired results. On the following day
the surface of the mixture is dragged with the grader unit to obtain a
uniform grade. After this the mixture is ready to be compacted with an
8 to 10 ton tandem roller. Several days later the surface should be rolled
again, by both longitudinal and diagonal rolling in both directions. While
this is being done a 10-foot straight edge should be used on the surface
to indicate depressions and high places, which might be reduced by the
aid of the roller or patch work if necessary to produce a smoother riding
surface.
Smooth straight edges on the sides of the roadway are cut to line by
hand, and the material cut off is buried in a trench along the edge of the
surfacing when the same is backfilled. This gives the finished pavement
a neater appearance.
Equipment Required. — A complete complement of equipment for a
road-mix project of this type consists of the following:
Three offset tractor disc harrows — 22" disc — T/i cut; 1 3- furrow gang plow —
14" bottom; 1 12' grader; 2 distributors; 5 tractors — (two 12-ton and three
5-ton) ; 1 mixing machine with 12* blade; 1 8 or 10-ton tandem roller; 1 3-ton
3-wheel roller.
Personnel. — The personnel required to operate this equipment and
construct this type road is one superintendent, and about twenty men,
including mechanics, tractor and grader operators, roller man and un
skilled laborers. An experienced engineer should be in direct charge of
the work for best results.
Cost. — The state road department of Florida, to date, has fifty-one
miles of this type pavement, some of which is two years old. The average
cost on this work has been $0.41 per square yard. This cost is for the
actual construction of the pavement, including all materials, equipment and
labor. It does not include any grading cost.
Maintenance. — Maintenance costs average $180.00 per mile per year.
The surface is machined with a heavy road machine to cut down the
high places. The material thus cut is dragged to the low spots and com
pacted by traffic. The surface tends to wave and shove at times, especially
during hot weather. This condition exists on the Long Island work, but
the heavy road machine keeps the surface reasonably regular in contour.
At times it is necessary to scarify and reshape entire sections. This is
done with satisfactory results. Holes in the surface are patched with
pre-mixed aggregate and bitumen. Shallow holes or raveled spots may
be patched with a light application of bitumen and aggregate.
Conclusions. — The fine aggregate type is used largely where sand

or very fine gravels are found and where climatic conditions are arid or
semi-arid. The process consists of loosening the sandy or gravelly sur
face, blading two or three inches of the material to the side of the road,
application of a slow-curing bitumen, discing, applying oil again, blading
the sand back and over the bitumen, and then by thorough discing and
mixing until a uniform texture is obtained, after which the surface is
flattened out and graded, so that it can be rolled or ironed out further
under traffic.
Stable emulsions must be used when this type of binder is employed.
Tars have also been used to a limited extent in Minnesota. Relative
to tar, Mr. Geo. Martin, consulting engineer of the Barrett Company,
states :
''These jobs have been satisfactory in that they have accomplished

what was desired, but we do not feel that we have done sufficient work
yet to be in any position to say that we have a standard method for carry
ing on the work. In general, I would say that the road should be given
as much tar as is necessary to bind up the loose material on the surface.
It is not the sort of work which can be done immediately and left, but
must be a continuous process over a period of two or three weeks."
GRADED AGGREGATE TYPES

Type A and Type B
General Description.* — When an old gravel or traffic-bound stone

road, of sufficient thickness to carry existing traffic, is to be surfaced, a
portion, or all, of the mineral aggregate for the road-mix wearing course
may be secured by scarifying the old road to a depth which will supply
the required amount of aggregate. When it is necessary to reinforce the
it,
thickness of the existing road, or first to recondition by increasing its

thickness, all of the wearing-course aggregate for the mix must be brought
in as new material.
New Mexico has applied this method to sandy gravels. They have
also used crushed limestone, but did not fail to add sand enough to make
the proportion of sand not less than 35 per cent of the whole. very
It
is
desirable that the material to be treated should also carry small amount
a
of dust.
If comparatively new,
the gravel surface quite possible that
is
is
it
no additional gravel will be required. In this case the existing gravel sur
face can be broken up to depth of inches and treated. However,
is
it
2
a
of the greatest importance that the existing surfacing be compacted

through its entire depth so that there will be firm base under the treated
a
top. The importance of firm base cannot be too strongly emphasized.

a
In the graded aggregate type of mixture, important that the com-

is
it
* Adapted from the Road-mix bulletin of the Asphalt Institute.

pacted mineral aggregate be as dense as possible so as to possess all of

the inherent stability and high load-supporting value of a first-class, slight
ly moist gravel road. Interlocking of the coarser fragments is not essen
tial, but the voids between them should be well packed with fine material
containing an appreciable quantity of two-hundred-mesh particles. Such
aggregate does not require a strong cementing medium to produce a high
load-sup])orting wearing course.
Under the graded aggregate type there are two varieties which are
differentiated from one another by difference in character of the mineral
aggregates which determine the amount of bituminous material required.
This variation in character of aggregates hinges approximately on the
amount of 200 mesh material present, viz. ; material passing 200 mesh
and which, in the construction of bituminous mixed pavements, is fre
quently referred to as filler. Where this kind of material is present in
substantial amount, it is necessary to design the mixture for substantially
complete filling of the voids in order to insure complete stability. Where
the aggregate contains little or no 200 mesh -material, even though it
contains from 25 to 60 per cent passing the 10-mesh sieve, the principle
of mixing is the same as for the coarse aggregate type, viz. ; stability
depending upon the interlocking of the fragments (even though they are
of sand size) plus the cementing character of the bituminous material
the sake of convenience, the variety of aggregate containing
used-^For
less than seven per cent of 200 mesh material will be called Type A,
while aggregate containing over seven per cent will be termed Type B.
As the method of construction varies with the two varieties of agguF"
gates, they will be set forth separately in order to avoid confusion.
An important consideration to bear in mind is that the function of the
binder in a graded aggregate type of construction is different from that
for a coarse aggregate type and, therefore, bituminous materials of differ
ent characteristics are required.
If a bituminous product suitable for the graded aggregate type is used
with the coarse aggregate type, it will not firmly bond the wearing course,
no matter how thoroughly it is compacted. On the other hand, if a bitu
minous product suitable for the coarse aggregate type is used with graded
aggregate, the mixture is likely to ball and set up too quickly.
One other important difference between the two types of construction
should be noted in connection with the method of compaction. The
graded aggregate mixture in which the bituminous material remains liquid,
or very soft, for a considerable period of time, is best compacted by traffic,
accompanied by blading, as in the case of ordinary traffic-bound gravel.
In this manner inequalities in the mixture gradually are corrected and the
final result is an exceptionally smooth riding surface.
A variation of this type of mixture is represented by the work of
E. L. Gates, county highway superintendent in DuPage County. Illinois,
where large 2j^-inch and 3-inch stone are used in the mix. The "blotter
treatment" as employed in Minnesota is also a variation of this method

of construction. It will be described hereinafter.
In this, as in all other types, adequate drainage and a smooth, uniform
subgrade are all-important requisites.
Materials. — Excellent results have been obtained with a wide va
riety of aggregates, but in certain localities in the western section of the
United States poor results have accompanied the use of certain mineral
aggregates, especially those containing caliche, which appear to have a
stronger affinity for water than for the bituminous material with which
they are mixed. Unsatisfactory aggregates usually can be identified by
means of a "swell test" made upon a compressed specimen of the mixture
prepared in the laboratory. In cases where the quality of the aggregate is
questionable, this test may be used to eliminate the poor material. A de
scription of the "swell test" is given hereinafter.
Type A
Depth. — The loose depth should not be over 2 in. or less than 1 in.
Experience has demonstrated that a loose depth of 1 in. to in. is
most desirable and economical for this type of surface.
A depth of less than 1 in. becomes merely a dragged surface treat
ment, and one over 2 in. in depth lacks the stability of the thinner surfaces
and unnecessarily increases the cost.
Type of Aggregate. — (a) Wearing Surface — The mineral aggregate
for the wearing surface should be crushed stone, slag, gravel or pit run
gravel low in clay content, or a mixture of crushed and uncrushed aggre
gate. Clay, even in small quantity is dangerous.
(b) Seal Coat — The mineral aggregate for the seal coat should be
clean crushed stone, crushed gravel, crushed slag or pea gravel.
Crushed stone should be clean and of good quality such as is required
for bituminous macadam where a percentage of wear of 6.0 is per-
missable.
Crushed gravel should be composed entirely of hard, durable particles
of clean stone.
The percentage of wear for uncrushed material, using the modified
abrasion test for gravel, should not exceed 12%. and the per cent of
wear on the angular portion should not exceed 20%.
Crushed or broken slag should be composed of air-cooled blast-furnace
slag which is clean, sound, durable, and reasonably uniform in density.
It should be free from thin, elongated, or glassy pieces and weigh not
less than 70 pounds per cubic foot.
Pea gravel should be composed entirely of hard, durable particles of
clean stone. The percentage of wear, using the modified abrasion test
for gravel, should not exceed 12%.
Size and Grading of Aggregate. — (a) AYearing Surface. The grading
of the aggregate for the wearing surface need not conform to narrow
limitations, but for any one project, should be as uniform as practicable

throughout the entire length. Typical requirements are as follows:
Passing 1 in. screen 100%

Total passing 54 in. screen wt'f
40-70%
Total passing 10 mesh screen 25-50%
Passing 200 mesh sieve Less than 7%
■K
(b) Seal Coat. The grading of the fine aggregate for the seal coat
should meet the following requirements :
Passing % in. screen 100%
Passing % in. screen 0-20
Passing No. 10 screen 0-5
In order to control the grading, new material should be obtained in
two sizes, with the quarter-inch screen as the dividing line, and these
two sizes should be combined and mixed thoroughly on the road in proper
proportions before the bituminous material is applied. When an old road
is scarified to produce mineral aggregate for the wearing course, the loose
material should be bladed into a windrow at the side. Sufficient repre
sentative samples then should be taken and tested to indicate where new
coarse or fine aggregate, and what amount, if any, should be added to
produce a reasonably uniform grading within the generally accepted
grading limits.
Quantity of Bituminous Materials. — The amount of bituminous ma
terial required will be as follows for stone or gravel, or a mixture of both :
TABLE I
Gallons Per Sqlare Yard for Type A
Loose Depth in Inches 1st Mixing 2nd Mixing Seal
2 in. .65 .35 .2
\y2 in. .5 .35 .2
1 in. .35 .35 .2
As aggregate for this type of construction varies considerably in

used
gradation, the quantity of bituminous material required for the mix will
increase or decrease in accordance with the percentage of fine aggregate
passing a % in. screen. Another factor which controls the quantity of
bituminous material is porosity. For instance, a porous aggregate such
as slag requires considerably more bitumen than does a dense aggregate.
A slag weighing about will require approximately
70 pounds per cubic foot
25% more bitumen than called for in the above table. Heavier and less
porous slag requires less additional bitumen according to its density.
Specifications for Bituminous Material. — The quantities of bitumen
given in Table I are average quantities. Particular care should be taken
to see that an excess amount of bitumen is not used in the mix. It is
better to have a lean rather than a rich mix. A lean mix may be taken
care of by the addition of a heavy seal coat, whereas a rich mix requires
the addition of new aggregate and re-mixing.
Requirements for tar when used in the various steps should be as
follows :
A refined tar which may be fluxed to the desired viscosity with a water-gas tar
and/or distillate of coal tar, and also meeting the following specifications:
Application Temperature 80-150° F.
Specific Gravity at 2SV25* C 1.13-1.22
Water, Per Cent by Volume, not more than 2.0
Specific Viscosity
50 cc. at 40° C. (for spring and fall use) 18-25
50 cc. at 50° C. (for summer use) 16-22
Distillation, 100 grams :
Per cent by weight to 170° G, not more than 5
Per cent by weight to 300° C, not more than 40
Specific Gravity at 38°/38° C. of total
Distillate to 300° C, not less than 0.98
Distillation Residue :
C. (R&B), not more than
°
Softening point 35-60
Total bitumen (Sol. in CS.) % by wt 89-98
Requirements for asphalt when used in the various steps should be

as follows :
Liquid Asphaltic Road Material, MC-3
Application Temperature 160° F.-200° F.
Flash, not less than 150° F.
Furol Viscosity 140° F 300-500
Distillation to 437° F., not more than 2
Distillation to 600° F 8-20
Distillation to 680° F„ not more than 25
Penetration of Residue 100-300
Ductility of Residue, not less than 60
Solubility in CS* not less than 99.5
N.B. The variation in spring, summer and fall temperatures is taken care of by simply heat
ing the material to a little higher temperature in cool weather.
Requirements for asphalt emulsions when used according to con

struction steps discussed hereinafter are those for a slow setting emulsion
for the mixing operation as specified under Emulsion AE-2 in the previous
section on "Fine Aggregate Type." For the seal coat a quick setting
material, either Emulsion AE-1 or AE-3 is used. These are also dis
cussed in the previous section.
Construction Methods.* — When all, or a portion, of the mineral
aggregate is obtained by scarifying an old road, it is important that all
lumps of bonded material first should be broken up into individual frag
ments bv harrowing and blading, after which the loose material should be
bladed into a single windrow and sampled for grading. New material
then should be added if necessary and thoroughly mixed with the old
material by blading and harrowing, after which the mixed aggregate
again should be bladed into a triangular windrow of uniform cross-section
•Adapted with alterations from Manual No. 1 on Road-mix Types of the Asphalt Institute.
and measured. From the loose weight per unit volume the proper rate of
application for the bituminous material, per square yard of road surface,
to conform to the predetermined proportion, then is ascertained.
The same method may be used when all of the mineral aggregate con
sists of new material purchased on a volume basis. When purchased and
used on a weight basis, however, the proper rate of application may be
determined directly and without recourse to volume measurement. Two
methods of determining the proper rate of application for the bituminous
material have been described.
Application of the Bituminous Material. — Before application of the
bituminous material, the windrowed aggregate should be bladed over the
road surface in a layer of uniform thickness for the entire width of con
struction. If wet or damp, it first should be bladed back and forth until
no free moisture can be distinguished by sight or touch.
The bituminous material should be heated in the tank car and applied
uniformly at a temperature given in the bitumen specifications, by means
of a pressure distributor. -The distributor should be equipped with steam
coils or some other heating device, so that, if for any reason a load be
comes too cold for proper application, its temperature may be raised to
between 160 degrees and 200 degrees F.
Application of the bituminous material should be made for the full
width of the road in increments as recommended under "Quantity of
Bituminous Materials," until the total required quantity has been applied.
Proper Road-Mixing Process. — A mixing unit should follow the dis
tributor immediately for the preliminary mixing and should work up and
down the treated strip until all free bituminous material has been incor
porated with the mineral aggregate. When the next load of bituminous
material is applied, it should follow the distributor again. In this manner
the newly applied material will always be sufficiently combined with the
aggregate to permit the passage of traffic without its picking up badly.
After the first application has been made and mixed across the entire
width of the roadway, a blade moves half the roadway material to a
windrow down the center of the road. The second treatment with bitu
minous material should then be applied to the solid surface of the road
way thus exposed and the windrowed material bladed back over it. The
other half of the roadway should then be windrowed, treated, and spread.
If using blade, mixing of the treated section is continued with one or
more road graders. One-man, power-driven bladers are more satisfactory
for this purpose. The treated aggregate first should be bladed into a
windrow at one side of the road, after which it should be moved in suc
cessive cuts to a windrow at the other side, care being taken not to bring
in untreated base or shoulder material. Such practice is preferable to
attempting to move large quantities in a single operation. This opera
tion is repeated until the bituminous material and aggregate are mixed
thoroughly to a uniform color and are free from fat spots, balls and un
coated particles. This may require as many as ten complete transpositions

with from forty to fifty individual cuts of the blades. More mixing
work is required in cool than in warm weather. If the mixture should
become wet before the mixing process is complete, the blading operation
should be continued until it has dried out.
If using multiple pin mixers, or multiple blade, or long base disc
mixers the number of passes through the material to perfect mixing is
reduced to two or three round trips. Long base equipment should be
demanded, as it makes for smooth riding qualities in the finished job.
Protection of the edges of the wearing course is of great importance,
as edge failures are likely to be progressive and may involve unnecessary
maintenance costs unless prevented by proper construction methods. In
the graded aggregate type this prevention is accomplished by making a
thickened edge. Additional edge thickness should be provided for, just
prior to the final spread of the mixture from the windrow, by making a
triangular cut with the grader at each edge of the base course. This cut
should be about two inches deep at the outside, sloping to zero at a point
about two feet in and toward the center. As the mixture is smoothed out
and compacted there is no tendency to make a feather edge, while the
infiltration of water under the road surface is much reduced. Further-
, more, the material bladed from the base provides a part of the shoulder
and affords additional lateral support.

Compacting the Mixture. — Traffic should be allowed on the road to
compact the surface. When the mixture becomes tacky or sticky, the
surface should be dragged with a long base drag to remove any irregu
larities caused by traffic.
It is not necessary to roll this type of surface, as complete compaction
is obtained by the action of traffic. If desired, the surface may be rolled
with three-wheeled rollers weighing not over 350 pounds per linear inch
width of roll, care being taken to see that the roller wheels are kept wet
to prevent picking up the surface. The addition of chips after rolling
once over is advantageous. The roller also may be used to close the en
tire surface when a spell of rainy weather threatens before traffic has
effected thorough compaction or if the hardening type of bituminous
material is used in cool weather. Traffic and blading compaction may be
required for a period of three to ten days before a surface is produced
which ceases to be rutted by traffic. Proper blading during this period,
however, produces an exceptionally smooth riding surface.
Application of the Seal Coat. — Should unsatisfactory areas develop
during compaction, they may easily be corrected. Thus, a persistent re
tention of moisture, due to rainy weather, may become localized, so that,
while most of the area will be dried during mixing, some spots will re
main moist. In such cases, the wet areas will appear abnormally rich after
compaction. They should be corrected by removing and thoroughly drying
the mixture before replacement. Other local defects, due to poor work
manship, also should be corrected according to the judgment of the en

gineer.
The seal coat should not be applied sooner than one week after the
mixing operation is completed, and it is preferable to defer this work
for several weeks whenever practicable, in order to allow complete harden
ing of the mixture. When applied too soon the whole surface is softened
and the setting up time retarded. This is highly important. Either hot
or cold application bituminous material may be used for the seal. Appli
cation of the seal coat may be delayed for some time, but, in damp or
cold climates, it should be applied before the first winter sets in.
Fig. 2. — Broom Dragging to Produce Smooth Driving Surface
Covering Seal Coat with Aggregate and Dragging Surface. — The

bituminous seal coat should be covered immediately with the fine aggre
gate, which must be applied evenly and uniformly.
The fine aggregate is immediately dragged by means of a maintainer,
or approved type of long base drag, until thoroughly mixed with the
binder and spread uniformly over the surface of the road. This tends
to remove any slight depressions and to distribute the mixture uniformly,
resulting in a smooth riding surface.
Final Compaction. — After dragging, the aggregate is inbedded in the
surface, either by traffic or rolling.
Summary of Construction Methods. — Type A. — The step by step
construction is as follows :
(1) Preliminary preparation of existing road surface.

(2) First application of bitumen.
(3) Mixing.
(4) Second application of bitumen.
(5) Mixing.
(6) Compacting.
(7) Seal coat of bitumen.
(8) Covering seal coat with aggregate and dragging.
(9) Final compaction.
Construction Procedure Using Emulsions. — Where the material pass
ing 10-mesh does not exceed 15 or 20% and the material passing the
200-mesh sieve does not exceed 2%, mixing may be readily accomplished
by first dampening the aggregate with water and then mixing with a
suitable quantity of extremely slow-setting emulsified asphalt. The quan
tity required is usually about }i gallon per inch of finished thickness in
addition to the seal coat hereafter mentioned.
Where the material passing 10-mesh is from 20 to 45% and the ma
terial passing the 200-mesh sieve is more than 2%, a thorough soaking
of the aggregate with water is necessary prior to the application of emulsi
fied asphalt. The amount of emulsified asphalt should be increased to %
or one gallon per square yard per inch of finished thickness. It should
preferably be applied in a single application followed immediately by a
spring tooth or disc harrow to prevent run-off.
Mixing is accomplished with a multiple blade maintainer or a blade
grader. Usually 8 to 12 turnings are necessary to accomplish thorough
mixing.
The work is best carried on mixing a half roadway at a time and in
sections of about 500 feet for each blade grader to be used in the mixing
operation.
After the material is mixed and distributed on the roadway, it should
be rolled and opened to traffic.
In lieu of the wetting of aggregate where fine material is present, it
is sometimes found economical to prime the aggregate with light bitumi
nous primer at 122° F., applied at the rate of J4 to ^ gallon per square
yard per inch of finished thickness. This primer is mixed with the aggre
gate by turning with blade graders and then the emulsified asphalt added
as above described except that the quantity ordinarily need not exceed
K gallon per square yard.
Seal Coat. — After the surface has been under traffic for a week or
more and is thoroughly compacted, the seal coat is required. This con
sists of an application of % gallon per square yard of quick setting emul
sified asphalt, with a cover coat of about 15 pounds per square yard of
H t0 % inch stone chips.
Maintenance Methods.— Moisture is the worst enemy of the graded
aggregate type of road-mix construction and usually is responsible for
any_locaIIzed failures which may develop, provided the materials .and
workmanship of the original construction conform to the foregoing
description. If the seal coat is kept intact, and is renewed at suitable
intervals, no bad effects from surface water will occur and additional
maintenance will consist mainly in patching small defective areas. In such
areas, the cause of failure first should be ascertained. A thin spot in the
base course should, of course, be reinforced by excavation and replace
ment with satisfactory material of sufficient thickness to afford the nec
essary support before the wearing course is patched. In certain cases,
areas in the base course may consist of highly capillary material, which
should be removed and replaced. In other cases, installation of additional
drainage facilities may be required.
Frequently the original excavated wearing-course mixture may be
replaced if first allowed thoroughly to dry out. If the bituminous mixture
appears faulty, however, or has become mixed with base-course or sub-
grade material, fresh mixture should be used in the replacements.* Such
mixture may be prepared by hand mixing suitable products as specified
for original construction. Replacements should be compacted thoroughly
by tamping or rolling, then painted with a light coat of the same bitumi
nous material and sanded.
Maintenance, particularly during the first year following construction,
may be expected as on any other new surface. If holes occur, they should
be patched with pre-mixes of bitumen and aggregate. If needed, a main
tenance seal coat of bituminous material should be applied the next year
after construction. Additional seal coats, using either hot or cold appli
cation bituminous material, will be required at varying intervals from
1 to 3 years, depending upon traffic and climatic conditions.
Unsatisfactory results sometimes are caused by faulty proportioning.

Although the method of predetermining correct proportions, as described,
at first may appear somewhat complicated, in reality it is very simple
and should be used to eliminate possible trouble through the use of too
little or too much bituminous material. However, this type of construc
tion readily lends itself to readjustment of proportions at any time after
completion. In this respect it is unique.
Thus, if too little bituminous material originally was used and the
mixture tends to ravel or absorb moisture so as to become soggy in wet
weather, the entire wearing course may be scarified and mixed with suffi
cient additional bituminous material to correct the trouble. In like manner,
if an excess of bitumen was used originally and the wearing course, after
compaction, becomes unstable from this cause, it may be scarified and
mixed with sufficient new graded aggregate to produce a stable mixture.
Heavy _steglriired vehicles constitute the most destructive class of
traffic for this type of wearing course and should the roadway "become
rutted or uneven from traffic of any sort, it can be scarified and rebladed
to an even surface while being recompacted by traffic.
Type B
Description. — This type of surface is utilized for surfacing loose

traffic-bound stone, slag or gravel roads, wherein the aggregate does not
exceed 1 in. maximum size and is continuously graded down to and in

cluding from 5 to 14 per cent of 200 mesh material.
It consists of the proper preparation of the road surface, followed by
the combination of the graded mineral aggregate and bituminous ma
terial, mixed in place on the road surface and consolidated by traffic, with
the addition of a bituminous seal coat and mineral aggregate cover.
Materials. — Aggregate. — When an old gravel or traffic-bound stone

road of sufficient thickness to carry existing traffic is to be surfaced, a
portion or all of the mineral aggregate for the road-mix wearing course
may be secured by scarifying the old road to a depth which will supply
the required amount of aggregate. When it is necessary to reinforce the
■existing road by increasing its thickness, all of the wearing course aggre
gates for the mix must be brought in as new material ; while if the old
road is only slightly deficient in thickness, a combination of scarifying
and new material will produce the right amount for the road-mix process.
In general, the grading of the aggregate need not conform to narrow de
tailed limitations, but on any given job should be made as uniform as
practicable throughout its entire length. Some test for capillarity of the
fine particles or their affinity for water is necessary for some materials.
The Highway Departments of California and of Arizona and others have
devised a test which they use with good results. A standardized test for
this would be welcomed. Satisfactory general grading limitations are as
follows :
Passing one inch screen 100%

Total passing % in. screen 50 to 70%
Total passing 10 mesh sieve 35 to 60%
Passing 200 mesh sieve 7 to 14%
In order to control new material should be obtained in

the grading,
two sizes with the }4-in. screen as the dividing line, and these two sizes
should be combined and mixed thoroughly on the road in proper propor
tions before the bituminous material is applied. When an old road is
scarified to produce mineral aggregate for the wearing course, the loose
material should be bladed in a windrow at the roadside. Sufficient repre
sentative samples then should be taken and tested to indicate the char
acter of new aggregate, if any, that should be added to produce a reason
ably uniform grading to comply with the above accepted grading limits.
Either gravel, crushed stone or crushed slag aggregate may be used
satisfactorily.
Bituminous Materials. — When asphaltic materials are used, either of
two products can be specified for the construction of graded aggregate
type — one a non-hardening liquid product, and the other a cut-back asphalt
containing a slowly volatile distillate.
The first type is recommended only for arid or semi-arid areas of
the country or where winter frost conditions are not severe. In all other
cases, the slow-curing cut-back asphalt is recommended as it hardens suf

ficiently so that it may not be displaced by capillary water. The specifica
tions for these two classes of products are as follows :
Asphaltic Material SC-2 MC-2
Class Non-Hardening Hardening
Water and Sediment % 2—■ —
Flash °F 200+ 150+
Furol Viscosity 122° F 200 to 320
Furol Viscosity 14;)° F 150 to 250
Distillation, Per Cent by Volume
Total distillate to 437° F 2— 2—
Total distillate to 600° F 15— 10 to 20
Total distillate to 680° F 25— 27—
Tests on Residue from Distillation
Float 122° F —
25+
Penetration 77° F 100 to 300
Ductility 77° F 60+
Per cent Soluble in CS, 99+ 99.5 +
When tar products are used, the following specification is recom
mended :
Tar Material Specification Limits

Application Temperature 100-150° F.
Water. Per Cent by Weight, not more than 1.0
Specific Gravity at 25° C 1.14-1.22
Specific Viscosity, Engler
50 cc. at 50° C (a) 16-22
50 cc. at 50° C (b) 26-36
Soluble in Carbon Disulphide, per cent by wt 89-98
Distillation, A. S. T. M.
0-170° C, per cent by wt., not more than 5
Specific Gravity at 38° C. of total
distillate to 300° C, not less than 0.98
Softening Point Distillation, Residue, °C.
(Ring and Ball Method) 35-60
(a) For use in cool weather

(b) For use in warm weather.
Proportioning the Mixture. — Use of

the correct amount of bituminous
material with the particular mineral aggregate with which it is to be mixed
is .of great jmportance. While a number of formulas based upon the grad
ing of the aggregate have been devised for the purpose of predetermining
the proper proportion, investigations of the principles of design of hot-
jnix bituminous paving mixtures have demonstrated, according to the
Asphalt Institute, that the bitumen should be proportioned more properly
upon the basis of void content of the compacted mineral aggregate than
upon its screen analysis. New Mexico*, however, has used the screen-
analysis method successfully. Void content of compacted mineral aggre-
* California and North Dakota use the surface area method also. The reader may use the
curves shown herein, together, rather than a formula, if desired. In general,for Type B graded
aggregate, the density method is employed.
gate is ascertained readily by the method described below. Screen analy-

sis, of course, is important from the standpoint of obtaining a uniformity
of suitable mineral aggregate.
In ascertaining of bituminous material to use it is
the correct amount
important that the mineral aggregate be practically free from moisture.
When the proper proportions have been determined it is equally impor
tant that the aggregate should be dry before the bituminous material,
other than emulsions, is applied during construction. It is impracticable
sometimes to prepare the aggregate on the road in a "bone dry" condition,
but not more than two per cent by weight of moisture should be present
when the bituminous material is applied.
Laboratory Proportioning of Graded Aggregate Mixtures. — Specific
Gravity of Mineral Aggregate. — The mineral aggregate should first be
carefullyseparated into two fractions by means of the quarter-inch screen
and the weight percentage of each fraction determined. Separate specific
gravity determinations of the two fractions are then made by the follow
ing methods :
Specific Gravity of Coarse Fraction. — A.S.T.M. Standard Method
D30-18.
Specific Gravity of Fine Fraction. — A.S.T.M. Standard Method
D-55-25, or the pycnometer and general method for determining specific
gravity of asphaltic material may be used.
The specific gravity of the total aggregate is calculated from the weight
percentage and specific gravity of each fraction by the following formula
in which W and W represent the weight per cent of coarse and fine
fractions and G and G' their respective specific gravities.
100
Sp. Gr.
w+ w
G G'
Specific Gravity of Asphaltic Material. — A.S.T.M. Standard Method

D70-27.
Voids in Compacted Mineral Aggregate — about 2,000 grams of min
eral aggregate should be mixed with approximately 60 grams of bitumi
nous material with which it is to be used. The entire mixture is then placed"
in a cyJilirlrical .metal mold of exactly six inches internal diameter and
thoroughly compacted by tamping. During this operation, the mold should
rest upon a riaFmetal plate. A close-fitting metal plunger should then be
inserted and struck 100 blows_with a wooden mallet of about three pounds
weight to even off the surface and compress the mixture. The height of
the molded specimen in centimeters is then ascertained and the density
of the compressed mineral aggregate calculated by the following formula,
in which d = density of compressed mineral aggregate, h = height in
centimeters of compressed mixture in the mold, and 182.4 = area of sur

face of briquette in square centimeters.
2000
or
10.96
y
h X 182.4
The percentage of voids in mineral aggregate, exclusive of the bitumen

following formula, in which V — percentage
used, is then calculated by the
voids, D = specific gravity of mineral aggregate as previously deter
mined, and d = density of compressed mineral aggregate.
y_ 100 (D-d)
D
Correct Proportion of Bituminous Material. —The percentage of voids
in the compacted mineral aggregate, as previously determined, serves as
a guide for ascertaining the correct percentage of bituminous material to
use in a road-mix of this type. It is well to design the mixture to contain
6 per cent voids by volume after compaction, as this will allow for tem
perature changes" and variable moisture "conTent. V — 6, therefore, repre
sents the unit volume of bituminous material. If g = the specific gravity
of the bituminous material, then g (V — 6) represents its unit weight.
The density of the compacted mineral aggregate or its unit weight, having
already been determined as d, the correct weight proportion of bituminous
material is determined by the following formula :
„. . ,
material =
• 100$r (V — 6) ^y
% Bituminous
100d + g(V — 6)
For example, if the specific gravity of
the bituminous material is 1.02,
the density of compacted aggregate is 2.20 and its per cent of voids is 17
by volume, the pro])er weight proportion of bituminous material would be
102(17 — 6)
220+1.02(17 — 6)
4.85%
"
In general, the amount of bituminous material required may be ob
tained from Table II
which gives the amount required to. fill the voids,
less six per cent allowance for temperature and moisture content changes.
Because of volume changes in the bituminous material between summer
and winter temperatures, good design calls for provision to absorb these
variations within the mixture itself without breaking, and by leaving six
per cent voids in the mixture as finally laid on the roadway, experience
has shown that a strong waterproof and durable surface will be had and
at the same time all volume changes of the constituents of the mix will
be taken up in these voids, without any volume change in the mix as a
whole.
Screen Analysis Method of Proportioning Mixture. — New Mexico's
2<A LOW COST ROADS AND BRIDGES
Worth Dakota Department of State Htahways

at Curvt for Oct'rmtninq Surface *4r*a Of Aqareqate Af/xfvroj Of Vortovs
Gradmqj
fog
Sf/fon
/Pound
7b (fffermiftc svrtmet art* t>faa^rtaofr 3crt*n
0jf Jiert ana(yj's dmfwrmmtMe Omovnf-ef each-Jit* tf o^frtq»*e. '/.■H ?4-Jf /2
f
7%emorr fcrtemtsje*',**** reefer Me ttttt/rocy f4-Jf /Ometfi 3.0
JFtpttMSeetJi Jtie os per wit of fvf**f. romash 20 ■ ».s
20 ■ 46 • 22 0
ta • IB • *t\0
ftsfjftSett*. Tmf*lwtt beferret* tree /naff*. e.r/fad */ 4MMW*
so • 100 • its
100 - ZOO• /oso
700 - 240'
&n*m* tTtfemee'ffrtettr
2f Srr/lct Ant • .2SH /2 •O.Jo s, ft.
/OmtjA /a ./S * J. O -
OS* • •
/omtsh 20 - ./o JO* tf• 0.1S • •
.is 'Ho • Ho
•-
.0* *4J.O • IS* • ■
At »17S • 2.0 2 • •
* • . // w/OSo* /ISS ' -
./Q » 2440- 240 o - -
To/o/ • 41. So - •
,00 SO /OO /JO /40 /*0 /IO 200 220

/frrxs'vJarr //y Ons Fow/p or V/ti roust Sur /tigers/or^
Fig. 3. — Curve Used by North Dakota State Highway Department for Determining
Surface Area of Aggregate Mixtures. In Con] unction with Fig. 4 These Data
Are Employed for Determining Quantities of Bitumen.
experience with the graded aggregate type road-mix has been based upon
the employment of the sieve-analysis method of calculating quantity of
bituminous product required.
By carefully screening samples taken from a windrow thrown up on
center of the road an engineer can determine closely the amount of bitumen
needed with the help of the following formula:
P= (ox 0.02) + (bX 0.07) + (c X 0.15) + (d X 0.20)
In the above, P represents the percentage of bitumen required in
pounds (a gallon of bitumen is about 8 pounds) ; a is percentage of gravel
(in pounds) of material held on a screen having openings 1/48-inch in
diameter; b is percentage of material (in pounds) passing the 48 screen
and held on a screen having openings of 1/100-inch; c is the percentage of
material (in pounds)passing the 100-mesh screen and held on a screen
having openings 1/200-inch in diameter; d is the percentage of material
passing the 200-mesh screen.
Swell Test. — The method for making this test in the Bureau of Public
Roads laboratory is to mix the aggregate with approximately the amount
of bitumen that would be used in construction work. One thousand grams
of the mixture then are placed in a cylinder four inches in diameter and
six inches high and molded under a pressure of about 2,000 pounds per
Note: — Lower curves arc used for hard, round, non-absorptive aggregates and low viscosity
bitumens. The upper curve's arc used for more irregular, absorptive aggregates, and higher
viscosity bitumens. To get pounds of bitumen per ton of aggregate multiply "Oil Ratio" by 2000.
Courtesy California Highway Department.
Fig. 4. — Curves Recently Developed by California, After Inspecting and Studying
Many Roads in Service Which Were Designed for Bitumen Content by Sur
face Area Method. These Curves Are Used with Fig. 3
square inch. After compression the specimen is left in the mold and a
slip cover, made of No. 40-mesh sieve supported in a frame, is placed
flush against the under side of the mold. The mold containing the speci
men then is placed in a water bath so that there is one-eighth inch of
clearance from the bottom of the tank. The water level in the bath is
kept about one inch above the surface of the specimen while the specimen
in the mold is covered with about one-half inch of water. The amount
of swelling is measured on the top of the specimen by means of an Ames
dial, contact with the specimen being made by a thin metal disc one inch
in diameter. Readings are taken at regular intervals until maximum swell
ing is obtained. A swelling of as little as one-sixteenth of an inch indi
cates that only mediocre success can be expected from the use of the par
ticular aggregate. Aggregates entirely unsuitable for mixing have given
swelling as great as three-quarters of an inch under the conditions of this
test.
Field Proportioning of Mixtures. — The following calculation, as ex
plained by the Asphalt Institute, determines the final quantities :
Assume that the predetermined formula requires 95 per cent mineral
aggregate and 5 per cent bituminous material, that the specific gravity of
the bituminous material is .96 and that the apparent specific gravity of
the compacted mineral aggregate has been determined as 2.18, which is
equivalent to 136 pounds per cubic foot. Assume also that a wearing
course is to be constructed to a compacted depth of two inches for a
width of twenty feet.
If the aggregate is to be used on a volume basis, its loose weight per
cubic foot is first ascertained. Assume that this weight is found to be
110 pounds. For each linear foot of roadway, it is evident the
20 X % = 3.33 cubic feet of compacted aggregate will be required. This
453
is equivalent to 3.33 X 136 = 453 pounds of aggregate or = 412
110
cubic feet of loose aggregate per linear foot. The windrow of loose ma
terial should average this amount by measurement. If the aggregate is
2000
used on a weight basis, one ton should be spread for every = 4.42
453
linear feet of road." This, of course, is merely a typical example.
As stated in the introduction, there is a different principle underlying
the use of aggregates, depending on the amount of very fine material
which it contains. Under Type B, as above arbitrarily defined, the mix
ture will contain from five to fourteen per cent of 200 mesh material.
( Such aggregate will be found chiefly in the Southern and Western
States and not generally in the North and East). To determine the
amount of bituminous material required for Type B, it is essential to de
termine the percentage of voids in the compacted aggregate mixture.
This procedure has been explained fully above. Having determined the
percentage of voids, Table II may be' used, in place of the formula, to
obtain the quantity of bitumen.
TABLE II
Average Gallons Bituminous Material Require©
Gallons of Bituminous Material
Percentage Percentage
of Voids in of Voids Per 100 Ft..
Compacted Deduction to Be Per Sq. Yd. 20 Ft. Wide.
Min. Ag\j. Factor Filled 1 Inch Thick 1 Inch Thick
15 6 ' 9 .50 112.2
16 6 10 .56 124.7
17 6 11 .62 137.1
18 . 6 12 .67 149.5
19 6 13 .73 162.0
20 6 14 .78 174.5
21 6 15 .84 187.0
"
22 6 16 .90 199.5
23 6 17 .95 212.0
24 6 18 1.01 224.4.
25 6 19 1.07 236.9
N.B. While occasionally fine graded aggregates are found with a per cent of voids higher
than 25, and although stability can be obtained with appropriate increased amount of bitumen, it
is r-commended that in such cases, coarse particles be added in sufficient quantity to reduce the
voids in the aggregate to less than 25 per cent.
Because of the depth of the graded aggregate Type B, it usually is

not necessary to prime the sub-base, as the somewhat irregular contour
of the road-mix effectively prevents any movement between the wearing
course mixture and the untreated material underneath. However a light
prime coat will prevent picking up of the untreated base while mixing.
Construction Methods. — These are explained in detail as follows :
Conditioning of Road-bed. — This is similar to that explained for

Type A.
Void Determination. — Determine the percentage of voids in the com
pacted aggregate.
First Application of Bituminous Material. — A pressure distributor,
preferably operating on pneumatic tires, should be used for all applica
tions. The distributor should be equipped with steam coils or some other
heating device, so that, if for any reason a load becomes too cold for
proper application, its temperature may be raised to between 125° and
200° F.
Application of the bituminous material should be made for the full
width of the road in increments of about ^gallon per square^yard each,
until the total required quantity has been applied. For a two-inch com
pacted thickness, the total quantity will usually lie between 1J4 and 1^4
gallons per square yard and will involve three or four applications. Be
tween each increment of the application, the material already applied
should be mixed with the aggregate. No application should be made
unless the air temperature in the shade is above 50° F.
First Preliminary Mixing. — A tractor-drawn disc or spring-tooth har
row should follow the distributor immediately for the preliminary mixing
and should be operated over the treated surface until all free bituminous
material has been incorporated with the mineral aggregate. This first
mixing is continued only to a point where the surface is not picked up
by the subsequent passage of traffic or equipment.
Subsequent Applications of Bituminous Material and Mixing. — When
the next load of bituminous material is applied, the harrow should imme
diately follow the distributor. Under ordinary conditions, on a job of
any magnitude, two harrows will be required. In this manner the newly
applied material will always be sufficiently combined with the aggregate
to permit the passage of traffic without the surface being picked up.
After the first application has been made and harrowed across the entire
width of the road-way, additional treatments with bituminous material
should be applied and harrowed in the same manner until the total pre
determined quantity has been incorporated with the aggregate.
Mixing of Bituminous Material and Aggregate. — This is accomplished
the same as described for this operation under Type A.
Placing in Center Windrow. — After the aggregate has been uniformly
coated, it is brought to a single windrow down the center of the road-way.
Cutting V-Shapcd Trench for Greater Edge Thickness. — This is ac

complished in the same manner as described for Type A.
Spreading and Compacting the Mixture. — This operation has also been
discussed under Type A.
Application of ScaT Coat. — After a smooth-riding, well compacted
wearing course has been produced and all unsatisfactory areas have been
remedied, a light seal coat of the same bituminous material as used in
mixing operations, should be applied at the rate of approximately 0.15
gallons to the square yard, and covered with a light application of coarse
sand or fine crushed aggregate under inch size. While in arid or
l/i
semi-arid climates this seal coat may be delayed, in damp or cold climates
should always be applied before the first winter sets in. The aggregate
it
should be dragged with broom-drag until

a smooth and even surface
a
obtained.
is
Summary of Construction Operations. — Type B. — The step by step

construction for compacted thickness of to inches as follows
is
2
3
a
:
Conditioning road-bed, either by scarifying, addition of new loose
1.
aggregate, or combination of both to produce uniform condition.

a
a
Apply first application of bituminous material at rate of 0.5 gal
2.
lon per square yard.

Follow distributor immediately with mixing equipment this pre
3.
;
liminary mixing for the purpose of incorporating the bitumen with the
is
aggregate so as to prevent the bitumen from running to road-side.

Continue applications of bituminous material in 0.5 gallon incre
4.
ments, followed immediately each time by preliminary mixing, until total

required amount has been applied.
Mix aggregate and bituminous material thoroughly, until uni
5.
form condition obtains.

Place in windrow down center to road-way.
7. 6.
Cut Y-shaped trench at each side of road to produce thickened

edge.
repeated passes of
by
Spread mixture in thin successive layers

8.
blade grader.
Continue blading for several days, during which time surface
is
9.
consolidated under traffic, sometimes with light rolling.

10. Several weeks later apply seal coat of 0.15 gallon bituminous
material, and cover coat of aggregate C/i inch to 10 mesh).
11. Tiroom-drag to smooth even surface without rolling.
a
Maintenance. — Maintenance methods for Type are the same as

B
for Type already described.

A
Recommendations on Type B. — This type of surfacing particu

is
larly adapted to improving gravel and traffic-bound surfaces which con

tain substantial amounts of silt and clay passing 200 mesh sieve, or using
crusher-run aggregates or bank-run aggregates also containing large
gigvx in
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amounts of such sizes, which would not otherwise be considered suitable

for road-mix work.
The most desirable depth for this Type-B is between two inches and
Mhree inches compacted thickness.
The bitumen to be used will vary according to climaticjcgodjiions but
the me(burn_ curing materjals_are_ recommended because of resistance to
displacement by capillary moisture while yet retaining ability to be re
worked if required.
As the stability of the mixture depends upon substantially complete
filling of the voids, it is highly desirable to determine the per cent of
voids in the aggregate to be used, and thus control the appropriate amount
of bituminous material for a given condition. If this is done within rea
sonably close limits, surfaces of long life and extraordinarly smooth rid
ing may be obtained.
Minnesota '^Blotter Treatment." — The following discussion was
taken from a paper on this subject published in the February, 1930, issue
of Roads and Streets. The paper was prepared by F. C. Lang of the
Minnesota Highway Department. The method of treatment for such a
surface is as follows:
The first operation consists of grading all of the loose, material on
one-half of the road to the center of the road, thus exposing a smooth
hard surface. In only a few instances have we resorted to sweeping, for
usually the surface is such that sweeping would not be possible. The
ideal road surface at the time of the first application should be smooth,
well compacted, dry, and free from dust.
The second operation is the spraying of the prepared surface with
about 0.3 to 0.5 gal. of heated bituminous material.
Third operation. — After about 24 hours, or when the first application
has completely penetrated and set up, the surface is again sprayed with
to y$ gal. of bituminous material, and at once covered by blading the
loose material previously removed onto the fresh bitumen. This would
be considered the "blotter coat." In case the bladed material contains an
excess of fines of a non-granular nature, it is wasted over the shoulder,
and suitable material for covering is windrowed on the opposite shoulder,
bringing the total amount of covering material up to about 350 cu. yd.
per mile. The best covering material is gravel or, where available, stone
chips, all passing a Y» or in. screen and having from 15 to 30 per cent
T/2
passing No. 10 sieve. Where we have aggregate plants near, such a

a
material used. Usually, however, selected local deposits are used and
is
the amount passing the No. 10 sieve may be as high as 60 per cent.
Fourth operation. — The opposite side of the roadway then cleared
is
with grader, throwing the loose gravel into windrow over the edge
a
a
of the treated section and leaving the opposite side free for treating.
operation. — The remaining side treated with penetration coat
is
Fifth
and allowed to set up the same as the first side treated.
Sixth operation. —This side is then treated with

a second coat of bitu
minous material and loose graded material bladed in from side for cover
the same as before.
Seventh operation. — The roadway is dragged a number of times to
smooth it and work all the gravel possible into the bituminous material.
This dragging operation is continued for a period of three to five days, or
until the surface has set up to such an extent that dragging does not do
any good, or the surface at that time is in a hard condition. At this time
any small breaks or holes should immediately be patched with pre-mixed
material, using the same grade of bitumen and the same aggregate as is
used for the "blotter coat." If large holes develop, a coarser grade of
road metal may be used to insure a more stable patch.
At completion, the crown for a 30-ft. top would be from 6 to 9 in.
This method is really a combination of the penetration and road-mixing
methods. Its success depends largely on penetration into compacted sur
faces. The thickness of the bituminous mat after the first treatment is
about y$ in. Subsequent treatments, scarifying, etc., increase the thick
ness of the mat, and result in it becoming 3 or 4 in. in thickness. In this
class of treatment in the past, tar has usually been used, but we have
recently made some use of cut-back asphalt and it appears to be very
promising.
V Construction Costs. — On this type of road construction the daily
traffic varies between^ZQP and l,500jvehicles per day. Initial cost for a
24-ft. surface ranges between $1,600 and $1,800 per mile. The entire
cost of maintenance of this surface for 1927 was $995 for a 17.6-mile
project. This included in addition to the usual patching a retreatment of
about yi gal. per sq. yd. of bituminous material and 125 cu. yd. per mile
of cover. The entire cost for 1928 was $416, which included blading,
smoothing, patching, etc., but no retreatment. In 1929 the road was re
treated in a manner similar to the 1927 treatment at a total cost of $1,044.
This particular road carries more traffic than is ordinarily the case on
our bituminous treatments. The traffic count Aug. 5 to 11, 1929, was
2,109 vehicles per day. The maintenance on this road is such that at
practically all times it provides as good and satisfactory a riding surface
as would a pavement.
COARSE AGGREGATE TYPE

General Description. — The road-mix surface composed of crushed
aggregate mixed with bituminous material gives an economical and ex
tremely durable, smooth riding surface, meeting all requirements for a
serviceable low-cost surface.
Each year an increased mileage of road-mix surfacing has been con
structed, and this type is rapidly gaining favor with our highway en
gineers throughout the country.
With the various materials, and different methods of construction in

use, we will try to review what has been and is being done, and make
recommendations as to the proper materials to use and the best practices
to be employed in the construction of coarse aggregate road-mix surfaces.
This is based on an investigation of numerous jobs in different parts
of the country.
The type of construction consists in mixing, on the road surface itself,
local aggregates as found on the road, or as may be placed there by haul
ing, with either a cold binder of asphalt or tar. In most cases, however,
the bitumen is warmed to a fluid consistency.
The coarse aggregate type is a combination of open graded mineral
aggregate and bituminous material- mixed in place on the road surface
and consolidated by rolling, with the addition of a bituminous seal coat
and covering material. The loose depth of surfacing is usually not more
than three inches or less than one inch. This type of surface depends
upon the keying action of the aggregate and bituminous binder for
stability.
Materials. — Depth. — The loose depth should be not more than three
inches or less than one inch. Experience has demonstrated that a loose
depth of 2l/2 inches is desirable when a new wearing course is to be placed.
A depth of less than one inch becomes simply a dragged surface
treatment. If the stone is more than three inches deep the mixture of
stone and bitumen will be heavy and difficult to handle, the mixing prob
ably will not be thoroughly done and obtaining a smooth finished surface
will be difficult.
Type of Aggregate. — Mineral aggregate should be crushed stone,
crushed gravel, or crushed slag. Crushed stone should be clean and of
good quality, such as required for bituminous macadam where a per
centage of wear of 6.0 is permissible.
Crushed gravel should be composed entirely of hard, durable particles
of clean stone. Gravel should be crushed so that the portion retained on
a j4-inch screen contains not less than 60 per cent broken, angular pieces.
The percentage of wear for uncrushed material, using the modified
abrasion test for gravel, should not exceed 12 per cent and the per cent
of wear on the angular portion should not exceed 20 per cent.
Crushed or broken slag should be composed of air-cooled blast furnace
slag which is clean, sound, durable and reasonably uniform in density.
should be free from thin, elongated, or glassy pieces and weigh not
I,t
less than 70 pounds per cubic foot.

Sice and Grading Aggregate. — Aggregate should be well and uni
of
formly graded between the limits stated and sizes should be as follows
for various loose depths
:
Passing
Loose Lb. Per Sq. Yd. Circular Openings
Depth, Stone Gravel Size in Inches
Inches
3 205 ... yA to V/i
2'A 175 ... %toVA
2 140 ... yA to VA
I'A 105 110 >4 to 1
1 70 75 % to y4
Note: Stone figured at 2,450 lb. per cubic yard.

Gravel figured at 2,700 lb. per cubic yard.
Fifteen per cent to be allowed below the lower limit and five per cent
above the upper limit. Covering material should range from ^-inch to
^-inch with the same tolerance noted above.
Quantity of Bituminous Materials. — The amount of bituminous ma
terial required will be as follows for crushed stone or crushed gravel :
Gallons Per Square Yard
Loose Depth 1st Mixing 2nd Mixing Seal
"
3 0.6 0.5 0.3 •
2'A" 0.5 0.4 0.3
*
2 04 0.3 0.3
-
I'A" 0.3 0.3 0.3
"
! 0.5 .. 0.3
For slag aggregate quantities for the first and second mixing
the
should be increased by 25 per cent. Slag is figured at 2,000 lb. per cu. yd.
Heavier slag requires proportionally less binder. Where a prime coat
on the base is required before the first mixing, the amount of primer
should be approximately one-third gallon per square yard.
Requirements for tar as used in the various steps should be as follows :
A refined tar which may be fluxed to the desired viscosity with a water-
gas tar and/or distillate of coal tar, and also meeting the following speci
fications :
Tar for Primer and for Binder
Tar Prime Tar Binder
Application temperature, °F 60-125 100-150
Specific gravity at 25V25° C. (77°/77° F.) 1.11-1.18 1.14-1.22
Water, % by volume, not more than 2 2
Specific viscosity, Engler
50 cc. ft) 40° C. (104° F.) 8-13
50 cc. @ 50° C. (122° F.) 16-22 (a)
50 cc. @ 50° C. ( 122° F.) 26-36 (b)
Distillation, 100 grams :
% by weight to 170° C. (338° F.), not more than 7 5

Distillation residue :
Softening point "C. (R. & B.) not more than 60 (140° F.) 60 (140° F.)
Total distillate to 300° C. (572° F.)
Specific gravity 38°/38° C. (100V100° F.),
not less than 0.96 0.98
Total bitumen (sol. in CS.) 89-98 89-98
fa) For use in spring and fall,
(b) For use in summer months.
Requirements for asphalt as used in the various steps should be as

follows :
Asphaltic Road Material MC-1 is a liquid product readily and com
pletely absorbed by earth, gravel and broken stone road surfaces, where
it hardens in place. While it develops considerable cementitiousness upon
drying, it is not intended to hold a cover of stone chips or gravel.
This material is intended solely for use as a primer for initial surface
treatment of road surfaces preparatory to application of more viscous
asphaltic products used in the construction of bituminous carpet coats,
or road-mix surfaces.
It should be free from water and meet the following requirements
when tested in accordance with the methods hereinbefore enumerated.
Asphalt for Primer

Furol viscosity, 50 cc. 25" C. (77° F.) 40 to 150
Distillation, per cent by volume
Total distillate to 225° C. (437° F.), not more than 10
Total distillate to 316° C. (600° F.), not less than 25
Total distillate to 360° C. (680° F.), not more than 50
Tests on residue from distillation
Penetration 25° C. (77° F.), 100 g. 5 sec 70 to 300
Ductility at 25° C. (77° F.), not less than 60
Per cent soluble in carbon disulphide, not less than 99.5
Cold Weather Work. — Asphaltic road material RC-2 is rapid-drying

liquid product of medium viscosity which, upon exposure in thin films,
reverts to an asphalt cement shortly after use. If warmed prior to use,
precautions should be taken to avoid fire hazard. It should be free from
water and should meet the following requirements when tested in accord
ance with the methods hereinbefore enumerated.
Asphalt for Cold Weather Mixing

Flash point (Open Tag.), not less than 80° F.
Furol viscosity 50 cc, at 122° F 200 to 400
Total distillate to 437° F., not less than 10
Total distillate to 680° F., not more than 35
Penetration 77° F., 100 g., 5 sec 60 to 120
Ductility 77° F., not less than 60
Per cent soluble in carbon disulphide. not less than 99.5
Summer Work. — Asphaltic road material RC-3 is a rapid-drying

liquid product of relatively high viscosity which reverts to an asphalt
cement shortly after use. It should be warmed prior to application with
suitable precautions to avoid fire hazard. It should be free from water
and should meet the following requirements when tested in accordance
with the methods hereinbefore enumerated.
Asphalt for Summer Mixing

Flash point (Open Tag.), not less than 80° F.
Furol viscosity 50 cc. at 140° F 275 to 400
Total distillate to 437° F., not less than.... 3
Penetration 77° F., 100 g., 5 sec 60 to 120
Ductility 77° F., not less than 60
Asphaltic emulsions have come into extensive use and may be made
with portable emulsifiers on the job, or may be purchased in containers
or tank cars ready for use. A discussion about thern follows in the next
section.
Construction Operations. — The step by step construction is as
follows :
1. Prepare foundation.
2. Apply prime coat (if needed).
3. Spread aggregate.
4. Apply first mixing coat of bituminous material.
5. Mix.
6. Apply second mixing coat of bituminous material.
7. Mix and spread.
8. Roll.
9. Fill surface voids with cover sized aggregate.
10. Roll.
11. Apply seal coat of bituminous material.
12. Cover and drag.
13. Roll to finished surface.
To explain more fully these construction methods, each operation is
described in greater detail.
Preparing Foundation or Base. — Any foundation except earth, solid
enough to support the weight of the expected traffic, will be suitable.
This type has been built over all sorts of bases. Major irregularities
«/ should be removed by patching, but minor ones will be corrected during
A
the construction process. prime coat should be used over all untreated
bases.
Old stone, slag or gravel roads, or those containing any type of
surfacing material, such as chert, shale, oyster shell, etc., that are suffi
ciently strong to carry the traffic to which they will be subjected, make
v, satisfactory, economical bases for a road-mix surface. These bases should
be reasonably smooth, well compacted and of the proper cross section.
While it is desirable to have a smooth base, a road-mix surface con
structed over an irregular base will give better results than other types
of bituminous surfaces.
Old roads that are very rough and completely out of shape when used
as a base without conditioning result in an uneven depth of aggregate in
the road-mix surface. The finished surface, although vastly improved,
does not have the smooth riding qualities that should be obtained from
this type of construction. Variations in the depth of aggregate also fre
quently result in an uneven, spotty texture of the finished surface. There
fore, if an old road is very rough and out of shape, it should either be
scarified, reshaped and compacted, or be built up by the addition of 1 inch
to 3 inches of loose aggregate, passing a 1-inch screen, bound together
with a bituminous binder, applied at the rate of three-quarters of a gallon
per square yard, after which the aggregate should be mixed with a road
grader or maintainer, and spread to the desired cross section. This assures
a smooth base and permits the road-mix surface to be constructed at a
Jiniform depth, which means a smoother, more uniform wearing surface.

This is an inexpensive method to either smooth or build up a weak,
irregular base.
If there are many holes in the surface of the old road, otherwise suit
able as a base, new material should be added to the depressions and thor
oughly compacted. A bituminous cold patch mixture is suitable for this
purpose and is often used.
Where it is desired to use as a base a gravel road with considerable
loose aggregate on the surface, but of sufficient depth to carry the traffic,
the loose material should be bound together by an application of medium
viscosity bitumen, mixed and spread uniformly over the surface by a road
machine or maintainer.
Where a narrow road is used for a base, it is often deemed advisable
to widen it. The widening may be done by scarifying the old surface and
spreading the aggregate to the desired width, and then adding new aggre
gate to build the base to the required depth, after which it should be
properly compacted. Another method is to dig trenches along the edges
of old surface, add new aggregate and bind it together by road-mix,
penetration, or macadam construction. If this results in a non-uniform
cross section, then new aggregate is added to the surface, mixed with
bitumen and spread to a true cross section.
New bases may be constructed at a minimum expenditure, with stone,
slag, gravel or other suitable materials locally available.
Applying Prime Coat. — Where the foundation has not been treated
previously, it is always necessary to prime the surface prior to placing the
crushed aggregate. Two objects are thus attained — one, the hardening
and sealing of the foundation, so that water cannot rise into the wearing
course ; and two, the prevention of loose, dusty material from working up
into the wearing course during the mixing operation. The priming appli
cation should be made not less than twenty-four hours prior to placing the
aggregate, and, preferably, several weeks in advance. The primer ma
terial must have complete penetrating qualities and, at the same time,.
must contain a bituminous base which will harden and cement the surface
particles firmly together.
The proper amount of primer to use will depend upon the character of
the base. For previously treated macadam as little as one-tenth of a gallon
per square yard usually is sufficient. For well-bonded sand-clay, top soil,
shale, chert, gravel, and water-bound macadam, one-fourth to one-third
of a gallon per square yard will be required, while for the more loose and
open surfaces as much as one-half gallon may be desirable. This primer
should be applied cold by means of a pressure distributor. Absorption
usually is rapid, being from 30 minutes to an hour.
Spreading Aggregate—Aggregate may be spread through the back
end of a dump truck or through the box type of stone spreader. But
it should be done in a uniform manner and stone spreaders are recom
mended for this purpose. A blade grader may be used to advantage in
spreading the aggregate the required depth.
Sometimes the aggregate is spread in piles along one edge of the road,
later being bladed in a windrow from which it is spread over the surface.
This method requires considerable blading in order to obtain a true
surface of approximately the same depth at all points.
The aggregate is often spread directly from dump body trucks by
adjusting the opening of the tail gate. When truck drivers learn the
proper speed to drive they obtain a fairly uniform spread. Another
method employed is to spread directly from trucks with spreader attached
to tail gate. A box type spreader, attached to the rear of the trucks,
spreads the aggregate uniformly and to the desired depth. This latter
method gives a more uniform distribution of aggregate and helps eliminate
one of the many variables in the present method of construction.
When spreading directly from trucks, each load containing a known
amount of aggregate must cover a certain distance. A careful check of
the distance covered by each truck is necessary in order to insure a uni
form spread, but in many cases thin spots are noted and additional aggre
gate is shoveled directly from trucks. When the aggregate is spread
directly from trucks, a blade grader or maintainer is used to distribute.it
evenly over the surface and to the proper cross section.
These methods of spreading aggregate are all fairly satisfactory, but
the box spreader seems to give a more even distribution of aggregate than
that obtained from spreading directly from the tail gate of trucks.
Applying First Mixing Coat of Bitumen. — A pressure distributor,
preferably one operating on pneumatic tires, should be used for all appli
cations. Sizes range from 500 gallons to 1,200 gallons capacity, with
preference for the smaller sizes because of the lesser weight. For jobs
of short length, or for county and township work, there are small dis
tributors that are mounted on light trucks which do excellent work and
which involve but a small investment.
-J First Mixing. — The first mixing operation should start as soon as

the bituminous material is applied. Motor-driven blade graders, blade
graders drawn by trucks, or tractors, or motor-driven maintainers are
recommended. Sled drags have also been used. Multiple pin mixers some
times used are, likewise, recommended. The mixing should be continued
until the aggregate is as thoroughly coated as possible. This will probably
require six or more complete turnings.
Experience has shown that a maintainer is better adapted for mixing
purposes than a blade grader. The maintainer with its multiple blades
thoroughly mixes the aggregate and bitumen after two round trips over
the entire surface, whereas the road grader requires from eight to ten
round trips before the aggregate and bitumen are thoroughly mixed. The
maintainer not only does quicker work, but seems to cause less segregation
of aggregate. Again, it seems easier to keep a better alignment with the
maintainer, as the road graders used are often too light, and have a
tendency to slide off the road surface, forcing the mixture out on to the
shoulders of the road.
Care should be taken to see that the mixing blades are so adjusted as
to mix the aggregate and bitumen without disturbing the base. The
mixture should be kept within the limits of the road surface so that the
grader or maintainer blades do not pull earth and dust from the shoulders
of the road into the mix. Considerable trouble of this kind has been
it,
encountered when mixing with blade graders, and in order to overcome
the aggregate has been spread 18 inches inside of each edge of the base,
an extra depth being spread so that when the mixture spread to the
is
will be of the proper uniform depth.
finished width of road
it
Mixing by means of tooth or disc harrow not ordinarily recom

is
a
mended, due to the tendency of the discs and harrow teeth to cut into the
base course, thus working base aggregate into the mixture. Harrowing
also tends to cause serious segregation of the aggregate.
The coated aggregate should be spread out evenly before the second
mixing coat applied.
is
Applying Second Mixing Coat Bitumen. —The second mixing coat

of
of bituminous material should be applied before the first coat entirely

is
dried. Second mixing may be done immediately and under normal con
ditions not more than three days should elapse between the two mixing
coats. There definite trend toward the use of more rapidly curing
is is
a
materials. then possible to so coordinate equipment that the cus

It
tomary delay of three days will not be required to permit the materials
to cure.
Second Mixing. — The aggregate should againbe mixed by blade

a
grader or maintainer until aggregate thoroughly and uniformly

is
the
coated with bituminous binder. This again will require two complete
round trips for maintainer and considerable more for blade grader.
a
a
Particular care must be taken in this operation to see that no foreign

material is pulled by the grader or maintainer from the shoulders of the
road into the mixture.
After thorough mixing, the mixture must be spread to the desired
width and cross section, and then dragged with a maintainer or a long
base drag in order to remove any slight irregularities in the surface.
The second mixing is carried on in the same manner as the first
When the mixing has been completed, the mixture should be evenly spreaa
/
over the road surface and allowed to cure before rolling.
First Railing. — Rolling should start as soon as the mixture becomes
tacky or sticky. The roller wheels should be kept wet to prevent sticking.
Planing with a grader, maintainer or drag after rolling once over will
aid materially in obtaining an easy riding road. Three-wheeled rollers
with not less than 350 lb. per lin. inch width of roll are recommended,
although smaller ones have been used successfully.
Filling Surface Voids. — The surface voids should be filled with the
same type and size of aggregate as used for covering material. This
aggregate should be swept into the voids during rolling.
Continued Rolling. — Too little cover material results in an open fin
ished surface, whereas excess cover takes up the seal coat material, causing
the surface to become dry and have a tendency to ravel. The spreading
is usually done by hand, or by an approved type of mechanical spreader,
after which it is broom dragged uniformly over the surface. This drag
should be a long base drag. Rolling is then continued until the mix is
thoroughly keyed together and presents a smooth surface. Care must
be taken to discontinue rolling before the aggregate is broken or pul
verized. If soft stone is used, rolling should be held to a minimum to
prevent crushing, one complete rolling often being sufficient to bind
together the surface.
Applying Seal Coat. — The seal coat should not be applied sooner than
one week after mixing operation is completed, and it is highly desirable
to defer this work for several weeks whenever practicable in-order to allow
complete hardening of the mixture. When applied too soon, the whole
surface is softened. When the surface has properly set up, a seal coat
of bituminous binder should be applied at the rate of about three-tenths
gallon per square yard.
Spreading Chips and Dragging Surface. — The bituminous seal coat
should be covered immediately with the fine aggregate, usually at the
rate of 15 to 20 pounds per square yard, which for best results must be
applied evenly and uniformly.
The fine aggregate is immediately dragged by means of a maintainer,
or approved type of long base drag, until the aggregate is thoroughly
mixed with binder and spread uniformly over the surface of the road.
This tends to remove any slight depressions caused by rolling, and to
distribute the aggregate uniformly over the surface, resulting in a smooth,

true riding surface.
Final R oiling. -Âfter the dragging, the surface should be rolled until
all chips are so thoroughly imbedded that they cannot be loosened and
displaced by traffic.
Maintenance. — Maintenance, particularly during the first year fol

lowing construction, may be expected as on any other new surface. If
holes occur, they should be patched with pre-mixes of bitumen and aggre
gate. Care should be taken to tamp the patch and strike it off with a
straight edge. It is recommended that a maintenance seal coat of bitu
minous material be applied the next year after construction. Additional
maintenance seal coats, using either hot or cold bituminous materials will
be required at varying intervals, depending upon traffic and climatic con
ditions.
For this purpose cold or hot application bituminous materials are used
at the rate of J4 to %o gallon per square yard, covering same with fine
aggregate at the rate of 20 to 25 pounds per square yard. When cold
application materials are used, the chips should be dragged until thor
oughly coated and uniformly spread over the surface. If hot application
material is used, the aggregate should be uniformly spread over the sur
face, but not dragged, as dragging has a tendency to break the bond
between the hot application bitumen and aggregate, resulting in some of
the coated aggregate being picked up by traffic.
Mistakes Commonly Made. — For best results, care should be taken

to see that an excess of bitumen is not used in the construction of this
type of surface, as it will cause the surface to bleed and later result in
the formation of corrugations. A simple rule to observe in the use of all
bituminous material is. 'Vpu can always add, but you cannot subtract."
Fxcess bitumen means first, bleeding, then wavy, corrugated ^surfaces.
One common mistake made is to apply the seal coat beforeHihe mix
has thoroughly hardened. This results in retarding the setting up of the
binder, with the result that a soft surface is obtained, and cannot be used
by traffic for some time without the formation of ruts in the surface. This
condition is particularly aggravated when a hot seal coat is applied in place
of binder.
Ahot application bituminous material is sometimes used for the seal
coat, in place of a cold binder, but this is not recommended unless the
surface is very open and the mixture has thoroughly set up. An excess
of bitumen in the mix, together with a hot seal coat, would certainly result
in surface corrugations. At the same time, it binds up the surface of the
mix tighter than does cold application materials.
Costs. — The cost of road-mix surfacing, excluding that of pre
paring the base, varies from 20 to 30 cents per square yard for a 1-inch
surface ; from 50 to 70 cents for a 3-inch surface.
Recommendations on Road-Mix — Coarse Aggregate Type. — 1.

This type is particularly successful for strengthening and smoothing old
and well-compacted surfaces which are irregular and narrow, and for
building up previously untreated surfaces where the need for an expensive
pavement type is not indicated.
2. Surfaces which are to be improved with road-mix must be primed
with bitumen unless previously treated with tar or asphalt.
3. Loose depth of surfacing materials should not be less than 1 inch
and not more than 3 inches, with 2l/2 inches as the most desirable depth.
4. Aggregates should be tough, durable, and angular, as set forth in
detail herein.
5. Bitumens used for priming and for binder should be selected ac
cording to local conditions of climate and seasons of year.
COARSE AGGREGATE TYPE USING EMULSIFIED ASPHALT

The purpose of this discussion, which was written by Mr. C. L. Mc
Kesson, is to describe construction
methods where emulsified asphalt is
used. Using asphalt emulsions, both graded aggregate (Type-A) and
coarse aggregate types have been successful and the relative suitability
of either type depends entirely on local conditions and percentage of dust
in the aggregate. This discussion will be confined entirely to the coarse
aggregate type.
Thickness. — The thickness should depend largely on the character

of the base. Where the base consists of an old road, previously treated
and not too irregular in surface, a coarse aggregate type having a finished
thickness of 1J4 >n. to 1 in. seems to be most economical. Where the
3/2
base consists of untreated gravel, or other metal not well compacted, or

where the base requires considerable re-shaping prior to the construction
of the surface, engineers generally seem to favor finished thickness of
a
in. for the surface. Thicknesses less than 1J4 in- should usually be pre
2
ceded by tack coat, or primer, as previously described, the quantity of

a
primer depending upon the condition of the surface, gallon per square
%
yard usually being sufficient on bituminous treated work and to

%
l/s
gallon on untreated bases.
Materials. — Aggregate. — In emulsified asphalt construction the same

considerations apply regarding quality of aggregate as when other binders
are used. is, however, questionable whether lines should be too tightly
It
dravsn as to percentage of wear, shape of particles, uniformity, etc. The

coarse aggregate type of work, to be economical, should utilize locally
available and inexpensive material whenever possible. Properly bituminiz-
ing even the softer aggregate by coating with asphalt during the process of
construction tends to protect from weathering and abrasion under traffic.
it
If properly constructed, the surface also protected by bituminous seal

is
a
coat. Serious consideration should, therefore, be given before otherwise

suitable aggregate is rejected because it does not conform with usually
recognized standards as to quality or hardness. Low cost road work
necessitates every possible economy in selection of aggregates, as well as
in selection of type. Softer aggregates require the maximum quantity of
emulsion shown in Table IV. Rounded materials also require more
binder than angular materials, because they do not bond and lock to
gether as readily.
Emulsified Asphalt.
— Two types of emulsified asphalt are required
for this construction work. The first application on the coarse aggregate
necessitates the use of an emulsion which is sufficiently slow-setting to
permit of mixing and coating before the asphalt coalesces. This mixing
emulsion may also be Used in a diluted form for tack coat or priming.
The first and second penetration applications require the use of a
quick-setting emulsion, of a viscosity which will insure proper penetra
tion and coating.
Emulsions differ widely in their characteristics and in order to secure
proper results it is always necessary that an emulsion be selected which
has suitable properties for the work in hand. In order to be certain of
good construction, emulsions for use in this work should meet the fol
lowing requirements :
Slow-Setting Quick- Setting

Mixing Penetration
Emulsion Emulsion
Specific Gravity 25°/25° C.
(77-/77° F.) Not less than 1.01 1.01
Miscibility Separation 2 hrs. None No requi. ement

Coating Separation ASTM coating test None Coating Un
Residue at 163° C. desirable
(325° F.) 3 hrs. 200 gms Not less than 55% 55%
Demulsibility— 50 cc. N/10
CaCl Not more than
Demulsibility— 35 cc. N/50
CaCl, Not less than 60%
Distillation by Weight:
Oil distillate to 260° C.
(500° F.) Not more than 2% 2%
Residue at 260° C.
(500° F.) Not less than 55% 55%
Penetration Residue
at 25° C. (77° F.) 100 to 200 100 to 200
Solubility in carbon
disulphide Not less than 98%
Ash Not more than 1.25% 1.25%
Note: Methods of testing are not included in this discussion. They are presented in the sec
tion on "Bituminous Surface Treatments on Solid Bases."
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Construction. — The construction operations as outlined heretofore

for Road-Mix, Coarse Aggregate Type, could be followed without change
where emulsified asphalt is used as binder. However, due to the extreme
fluidity of emulsion and its tendency toward ready coating of stone, modi
fications in construction methods are recommended.
With emulsified asphalt the stages of construction are usually as fol
lows :
1. Prepare foundation.
2. Apply prime coat (if needed).
3. Spread and level coarse aggregate.
4. Apply coat of asphaltic mixing emulsion.
5. Mix, by turning stone once or twice with suitable equipment.
6. Shape aggregate to proper cross-section.
7. Roll lightly.
8. Spread key-stone, and broom-drag to secure uniform distribution.
9. Roll and broom.
. 10. Apply quick-setting penetration asphaltic emulsion.
11. Spread stone chips; broom-drag and roll.
12. Apply final application quick-setting asphaltic emulsion.
13. Spread fine stone chips, or coarse sand.
14. Roll to finished surface.
In comparing this schedule of operations with the one contained in

the previous section, it will be found that the method here described in
cludes only one mixing application and two penetration applications of
emulsified asphalt. The use of two mixing applications and one penetra
tion application, as recommended hereinbefore for tars and cut-backs, has
been followed, using emulsion as the binder, but appreciably better results
are obtained by substituting for the second mixing coat an application of
penetration emulsion. The elimination of the second mixing operation
effects an appreciable saving in cost and in time, while even better cover
age of aggregate is secured by the additional penetration application. The
use of two sizes of cover stone — one designated as "key-stone" and the
other as "stone chips," is distinctly advantageous, tending to produce a
more tightly keyed and bound waterproof pavement, also to produce in
creased smoothness and improved riding properties.
Preparation of Foundation. — Proper patching and reconstruction of
the existing base is essential if uniformly good results are to be obtained.
In some instances the extreme roughness of the base necessitates scarifica
tion and the addition of fresh material prior to the construction of the
surface. The base is then compacted under traffic and rolling, using water
as may be required.
After consolidation is thus secured, the road is primed, or tack-coated.
Emulsified asphalt of the type used in the mixingoperation is perfectly
adapted to use in the preparation of cold patch material for leveling de
pressions and irregularities. In some cases the cross-section of the road

has been corrected to the extent of placing a plant-mix, or road-mix,
leveling course, prior to the construction of the coarse aggregate type
wearing surface.
Primer. — After the base is properly consolidated, if previously un
treated, it should be given a tack-coat, or an application of suitable prim
ing material. If the base is sufficiently well compacted to permit of broom
ing until a clean surface can be produced, a very satisfactory tack-coat
will consist of % gallon per square yard of the quick-setting penetration
emulsion, or of the mixing emulsion if the penetration emulsion is not
yet available on the work. If the base is dry, dusty, and more or less
unstable, the prime-coat would preferably consist of emulsified asphalt
primer, applied at the rate of about gallon per square yard, or of
l/j
mixing emulsion diluted with to parts of water and applied in such
]4 3
5
quantity as to provide to gallon per square yard of the emulsified
3/3
asphalt. The primer and the subsequent applications of emulsified asphalt

for mixing and penetration, are all applied cold, with ordinary pressure
distributors.
Spreading Aggregate. — Again, reference made to the discussions in
is
the previous section for full discussion of proper methods and equip
a
ment. Whether dumped from truck or through box-spreaders, leveling

a
with blade-grader or drag will distribute the aggregate with sufficient

a
uniformity for the first application of asphaltic mixing emulsion. In dry

weather, or with highly absorbent aggregate, desirable to apply water
is
it
immediately prior to the first application of bituminous material.

First Application Emulsion and Mixing. — The application of mixing
of
emulsion made cold, with any suitable distributor in the quantity indi
is
cated in Table IV. called Table of Materials, and immediately after the
application, mixing should begin. The mixing operation with emulsified
asphalt very simple one and may be accomplished with spring-tooth
is
a
harrows and disc cultivator, or with blade drag or other type maintenance
a
machines which are being rapidly developed. Two or three turnings of

the aeeresrate are sufficient. Longer mixing does not improve results and
tends to increase cost.
Leveling. Rolling, and Keying. — After the material has received its
coating of mixing emulsion, should be leveled with suitable drag or
it
bbde to the desired cross-section. The surface should then be rolled

once over to prepare for the key-stone. Following the spreading of
the key-stone the quantity indicated in the Table of Materials, the entire
in
surface should be drag-broomed and rolled until firmly compacted. The

amount of rolling must be varied according to the hardness of the aggre
gate.
First Application of Quick-Setting Penetration Emulsion. — After the
key-stone has been rolled and broomed until uniformly compacted, the
first application of quick-setting penetration emulsion is made at the rate

indicated in the Table of Materials. This application of emulsion coats
the freshly applied key-stone and clue to its fluidity, also penetrates and
coats newly fractured surfaces in the coarse aggregate and tends to build
up the thickness of coating and bond where required to add to the
strength of the pavement.
This first application of penetration emulsion is then followed with a
cover of clean stone chips, of the size and quantity shown in the Table
of Materials, and the brooming and rolling operation repeated.
SecondApplication Quick-Setting Emulsion. — The surface is then
ready for the final application of penetration emulsion which serves to coat
previously applied metal and to act as a seal coat for the pavement. This
last application of quick-settng emulsion is followed with a cover of fine
stone chips, or coarse sand, which is broomed and rolled and then opened
Dap side pieces 2"for broom boards Corner angle

Pull olate,-'
J3ILL OF MATERIAL
"l pieces 2\4'-l2'0" Douglas Fir.
2 . 2\6'-l6'0»
1 ■ 2\6'-l4'0* ■ ■
2 ■ 2'«6'-l2'0' •
36- %«S' Lag screws
88
•
-
V. 5'. Machine
■
bolts
■
16
-
212 Cut Washers
- *fc"
12
-
V ■ •
4
-
Corner brace angles (See Detail)
2 Pull plates as detailed
*6 Hole*. - • "
2 opposite band.
' 15" Stable
22 brooms
CORNER ANGLE
— From Report on Use of Bitumuls
Fig. 5. — Broom Drag for Finishing Surface

to traffic. The surface so constructed is uniform in texture and resists

leakage.
Broom-Drag. — In the foregoing description of construction methods,

reference is frequently made to the use of a broom-drag. This very inter
esting and extremely useful piece of equipment is believed to be almost
indispensable if uniformity and riding qualities are to be secured in the
finished pavement.
Coarse Aggregate' Type with Pre-coated Base. — In many instances it
has been found economical to pre-coat the coarse base aggregate at the
source of production, prior to being transported to the work. In such
cases the coated aggregate is spread, as with the uncoated, but is imme
diately leveled and shaped to the required cross-section. Road manipula
tion of this coarse aggregate is thereby reduced to the minimum and
after rolling, construction proceeds exactly as above described, including
the key-stone and two penetration applications. The mixing of the aggre
gate at the quarry, or pit, may be economically accomplished in either a
pug or drum mixer.
Recommendations. — Several features should be given special at

tention when emulsified asphalts are used.
1. Over-mixing of coarse aggregate with mixing emulsion is unde
sirable and if carried to an extreme is detrimental.
2. Mixing should, if "possible, be carried on immediately after the
application of the mixing emulsion. If conditions prevent immediate
mixing, then the mixing operation should be delayed or discontinued at
the first indication of stripping. Stripping indicates partial coalescence
of the asphalt in the emulsion and the material should not be manipulated
while this process is under way. Under ordinary climatic conditions
mixing may be resumed in a few hours, at which time it will be found
that the asphalt has adhered to the stone.
3. Excessive rolling of the key-stone should be avoided, particularly
where soft material is being used, as this tends to produce dust and to
prevent proper penetration of the two subsequent applications of quick-
setting emulsion.
4. key-stone and stone chips may be used when the stone
Coarser
is soft, depending upon rolling to reduce the size and to insure a dense
pavement.
5. Some engineers have reported better results, particularly with

dusty stone, when water is applied following the rolling of the key-stone.
This tends to remove dust from the key-stone and to insure full penetra
tion of the succeeding applications.
BITUMINOUS PLANT-MIX SURFACES

There are two general groups of plant-mixes using bituminous ma
terials and mineral aggregates, and they cover a wide range of traffic-
support. The first group is the hot-mix type, wherein the aggregates
and bitumen are mixed in standard central mixing plants and the result
ing mixture is placed upon a suitable foundation to a compacted depth
of from two to four inches. The foundation may or may not be the same
mixture as the top course. The second group is the cold-mix type, where
in the aggregates and bitumen are mixed without heating the aggregate
or the bitumen to high temperatures. Some heating (relatively it is only
warming) is done to temporarily lower the viscosity of the bitumen for
coating ability.
It is believed that on extensive work, and under certain conditions
the cost by plant-mix will compare very favorably with that of the road-
mix method. It is evident that the production of aggregate, delivery to
road bed and finishing will be approximately similar to those cases where
all new material goes through a central plant before placing on the road.
We may, therefore, properly balance the cost of plant-mixing (cold-mix
type) against that of spraying and mixing on the road, with an appre
ciable credit in the way of reduction of bituminous content in favor of
plant-mix.
Advantages of Plant-Mix. —
1. Not serionsly affected by changing weather conditions.
2. Increase in length of dependable working season.
3. It is unnecessary to detour traffic during operations.
4. As both aggregate and bitumen are weighed, uniformity of mix
ture can easily be obtained. .
5. Excess moisture is removed from the aggregate in hot-mix types.

6. A minimum quantity of high viscosity bituminous material can be
used.
HOT-MIX SURFACES
In the section on Bituminous Road-Mix Surfaces we divided the
roads into fine aggregate, graded aggregate, and coarse aggregate types.
We realize that we are exceeding the $10,000 per mile arbitrary limit we
established for low cost road work when we discuss fine aggregate .hot-
mix surfaces here. But development has been rapid in these fields and
we believe it advisable to include certain hot-mix discussions here for
the benefit of those who desire to use them. They are a type of con
struction intermediate between the low cost cold-mix plant mixtures and
the established high type hot-mix bituminous surfaces constructed with
standard asphalt plants. In many cases the graded and coarse aggregate
types hot-mix surface have been constructed for as low a cost as the road
mix type when all new material is used.
When the hot-mix plant is used, its capacity is considerably increased

since it is not necessary to heat the mineral aggregate to extremely high
temperatures. The heating unit is utilized to dry the aggregate before
mixing, if it has become wet in the stock piles. Each batch should be pro
portioned by weighing separately the coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and
bituminous material. When, as is often the case, all of the aggregate is
obtained from a local pit or quarry, it is advantageous to set up the plant
at that location. The loads of finished mixture should be placed in a
continuous windrow on the road base or shoveled off of a dumping plate,
after which spreading and compaction may be carried out in the same
manner as described for the road-mix method, or the hot material may
be raked to an even surface. Should pronounced segregation occur during
transportation or placement, a few turns with the blader has been found
in Minnesota to be advantageous before the mixture finally is spread.
Fine Aggregate Type.— Notable examples of fine aggregate type
hot-mix surfaces are the sand-asphalt roads of the Cape Cod region and
those of North Carolina. A plant is set up in a sand pit and, by the
addition of small amounts of stone screenings together with the proper
grade of asphalt, an excellent asphaltic mixture is made at a reasonably
low cost.
In the contemplated construction of a sand-asphalt project the primary
investigation should be to ascertain whether or not suitable sand is avail
able on the proposed work. The sand should consist of clean, hard, dur
able grains, free from clay, loam, and other foreign matter.
The most satisfactory sand is one which closely approximates the
grading used in sheet asphalt. Sand of this quality is very rarely avail
able, and therefore it is necessary that care be exercised in balancing the
proposed mix. This is accomplished by carefully determining the percent
age of voids and establishing a formula in the laboratory which will
properly fill them. By this method it has been found that sands unsuit
able for sheet asphalt, due to wide variation from standard grading, can
be used satisfactorily in sand asphalt when none other is available.
Materials. — Present specifications for a good graded mineral aggregate
call for the following requirements:
Screen Analysis Per Cent
Passing Ya," screen 100
Passing Y\" screen, retained on 54" screen 1— 17
Passing $4" screen, retained on No. 10 sieve 6—26
Passing No. 10 sieve, retained on No. 30 sieve 20 — 68
Passing No. 30 sieve, retained on No. 100 sieve 7—45
Passing 100 sieve 0— IS
It can be readily seen that such a grading still permits the use of a
fairly wide range of materials, and in a number of instances local sand
banks furnish suitable grading without any further additions. In other
cases, it has been found desirable to import a small amount of filler. This
is usually trap rock screenings, which are cheaply available and give
satisfactory results.
The bitumen is a regular grade semi-solid refined asphalt cement
which must be heated to a temperature of 250 to 300 degrees in the plant
heating kettles before mixing it with the dried sand. Grades of 50-60
and 60-70 penetration have been used.
ConstructionMethods. — The character and preparation of the sub-
grade is a very important factor in the construction of sand asphalt. In
the early stages of this work it was deemed expedient that the subgrade
be loose sand, but in later years it was found that a sand-clay subgrade,
and in some cases a grade with a high percentage of clay, would make a
suitable foundation if proper drainage was provided. The subgrade should
be uniformly and firmly compacted, and brought to a firm, unyielding
surface before any hot-mix is placed thereon.
All unsuitable material encountered in the subgrade, such as excessive
clay, vegetable matter, and detrimental soil, should be excavated and re
placed with a satisfactory material that will become firm and compact.
After the completion of rough grading, timber forms are firmly set
to line and grade. These forms are 2 in. by 8 in., long or short leaf pine,
cypress, or other satisfactory lumber, 10 to 15 feet in length. The forms
are securely staked and left in place after the pavement is completed.
Following the form setting a small gang of men prepare the subgrade
and complete the fine grading.
The surface is laid in two courses in the general North Carolina
practice but single course surfaces have given satisfactory results.
The base course mixture composed of Jyi to 8 per cent asphalt,
penetration 50-60, and 92J/2 to 92 per cent sand, is prepared at the plant,
and delivered to the road in trucks at a temperature from 300 to 350
degrees Fahrenheit. This mixture is dumped upon a sheet metal dump
board and shoveled into place on the subgrade. The hot-mix is then
struck off by a finishing machine to the proper shape and section, and
after the material has cooled sufficiently the base course is rolled with a
8 to 10-ton tandem roller until the material is thoroughly compacted ; the
rolling starting longitudinally at the sides and gradually proceeding
toward the center of the pavement. The base surface should be smooth
and all irregularities patched before final rolling. From one to two days
run of base course is permitted which is followed by the place of the
surface course. A squeegee coat of hot asphalt, penetration 50-60, is
spread on the base course prior to the laying of the surface course. The
asphalt is heated in a kettle to a temperature of from 300 to 350 degrees
Fahrenheit and applied at the rate of \\i to y16 gallon per square yard.
This squeegee coat is absolutely essential in order to insure a proper
bond between the base and surface courses.
The surface course mix of 10 to 10j/> per cent asphalt, 8 to 12 per
cent filler dust. 82 to 79l/2 per cent sand, is delivered to the road, spread.
and struck off by a finishing machine to the proper shape. The same
weight roller is used, as on the base, the rolling being done longitudinally,
followed by diagonal rolling in two directions.
The base course is laid to a compacted depth of 3 in., while the sur
face course is 2 in. in depth. The finished surface of both courses are
checked for 54 'n- variations with a 10 foot straight-edge during rolling
operations, and repairs made where necessary in order that the final
surface will be smooth and uniform. Previous to the final rolling of the
wearing surface and while the pavement is still warm, a light coating of
limestone dust or Portland cement is swept over the surface and the roll
ing continued until the surface course is thoroughly compacted.
For township roads, lesser width and lesser thickness are entirely
adequate and vary according to local traffic conditions. In cases where
reduction in thickness is made, it is essential that the top course shall not
be less than 2 in. in depth.
The density of the base course averages from 1.80 to 1.95, while the
top course averages from 1.95 to 2.10. These average densities are the
results of projects that have been constructed in recent years.
The asphalt mix should be controlled on each project very accurately
by a field laboratory in charge of an inspector.
Equipment. — The plants used in this type of construction are similar
to plants used on other asphalt work except in the size of the cylinders
or drums in which the sand is heated and dried. The size and design of
the heating drum is an important factor in the output of the plant.
North Carolina has constructed many projects on which the plant
set-up was adjacent to the railroad. In these cases the plant is located
near the sand pit, and shipments of asphalt and filler dust are unloaded
on the plant siding. The sand is transferred from the pit to the plant
by means of a gas crane and a J4 yard clamshell bucket. On projects
away from a railroad the plant is erected at the sand pit, and the asphalt
is hauled in tanks on trucks or barrels, and the filler dust in sacks.
Other necessary equipment is an adequate truck supply ; finishing
machine ; tandem rollers ; and hand tools.
Construction Costs. — In recent years sand asphalt pavements have been
constructed 16 and 18 feet in width, at a cost ranging from $1.12 to V
$1.34 per square yard. In consequence of this low cost construction,
many sections of North Carolina have had roads improved, the building
of which would not have been possible had a higher type of construction
been considered.
Maintenance. — Practically the only maintenance required is an occa
sional light seal coat of a surface treatment bitumen covered with clean /
sand, or the repair of places which have settled because of faulty drain
age. The average cost of maintenance is about Y2 cent per square yard
annually.
Graded Aggregate Type. — There are portable types of hot-mix
X)2 LOW COST ROADS AND BRIDGES
plants that conveniently construct this type of surfacing as a low cost

road. The plant operates as a central plant but is readily moved from
place to place. It should not be confused with the type of portable plant
that moves along the road. It is portable in that the superstructure can be
easily lowered and, along with other parts, readily moved to a new
central location. With this type of plant the mineral aggregate is dried,
and the bitumen is heated to 250 to 300 degrees before mixing. The
aggregate analyses curve, while not exactly conforming to the curve of
maximum density, must have certain limits. The following discussion of
this^ type of surface is based on the specifications of the Minnesota De
partment of Highways. The surface is a mixture of mineral aggregate,
filler, and bituminous material. It is placed on a prepared road bed.
Materials. — The aggregates for this type of construction follow closely
that employed for road-mix graded aggregate type except that stones
larger than 1 inch screen are crushed.
The combined mineral aggregates and filler should conform to the
following grading :
Per cent
Passing a 1 inch circular screen 100
Passing a % inch circular screen 50 to 70
Passing a No. 10 mesh sieve 35 to 60
Passing a No. 200 mesh 7 to 14
The bitumen content should be from 5 to 7 per cent of total mix by

weight.
each 100 pounds of combined mineral aggregate and filler from
For
5 to 7 pounds of bitumen should be used.
The per cent bitumen is based on natural sands and gravel pebbles,
the requirement may be higher for crushed rock and stone screenings.
The proportions within these limits must be fixed by the engineer and
the contractor must so operate as to obtain the maximum uniformity-
possible.
Coarse Aggregate. — The coarse aggregate may be either gravel peb
bles or crushed rock. If gravel is used all of the oversize material which
is smaller than 6 inches should be crushed and uniformly mixed with the
uncrushed gravel. The coarse aggregate should conform to the follow
ing grading:
Passing a 1 inch circular screen 100 per cent
Passing a Yz inch circular screen 25 — 75 per cent
Passing a 54
,nch circular screen 0 per cent
A tolerance of per cent is permitted on the part passing a
5 inch
screen but such percentage is considered as fine aggregate and must meet
the specification requirements for fine aggregate.
The coarse aggregate, if gravel, should pass an abrasion test in which
the maximum loss for uncrushed gravel should be 14 per cent and for
crushed gravel 22 per cent. If crushed rock, it should have an abra
sion loss of not more than 8 per cent.
Fine Aggregate. —The fine aggregate should be composed of particles

of durable rock and should be free from coatings of clay or other matter
that would prevent a thorough coating of the particles with bituminous
material in the mixing.
The fine aggregate plus filler must conform to the following grading:
Passing a % inch circular screen 100 per cent

Passing a No. 20 mesh sieve 40 — 75 per cent
Passing a No. 200 sieve 10 — 20 per cent
The fine aggregate must not contain more than five (5) per cent by
weight of shale. It should not contain clay of such a nature that it forms
halls or lumps which will not pass a 10 mesh sieve. The clay must con
form to the requirements of a filler. The maximum per cent loss in the
elutriation test should be 10 per cent. A method of calculating filler re
quirements and density of gradation is given hereinbefore under the
heading of Road-Mix, Graded Aggregate Type — Type B.
Bituminous Materials. — The bituminous material recommended by the
Asphalt Institute is their designation SC-3. It should meet the following
requirements :
Water and sediment Maximum 2 per cent

Viscosity, Saybolt— Furol at 140° F 150-300
Flash point (Cleveland open cup), not less than 200° F.
Distillation, per cent by volume :
Tests on residue from distillation :
Float test at 122° F., not less than 25
A tar material recommended for this purpose should meet the fol
lowing requirements:
Tar Material Specification Limits
Application temperature 100°-150° F.
Water, per cent by weight, not more than 1.0
Specific gravity, at 25° C 1.14-1.22
Specific viscosity. Engler :
50 cc. @ 50° C (a) 16-22
50 cc. @ 50° C (b) 26-36
Soluble in carbon disulphide, per cent by wt 89-98
Distillation, A.S.T.M. :
Specific gravity at 38° C, of total distillate to
300° C, not less than 0.98
Softening point distillation, residue, °C. (Ring and
Ball Method) 35-60
(a) For use in cool weather.

(b) For use in warm weather.
Methods of Test. — All tests should be made in accordance with the

methods described in Tentative Standard Specifications for Highway Ma
terials and Methods of Sampling and Testing, published in 1931 by the
American Association of State Highway Officials.
The per cent colloids in the filler must be determined by mechanical
analysis with Bouyoucas hydrometer according to method described in
the October, 1931, issue of Public Roads.
Construction Methods. — The aggregates and filler are dried in a re

volving cylinder at a maximum temperature of 225° F. and so that they
contain less than 1 per cent moisture by weight, and after drying they
are divided into two sizes on the 34 inch screen.
The coarse and fine aggregate are stored in separate moisture-tight
bins. The correct quantity of coarse and fine aggregate (containing the
filler) at a temperature not less than 175° F. should first enter the pug
mill type mixer and last the bituminous material at a temperature of
175° F. to 225° F. The temperature of the bituminous material should
be within 10°, plus or minus, of a temperature designated by the engineer
within this temperature range. The batch weighed must not be less than
1.000 nor more than 3,000 pounds. The entire batch is discharged at one
time. All materials including the bituminous material is accurately pro
portioned by weight. The equipment for weighing aggregates conforms
to the specifications given on page 221 of the 1930 Convention Proceed
ings of the American Road Builders Association for separately weighing
the correct proportions of the fine and coarse aggregate. At least 10
standard 50 pound test weights are available at all times for use in check
ing the scales.
The mixing continues for a period of at least 40 seconds after all
the ingredients are in the mixer or longer if necessary to obtain a mixture
with all particles uniformly coated with bituminous material.
The mixture is then hauled to the road immediately after mixing and
except for 20 tons per mile which is placed in stock piles it is deposited
in a continuous windrow of uniform cross section. The engineer does
not permit mixing and dumping when the road bed is wet or when there
is a likelihood of rain within 5 hours. Whenever the total thickness after
compaction is two inches the mixture is dumped for spreading in one
layer but when the surface after compaction is three inches thick then it
is to be spread in two layers and therefore material for only half the
total thickness is windrowed at one time. The depositing begins at the
point farthest from the plant and proceeds toward the plant unless other
wise directed by the engineer. All trucks have pneumatic tires and maxi
mum loads are not more than 6 tons.
Before final spreading begins all the material is moved back and forth
across the road by means of pneumatic tired power patrol blades a suf
ficient number of times so that the material will lay smoothly when spread.
Tf the mixed material should become wet before it is laid down and
satisfactorily compacted it is manipulated back and forth on the road until

the mixture contains not more than 1 per cent moisture by weight. It
is then spread to the depth and width shown on the plans.
During construction the surfacing receives sufficient maintenance with
pneumatic tired power patrol graders or other approved equipment, to
remove all ruts and waves and insure a smooth surface. This maintenance
must be especially vigorous in the days immediately following the place
ment of the mixture. Should the wearing course become unsatisfactory
and packed so firmly that blading will not correct
it,
must be scarified
it
and relayed as the engineer may direct. All patch work necessary to be
done while the project in progress must be done promptly. Compaction
is
obtained by traffic.
is
Basis Payment. — Payment for surfacing best made at the con

of
is
tract price per ton on the basis of batch weights at mixing plant.
ConstructionCosts. — On 1932 projects in Minnesota involving 60,000

tons, bid prices for the completed work ranged from $1.95 to $2.25 per
ton. The state prepared the subgrade. The 60,000 tons was in four jobs
of 15.000 each. Three of the jobs called for approximately inches of
2
thickness on 25 foot width while one job was built with thickness of
a
a
inches. The subgrade in each case was 32 feet wide.

3
MichiganJob. — The accompanying table shows the sieve analyses

of aggregates as obtained from two pits in job done by this method in
a
Macomb County, Michigan. The large stones were crushed down so as

to pass inch circular screen.
a
Sieve Analysis of Aggregates After Crushing

Pit No.
6-
Pit No.
1
,
Wt.
Retained Per Cent
( P
Sieve on Sieve Retained
'A' 3.0 3.45
X" 6.0 6.9

No. . 1S.S 17.85
4
No. 18.0 20.7

8
.
No. 14 13.2 15.2
No. 28 9.8 11.2
No. 48 10.4 12.0
No. 100 9.1 10.4
Pan ... 2.0 2.3
Total 87.0 or.. 100.00 per cent 87 oz. 100.00 per cent
•100 per cent passed 1" sieve.

a
A bituminous material of following specifications has proven to be

suited for the mix desired:
The product shall be homogeneous, free from water and shall not foam at
175° C (347° F).
Specific gravity at 25° C- 25° C. (77° F./77° F.) shall not be less than .99.
Flash point (open cup) not less than 450° F.
Softening point (ring and ball) 30° C. to 40° C.
Penetration at 25° C. (77° F.) 100 g./S sec, 180 to 200.
Penetration at 0° C. (32° F.) 200 g./ 60 sec, not less than 40.
Loss on heating at 163° C. (325° F.) 50 g./5 hr., not more than 0.5 per cent.
Penetration of residue 25° C. (77° F.) 100 g./5 sec, not less than 130.
Ductibility at 25° C. (77° F.), not less than 100 cm.

Solubility in carbon disulphide, not less than 99.8 per cent.
From per cent to 5.7 per cent bitumen is used in the hot mixture.
5
It Michigan mix and the Minne

is desirable to more clearly contrast the
sota mix. The former is a hot-mix type whereas the Minnesota mix is a
cold-mix type in which the materials have been warmed.
The high degree of penetration of
asphalt renders the mixture
the
quite pliable, thus preventing any cracking or checking of the surface
because of settlement of the weaker portions of the gravel grade.
A fear may be expressed that the surface may become too soft in
hot weather; however, Macomb County officials inspected these surfaces
on several occasions when the thermometer registered temperature of 100°
F. and no appreciable softening was noted and no wheel tracks were
visible on the surface.
Shoving and pushing of a bituminous surface is not due to the rela
tive softness of the bitumen, but rather to an improper relationship be
tween the quantity of bitumen and the aggregates. The more easy con
trol of mixtures is what leads to the use of the relatively harder bitu
mens. Therefore, we believe it would be worth while to emphasize the
desirability of careful laboratory control to accurately determine the
amount of bitumen required in a mixture to give the highest stability and
wearing qualities.
Construction Methods. — The plant for this job consisted of storage
bins for aggregates and one for the finished product, an oil burning
drier, a bucket conveyor, a pug mill equipped with weighing devices for
aggregates and bitumen, a steam heating unit, and a shuttle tank track for
transporting hot bitumen from railroad siding to plant.
The graded aggregate was heated to the temperature of 250° F. to
300° F. and was mixed in the pug mill with hot bitumen. An output of
20 to 25 cubic yards per hour was the average for a period of several
weeks on the Macomb County plant. It may safely be assumed that
with material from a dry pit an output of 30 yards per hour or more
may be reached.
When originally constructed, most of the gravel roads in Macomb

County were built to a width of 14 feet and a thickness of 8 in. ; however,
the traffic and the constant scraping and resurfacing over a period of
years have changed this to a surface in most cases 20 feet wide and
some 4 inches thick.
In preparing the grade for resurfacing, the loose gravel was scraped
off to the s;des by a power grader and windrowed on each side of the
road. Two-by-four's were spiked to the gravel surface so as to form
an 18 ft. roadway to roll against.
The hot-mix was hauled in 3-ton to 5-ton trucks on pneumatic tires
and spread on the grade and raked to a depth of 2}4 inches loose. In
places where the gravel subgrade was so worn that pot holes were formed
hot-mix was dumped and rolled to the contour of the surrounding grade.
After rolling with a 5-ton roller was completed the two-by-four timbers
which had been used as side forms were picked up and the loose surfac
ing along the sides scraped back against the edge of the finished surface.
It will be noted that the subgrade was not primed.
Construction Costs. — Following are some of the costs compiled on
six miles of surfacing in Macomb County.
Cost of Resurfacing Ryan Road
Average length of haul, 11 miles.

Per Mile
Gravel, 736 cu. yds. at $0.75 in the bin $ 552.70
Bitumen. 15,039 gals, at $0.0587 883.40
Mixing costs (rental, labor, fuel) 560.80
Hauling bitumen to plant 88.70
Heating tank cars 43.31
Grading and setting two by four's 235.60

Spreading bituminous mixture 359.00
Rolling 67.37
Incidentals and superintendence 117.00
Hauling hot-mix to road 902.50
Total per mile $3,811.38
Coarse Aggregate Type. — Under this heading we place a type

which is prepared hot by mixing with bitumen and laid cold. As built,
the pavement consists of a bottom or binder layer of the coarse or inter
mediate mix (these are defined hereinafter) and a top or wearing coat
of the tine mix (also denned later.) It is essentially an open mix type
and depends for its stability on the interlocking or keying of the stone
fragments by rolling. The bottom course is from to 3 inches thick,
after rolling. This cold-lay plant-mix material is similar to the Amiesite
mix, of which there have been a number of modifications since the
original patent expired. The so-called "D. C. Mix" of Washington, D. C,
is of this character.
Both the fine and the coarse mix can be spread on the job through an
open box stone spreader. An excellent unit recently developed and known
as the Black Top Paver is particularly adapted for this work. It is self
powered and operates back of the tail gate of a truck.
Materials. — The aggregate must be clean and uniform in quality and
size. This seems obvious but it is not always easy to get closely screened
aggregate of uniform quality throughout the working season. Mixing
plants include vibrating screens so that quarry variations in stone sizes can
be corrected. Sizes of material produced at the various plants have been
influenced by the sizes produced by the quarry and by the specifications
under which the material must be sold. In general the material is pro
duced in three sizes, the coarse ranging in size from \% in. to 2l/2 in.;
the intermediate ranging in size from in. to 1^4 m-i and the fine from
l/2
in. to in.
}i
Yi
The broken stone used in the several mixtures should be well graded
between the limits of its nominal size, and should be one product or
a
combination of products of the screening plant which, when tested by
means of standard laboratory screens and sieves, should meet the follow-
ing requirements as designated.
Coarse Intermediate Fine
Screens Mixture Mixture Mixture
100
85 to 100
100
30 to 90 80 to 100
Passing inch screen, to 40 to
%
?4
2S 90 100
0
80 to 100
to to 25 to 75
0
5
.
to 20
0
The grading of broken stone used in mixtures for any given project
should not vary within the foregoing requirements in excess of the fol
lowing limitations for the respective mixtures
:
Aggregate Coarse Intermediate Fine

Passing inch screen,
% % % %
25
Y\ '/> >4 '4
1
Passing inch screen, 25 25

Passing inch screen, 10
Passing inch screen, 30
The supplemental filler consists of rock screenings, sand, rock dust,

or combinations thereof, all of which passes screen having inch
%
a
circular openings.
New York State uses slightly smaller than average aggregate grada
a
tion as result of their experience since 1926. Broken rock for the
a
coarse mix, the New York specifications state, shall have the following
gradation
:
No. size 80% to 100%

2
No. size 0% to 20%

1
Broken rock for the fine mix must have the following gradation:
No. 1 size 557c to 85%
No. 1-A size 15% to 45%
Bituminous macadam M.M., Type 3, which is their designation for a
coarse aggregate type of hot-mix cold-lay surfacing, was, in 1932 work,
composed of the following gradations of aggregates :
Stone Sizes
N'o. 1 stone is retained J4 in. and passes ^ in. square holes.
No. 2 stone is retained V% in. and passes 1 in. square holes.
No. 1A stone is retained
'/&
in. and passes in. square holes.
J4
The above gradation when mixed in the proportions they employed
resulted in fairly tight or close mix in the top surface of the pavement.
a
New York trying to obtain as tight mix as possible and still retain
is
a
non-skid qualities to the greatest possible extent. The above mix slight
is
open and to prevent the entrance of moisture into and through the
ly
top course they specify the application of top dressing of clean sand
a
or grit. Ninety per cent of this grit must pass No. 14 mesh laboratory
a
sieve and 75% of must be retained on No. 48 mesh sieve.
It
muist
it
a
be uniformly spread on the finished pavement at the rate of approxi
mately 6-8 pounds per square yard of pavement, within 24 hours after
the fine mix has been placed and rolled. This top dressing moved
is
about with brooms and finds its way down into the exposed voids in the
pavement and renders the top course practically 100% moisture-proof.
Bituminous hinders have been developed which, when mixed with
aggregate of the gradations listed above or slight variations therefrom!,
produce mixture which can be easily unloaded from gondola cars and
a
handled on the road and yet when subjected to rolling will bond together
into solid mass. This has been accomplished by selecting particular
a
stocks for the base and refining them to the proper consistency for the
season when the mix to be used. The bitumen must also be at the
is
proper temperature for mixing, which will be from 160 deg. to 200 deg. F.
depending upon the temperature of the stone.
The tar binder suitable for this work should conform to the following
specifications
:
shall have specific gravity at 25° of not less than 1.2.

C.
It
4. 3. 2. 1.
Float test at 32° 100-225 seconds

C
shall contain not more than 20 per cent free carbon.

It
When distilled the percentage of distillates by weight shall be as fol

lows
:
Up to 170° not more than

C C C
1.0%
Up to 270° not more than 16.0%
Up to 300° 10 to 24%
The melting point of the residue from the distillation shall be not more
5.
than 70° C.
Application temperature will range from to 225° F.
6.
175°
The tar binder for of not

the bottom course should have a consistency
less than 225 seconds float at 32° C. If the engineer so directs, a tar
binder meeting the above specifications and of lower consistency than
that used for the bottom course may be specified for the top course.
The asphalt binder as used by New York State conforms to the fol
lowing specification:
The liquerier shall mineral oil, and in, either of two grades, light or
be a
heavy, as specified by the engineer.The light naphtha shall be used in all
cases unless otherwise specified. The heavy naphtha is for use in delayed
shipments.
The light naphtha shall have an initial boiling point not over 220° F.
and an end point not over 455° F. At least 45% shall have distilled off at
325° F., using A.S.T.M. Method D80-30.
The heavy naphtha shall have an initial boiling point not over 150° F.
and an end point not over 525° F. At least 50% shall have distilled off
between 290° F. and 360° F. The flash point shall be less than 80° F.
Asphalt cement shall meet the following requirements:
1. It shall be free from water.

2. The various hydrocarbons composing it shall be present in homo
geneous solution.
3. It shall have a specific gravity at 77° F. of not less than 0.99.
4. It shall have a penetration (77° F., 100 g.. 5 sec.) of not less than
85 nor more than 100.
5. It shall have an oven evaporation loss of less than 4 per cent. The
penetration (77° F., 100 g., 5 sec.) of this residue shall be at least 50 per
cent of the original penetration.
6. Its solubility at air temperatures in carbon disulphide, for the fol
lowing named products, shall be at least 99.5 per cent for pure bitumen
products, 95 per cent for Bermudez products, 81 per cent for Cuban prod
ucts and 66 per cent for Trinidad products.
7. The bitumen shall show between 8 and 17 per cent fixed carbon.
8. It shall show an open flash point not less than 375° F.
9. It shall not contain more than 4.7 per cent paraffin scale.
10. It shall show a toughness at 32° F., not less than 10 cm. Tough
ness is determined by breaking a cylinder of the material \y$ inches in
diameter by \}i inches in height in a Page impact machine (A.S.T.M.
1908). The first drop of the hammer being from a height of 5 cm. and
each succeeding blow increased by 5 cm.
11. It shall have a ductility at 77° F. of not less than 25 cm. (Dow
mold).
The Asphalt Institute recommends their material designated RC-4

for this type of construction provided the aggregates have been freed
from excess moisture.
Proportioning the Mixture. — The components of the mixture are
weighed separately for each batch and combined in the proper amounts
in the pug mill. Rock dust, or filler, however, may be measured by vol
ume on the basis of a volume-weight relation.
Where the bottom course is two inches or less in thickness after com
paction the intermediate gradation is used, while where the bottom course
is more than two inches in thickness after compaction the coarse grada
tion is used. The fine grades are used for the top course in all cases.
The cold laid surface should consist of a uniform mixture of binder,
broken stone, and supplemental filler if required, as shown in the follow
ing tabulation:
Coarse Intermediate Fine
Mix Mix Mix
Bituminous binder 2.5 to 4.0% 3.0 to 5.0% 7.0 to 9.0%
Broken stone 91.0 to 98.0% 90.0 to 97.0% 66.0 to 88.0%
Supplemental filler 0.0 to 5.0% 0.0 to 5.0% 5.0 to 25.0%
The proper proportions for the fine mix has been the subject of con
siderable study and experiment. The exact proportions of fine aggregate,
stone dust, and sand vary with the different stone supplies. The amount
of biumen also varies but is usually from 6 to 9 per cent. A typical
grading for the fine mix is as follows:
Fine aggregate 77 per cent

Sand 5 per cent
Dryer ■dust 10 per cent
Tar 8 per cent
New York State specifications, which have proved successful for this
type of road surfacing are as follows :
The formula used for preparing the asphalt paving mixtures shall be set to
proportion them to the best advantage from the materials hereinafter specified, but
not to exceed the following limitations :
Materials Coarse Mix Fine Mix
Broken rock 85.0% to 92.0% 83.0% to 90.0%
Liquefier .4% to 1.07c 0.4% to 1.0%
Asphalt cement 4.0% to 6.0% 5.0% to 8.0%
Hydrated lime 5% to 1.0% 0.5% to 1.0%
Fine aggregate 3.0% to 6.07c 5.0% to 9.0%
Fine aggregate shall be clean crushed rck screenings, 90 per cent of which will
pass an eight mesh laboratory sieve.
In 1932, as a result of their experience since 1926, they combined

the stone sizes as follows :
( 80% of No. 2 size.

Bottom Course ( 20% of No. 1 size.
i 55% of No. 1 size.
Top Course ( 45% of No. 1 A size.
The mixture was then made up as follows:

Hydrated Mineral
Stone Liquefier Asphalt Lime Filler
Bottom course 90.0% VA gal. to ton 4.6% 0.57o 47o
Top course 84.0% 2 gal. to ton 6.5% 0.5% 9%
As has been stated before this is not as coarse a mixture as has been
used with tar binders.
Construction Methods. — The construction operations involved in

building a pavement of this sort have consisted thus far in:
(1) Preparing the foundation, (2) spreading the coarse mix, (3) roll
ing, (4 spreading the fine mix, (5) rolling, (6) opening to traffic. While
this has produced fairly good riding surfaces it is suggested that a smooth
ing operation with a long base grader or road hone on each course after
the material has been spread, which is either by spreader boxes or by hand
from a dumping board, would produce much better riding qualities for
the surface.
When the aggregate enters the mixer it must be clean and dry and at
the proper temperature, which is about 100 deg. F. The aggregate is dried
by screening it through a cylindrical drier where it is subjected to the
action of hot gases forced through the aggregate by a fan. The dust is
thus removed at the same time and collected for use in the fine mix.
Accurate control of the aggregate temperature is very necessary since
too hot stone will distill the thin bituminous coating and produce an un
satisfactory binder.
The proper proportions of bitumen and aggregate for the coarse and
intermediate mix will depend upon the grading of the aggregate. As
much bitumen as the stone will hold should be used but too much will
result in binder running from the stone to the bottom of the cars. The
amount of bitumen will vary from 3 to 5 per cent but the exact amount
must be worked out, by trial, for each individual stone supply. In order
to insure the exact amount of bitumen specified, the scales in plants
should be equipped with an electrical cut off which prevents an over-
supply of binder in any batch. The aggregate is weighed by the mixer
operator.
Careful attention to these essentials will produce a mix which can be
used without heating.
The bituminous coated stone may be shipped in open topped cars or
trucks and can be readily unloaded by mechanical unloading equipment or
by manual labor. It is handled cold on the job and is unique in that it
can be stored in stock piles and used as needed. The material sets up
on the outside but there is very little change in the interior.
Owing to the qualities of the binder the mixed material does not set
up in the cars even though they may be in transit for some time. There is
a setting up action in the first twenty-four hours but apparently little
change after that time.
Four men with forks can unload a forty ton car in a day. The un
loading cost by this method will run about 50 cents per ton.
Equipment. — The principal part of the equipment is the central mixing
plant. Other necessary equipment is a crane with clam shell bucket, a fleet
of trucks, stone spreaders, a three wheeled roller producing a compression
of at least 300 lb. per inch width of wheel (10-ton 3-wheel roller or
12-ton tandem roller), and small tools. Since the roller operates directlv
on the bituniinized stone it is necessary to wet the wheels to prevent

picking up. A mixture of water and not more than 10 per cent lubricat
ing oil may be used. This same mixture should be used on the inside of
truck bodies and on the handling tools.
COLD-MIX SURFACES
Under this heading we may consider those types of surfaces con
structed with bituminous material which is usually warmed to 100 deg.
or 150 deg. F. before being mixed with the aggregates. Often converted
concrete mixers do the mixing but there have been plants developed that
travel along the road and mix the material in the plant on the road instead
of in a central plant. When a portion or all of the mineral aggregate is
obtained from an old road, a central plant set-up becomes uneconomical.
These traveling or portable mixing plants handle the aggregate after it
has been moved into a windrow on the surface of the road.
A desire for closer control of the proportions and uniformity of the
mix has developed a strong tendency toward plant-mixing in the con
struction of the graded aggregate type of wearing course described in this
book. Such procedure constitutes a distinct improvement in the technique
of bituminous construction. Mixing this type of aggregate after it has
been placed on the road necessitates the use of a bituminous product
of lower viscosity than is required merely for spreading and compacting
the mixture when cold, and when the desirability of using material with
as high a viscosity as practicable is more fully realized, plant-mixing will
become more general. Just what maximum viscosity may be allowed for
plant mixtures has not been developed as yet. Most of the mixtures thus
far used have contained the same grade of bituminous material as spe
cified for the road-mix process. However, the heavier the bitumen, the
better, provided stripping or peeling is avoided.
The cold-mix bituminous mixture utilizes a slow-curing bitumen or
emulsion, so that after the surface is laid, it may be remanipulated with a
scarifier and grader to correct inequalities and depressions which may
occur in the surface. Such mixtures may be made up in thousands of tons
in volume and stored at a central plant, except for emulsions, and then,
when the road-bed has been made ready, may be trucked out quickly and
long mileages finished at a very rapid rate with a minimum inconvenience
to traffic.
The type of plant which travels on the road is designated as a Bitu
minous Paver or Road-Mixer. The finished mixture from the bituminous
paver can be spread and compacted either by using tractors and graders,
or it may be finished mechanically with one of the several types of me
chanical finishers. One of the bituminous pavers on the market is designed
with a finisher as part of the unit. The rapid development of mechanical
mixing and finishing, which is now taking place, together with intensive
research as to the accurate proportioning of aggregates and bitumen, will

greatly increase the rate of construction and reduce costs.
We have no knowledge of cold-mixing fine aggregate type in a bitu
minous paver. The graded aggregate and coarse aggregate types are pro
duced this way with variations. There are patented processes of plant
mixing employing varied methods of getting the bitumen coated on the
aggregate. These will be discussed in the chapter on "Proprietary Ma
terials and/or Mixes."
Construction Pointers. — Here again we may point out that a base
and subgrade for a bituminous type surface should be properly drained.
Any sudden dips or rises in a road that is being machine finished must
be removed before placing the surface. Line stakes may be placed along
a fence line and guide stakes offset onto the road bed from them. As in
a road-mix type these surfaces are primed before placing the top. Stone
or gravel or whatever mineral aggregate is employed may be fed from
the end gate of a truck into a stone spreader from which they will deposit
in a windrow of uniform amount. If part of the old road bed is being
utilized by first scarifying and breaking up with a disc or spring tooth
harrow, it should be previously windrowed in the center of the road and
then spread out as uniformly in a narrow row as possible. Bituminous
pavers have no difficulty in producing a mile of 2y2 inch to 3 inch road a
day. In case of shortage of aggregate, additional material must be hauled
in and dumped in front of the elevating mechanism. Excess aggregate
may be removed to a standby truck.
With adequate inspection it is preferable that bids be taken from con
tractors on the basis of tons of aggregate and gallons of bitumen used.
This will prevent the contractor from trying to stretch the aggregate out
too much and possibly leave thin places as might he the case if the con
tract was on a square yardage basis. With proper inspection extra material
will be used where needed.
Careless and uneven placing of aggregate may slow up the speed con
siderably. A recently developed unit of equipment called a Black Top
Paver while placing and finishing bituminous mixtures does not mix the
material on the road. To use it the material must be mixed in a central
mixing plant and hauled in trucks to the site. The unit attaches to the
rear of the truck. It is self-propelling, however.
Equipment. — The principal equipment for producing cold-mix

surfaces on the roadbed itself are trucks, stone spreader boxes, bituminous
distributor, shuttle tank truck, bituminous paver, finishing machine, rakes,
forks, roller, and grader.
The key unit is the bituminous paver. Developments to it are proceed
ing rapidly. Widespread employment of emulsions will undoubtedly bring
about the invention and perfection of portable emulsifiers. At present
there is a patented process of which the portable emulsifying agitator is
a primary unit.
In the case of hot-mix cold-lay surfaces the bituminous paver is re

placed by the central mixing plant.
Emulsifiers have the advantage, under competent management, of pro
ducing an emulsion that will fit the particular condition of the aggregate.
We expect to see the development of this type of equipment.
BITUMINOUS (PENETRATION) MACADAM SURFACE

The material for this section was obtained principally from a bulle
tin written by Mr. A. T. Goldbeck and published by the National Crushed
Stone Association. However, changes have been made, in places, from
what Mr. Goldbeck recommends.
Atthe outset it must be distinctly understood that we are considering

the "surface or wearing course" only in this discussion. A complete
bituminous (penetration) macadam road consists of a blanket course, a
foundation course, a base course, and a surface course. The total cost
of building this entire pavement exceeds that established in this book as
the upper limit of a low cost surface. We justify inclusion of the sur
face course only, in this book, on the grounds that it may be constructed
on a suitable existing base or roadbed.
The success or failure of a bituminous macadam depends on the de
gree of care given the various details entering into its construction. Of
prime importance toward holding the surface is the placing of sufficient
shoulder along the side lines to hold the crushed stone.
Fig. 6. — An Improved Design for Bituminous Macadam Roads
The features of this design are :

1. Stepped construction at edge to obtain better distribution of subgrade
pressures.
2. Wide French drains where needed to promote dry subgrade.
Proper Width of Base. — At one time it was the practice to make the
foundation course no wider than the width of the surface, but this is
erroneous practice. The pavement should be designed to provide as much
strength at the sides as at the center. One of the means for accomplish
ing this is to extend the foundation or base out beyond the surface course
as shown in Fig. 6. The base should extend at least six inches beyond
the surface course to properly spread the wheel load pressures to the
subgrade. At the present time no rational method is available for deter
mining the proper depth of foundation and the judgment of the engineer,
guided by his observation of the conditions, must be relied upon.
/ Surface Course. — A bituminous macadam surface course varies in

thickness from 2y^ to 3 inches and is laid on a base course of suitable
supporting value. The base should be smooth enough to ride over at
fairly high speeds before placing surface course rock. It is bad practice
to depend upon smoothing out large local irregularities or inequalities of
the base by means of variable thickness of the surface course because
unequal compaction of the surface course is apt to result and a rough
riding surface may later develop. Uniformity of surface in compaction and
in texture should by all means be sought. Extreme care must be taken
that the surface have a uniform appearance everywhere before the appli
cation of bituminous material and that there are no spots where undue
crushing of the stone has resulted in a partial closing of the surface voids,
thus interfering with the penetration of the bitumen. It is likewise im
portant that the rolling operation be so conducted as to obtain uniformity
of compaction and smoothness of surface before applying the bituminous
material. The resistance of a bituminous macadam surface against wav
ing is largely dependent upon the mechanical bond and interlocking effect
of the stone and, therefore, it is important that thorough rolling be given
to firmly lock the stone together before any bitumen is applied. The
bituminous material largely serves the function of preventing upward
displacement of the stone under the action of traffic and to some extent
also its adhesive effect aids the mechanical- bond. An excess of bitu
minous material is one of the known causes of lack of stability and is
one of the evils to be guarded against in bituminous macadam construc
tion.
The bituminous material may be either a refined tar or an asphaltic
material for which the following specifications are typical :
Tar Materials for Surface Course
TC-6 TH-l
It shall be homogeneous and free from water
Specific gravity 25°/25° C 1.14 to 1.22 1.18 to 1.24
Specific viscosity at 40° C 26 to 36
Float test at 32° C 120 to 180 sec.
Total distillate by weight :
Water not more than 1.0%
To 170" C, not more than 5.0% 1%
To 270° C, not more than 30.0% 15%
To 300° C, not more than 32.0% 25%
(a) Softening point (Ball and Ring)
of residue, not more than 60° C. 65° C.
(b) Specific gravity of distillate, not
less than 0.98 38V380 C— 1.02
Total bitumen (soluble in carbon disul-
phide 89 to 98% 80 to 95%
(a) Inorganic matter insoluble, not
more than 0.5% not over 0.5%
Tar TC-6 shall be at a temperature of 100° to 150° F. and tar TH-l at
between 175° and 225° F. when applied to the road surface.
Asphalt AH-2 (Hot) for Surface Course
Should be used from May 1 to September 30
It shall be homogeneous, free from water, and shall not

foam when heated to 175° C. (347° F.)
Specific gravity 25°/25° C. (77° /77° F.), not less than 1.000
Flash point, not less than 175" C. (347° F.)
Melting point 37° C. (99° F.) to 57° C. .(135° F.)
Penetration at 25" C., 100 g., 5 sec 85-100
Loss at 163° C. 5 hours (20 g. sample) not more than 1:0%
(a) Penetration of residue at 25° C. (77° F.), 100 g.,
5 sec, not less than .55
Total bitumen (soluble in carbon disulphide), not less than.. 99.5%
(a) Organic matter insoluble, not more than 0.2%
Ductility at 25° C. (77° F.), not less than 80 cm.
Asphalt AH-3 (Hot) for Surface Course

Should be applied from October 1 to April 30
Specific gravity 25°/25° C. (77° 777° F.), not less than 1.000
Flash point, not less than 175° C. (347° F.)
Melting point 35° C. (95° F.) to 55° C. (131° F.)
Penetration at 25° C. (77° F.), 100 g., 5 sec 100 to 120
Loss at 163° C. (325° F.), 5 hours, not more than 1.0%
5 sec, not less than 60%
Total bitumen (soluble in carbon disulphide), not less than ..99.5%
(a) Organic matter insoluble, not more than 0.2%
Ductility 25° C. (77° F.), not less than 80 cm.
Fluxed Native Lake Asphalt AH-4 (Hot) for Surface Course

Fluxed native lake asphalt shall be homogeneous, free from
water, and shall not foam when heated to 175° C. (347° F.)
Specific gravity 25°/25° C. (77° 777° F.) 1.025 to 1.050
Flash point, not less than 175° C. (347° F.)
Melting point 35° C. (95° F.) to 45° C. (113° F.)
Penetration at 25° C. (77° F.), 100 g., 5 sec 120 to 150
Loss at 163° C. (325° F.), 5 hours, not more than 3.0%
5 sec, not less than 60
Total bitumen (soluble in carbon disulphide), not less than.. 95.0%
(a) Inorganic matter insoluble 1.5% to 2.5%
Asphalt, AH-2, AH-3, or AH-4, should be at a temperature between 225°
and 275° F. when applied ot the road surface.
When applied, these bitumens must be at such a temperature that

they will readily flow on the road surface or be incorporated with the
aggregate. In the case of emulsified asphalt penetration the same kind
of emulsion is used from beginning to end. For this work the quick
setting emulsion. AE-1 or 3, may be used and applied in quantities as
set forth under the heading on Road-mix, Coarse Aggregate Type, in
this chapter.
Sequence of Construction Operations. — While Mr. Goldbeck

recommends two methods of construction (depending on the charac
teristics of the rock) the authors believe a satisfactory surface for low
cost roads will result by using only one of the methods explained by
Mr. Goldbeck.
The following steps are carried out in this method :
1. The coarse stone in. or 1^-3 in. is spread uniformly

l>4-2^2
between headers on the base course to the proper depth. A
compacted thickness of 2Y/i to 3 in. is desirable.
2. Coarse stone is thoroughly rolled and compacted with a 10
to 12 ton roller. .
3. Bitumen is applied uniformly with pressure distributor at
the rate of \}i gal. per sq. yd., if l^-2>4 in. stone is used;
and 2 gal. per sq. yd., if 1J4-3 in. stone is used.
4. Keystone, in.* for Ij4-2j^ in. coarse stone and
in. 1^4-3 in. coarse stone, is applied to the amount of
for
one ton per 40 sq. yds. of surface when hard stone is used.
This should be reduced when soft stone is employed.
5. Surface is thoroughly rolled to force keystone into surface
voids and produce tightly compacted surface.
6. Second application of bituminous binder is given at the
rate of }i gal. per sq. yd. with hard stone and gal. with
l/i
softer stone cover.
Cover stone in. or in.) in size to the amount
7.
of one ton for 55 to 70 sq. yds., the latter figure for cover
applied in late fall. The larger size for use with larger
is
size coarse stone.
Details of Construction of Surface Course. — Quality Stone. — The

of
quality of stone in the top course governed by several considerations.

is
In the first place, the top course of stone subjected directly to the wear
is
of traffic and hence must be sufficiently resistant to endure under that

kind of service.
There limit to the softness of the stone used in the wearing course
is
a
and, preferably, should have percentage of wear in the Deval Abra

it
sion Test of not more than 6.0. Uniformity of size great essential
is
a
in the stone in the body of the surface. There must be no chance for
the collectionof pockets of fine material. claimed by some authorities
It
is
that the maximum size of stone should not be greater than the com
pacted thickness of the top course. But, on the other hand, to A]/2 inches
4
maximum size used successfully in 3-inch compacted layer where

is
limestone employed. Stone passing 4-inch ring invariably has at

is
*
This size best adapted to asphalt hinder. Better results are said
is
to be obtained when a
smaller size (M-M in.) used with tar binder.
is
least one diameter which is considerably less than 4 inches and the stone
tends to assume position under the action of the roller.
a flat-lying
The stone should also have a fracture such that it will not have flat
and needle-like pieces which will either tilt or break under traffic be
cause they generally lie with their long dimension in a horizontal direc
tion. It is also important that the stone be clean and free from a film
of dust which will prevent proper adhesion of the bituminous material.
Some stones are also of such a nature that the bitumen does not adhere-
to them well.
The stone ultimately carries the traffic when the right amount ot
bitumen has been employed and the surface of the road presents a par
tially mosaic appearance. It is felt that the use of more bitumen, in an
effort to provide a blanket or seal course to carry the traffic and resist
its wear, is quite certain to lead to a corrugated surface which by all
means should be avoided. Then, too, in warm weather the use of exces
sive bitumen in the so-called seal coat will necessitate the spreading of
additional screenings and thus additional maintenance expense is neces
sary.
Spreading the Coarse Stone. — The coarse stone for the surface course
is spread as uniformly as possible. It is spread between headers of the
proper thickness laid on and spiked to the base course and backed up
with shoulder material. The loose stone, as a rule, should be laid to a
depth which is 50 per cent in excess of the compressed thickness desired.
After spreading, if a wavy, uneven or non-homogeneous surface results,
it should be harrowed with a heavy spike-toothed harrow. The stone
should also be raked into position with long-tooth stone rakes and hand-
placed so that when tested with a strike board resting on the side forms,
the surface will be true to cross-section, free from waves, homogeneous
in appearance and without pockets of fine or unduly coarse material. It
is far easier to correct large inaccuracies in the surface before rolling,
while the stone is loose, than after it is compacted.
Rolling theCoarse Stone. — After the stone is spread and brought
uniformly to proper cross-section, the side forms are removed and the
space which they formerly occupied is filled with earth, rammed into
place. It is essential that sufficient shoulder material be used to back up
the forms in a substantial manner so that when it is compressed under
the weight of the roller, the stone along the sides will be adequately sup
ported. The riding qualities of a bituminous macadam road may be
ruined along the sides over a strip several feet in width if the stone is
not properly backed up with shoulder material during the rolling opera
tion.
The roller used should be of the three wheel type, weighing not less
than 10 tons and should apply a pressure on the rear wheels of not less
than 400 pounds per lineal inch. Rolling is started at the sides of the
road and the rear wheel should over-lap the shoulder about half its
width. The roller should proceed slowly and should not be started or
stopped with a jerky motion which tends to displace the stone. Rolling
faster than 60 feet per minute tends to create waves and should not be
allowed. The patch of each successive trip of the roller should be closer
to the center of the road, the wheels, however, overlapping their previous
path. Stops should not be made in the same spot and when an additional
section is ready for rolling, the roller should reverse its direction over the
previously rolled stone. When one side of the road is rolled, the roller
should start at the opposite edge and work toward the center. The rolled
sides thus develop lateral resistance against displacement during the roll
ing of the central portion and greater compaction of the surface results
and a truer cross-section is also maintained.
After the first pass of the roller any necessary patching should be
made to bring the surface up to the required smoothness. An 18-foot
to 20-foot straight-edge should be used to test the surface at this stage.
If low spots appear, the surface should be loosened and additional stone
added and rolled in. Only by taking such precautions can a desirably
smooth riding surface be obtained. The finished surface should be re
quired to have no depressions greater than yi inches in 18 feet and this
will necessitate constant care in each operation.
Extent of Rolling Coarse Stone. — The rolling should continue until
the stone is firmly compacted and there is no movement under the roller.
However, when the softer stone is used, the surface must be watched
to see that excessive rolling is not given which will so fracture the stone
that the surface voids will be partially closed thus preventing proper
penetration of the bitumen. The stability of a bituminous macadam sur
face course depends largely on the mechanical bond and interlocking
effect of the stone ; hence, it is vital that the stone layer be compacted
before any bitumen whatever is applied.
Bituminous Binder. — Function of the Binder. — The bituminous
binder serves several purposes. In the first place it is adhesive and hence
aids in holding the stone in position, particularly against upward dis
placement under the action of traffic. Secondly, it is a water-proofing
material and hence prevents an undue amount of free water from reach
ing and softening the subgrade. Obviously, both of these functions will
be served most effectively the more uniformly and more thoroughly the
stones are coated.
Applying the Bituminous Binder. — When the binder is applied, the
stone should be dry and the atmosphere should be at a temperature above
45° F., and preferably above 65° F. Moreover, there should not have
been any freezing weather during the preceding night. The surface
should be free of sticks, twigs or leaves which may have blown from
adjacent trees. A pressure distributor should be used and a pressure of
at least 25 pounds per square inch should be maintained at all times.
The distributor should first be examined and tested to see that all nozzles
are clean and the mechanism working properly. By all means a ther
mometer should be provided to determine the temperature of the bitumen.
When tar is used the temperature should be maintained at 225° F. to
275° F. and for asphalt the temperature should be from 275° F. to
350° F. If too cool, the bitumen will not penetrate properly and will
cause bleeding in hot weather. If over-heated for an appreciable length
of time, brittleness of the binder will be the result.
In applying the binder, uniformity is all important and experienced
distributor men, only, should be employed. A stake is set at the point
where the tank should be empty if the binder has been applied at the
proper rate and an experienced driver should be able to empty his tank
within 10 or 20 feet from this stake. On an 18-foot road it is well to
apply binder first over a width of 10 feet, preferably on the left side
of road, for the driver sitting on the left is then able to use the
the
side of the road as a guide. There then remains a strip 8 feet wide to be
penetrated. Subsequently, when a later coat of binder or seal coat is
applied the 10-foot application should lie over the 8-foot strip. In this
way a strip near the center of the road having excessive bitumen is avoid
ed. Should spots be missed in the first application, these, by all means,
should be penetrated before going on with the subsequent operation. If
dependence is placed on the subsequent coat or coats of bitumen to
penetrate these spots, they are almost sure to ravel in time, for they
will contain insufficient bitumen. Should pools of bitumen form, this is
an indication of faulty penetration and such spots should immediately
be loosened up with a pick to allow the hot bitumen to drain into the
surface course. Corrugations will form later if this is not done.
Amount of Binder in First Application. — Ordinarily, it is generally
planned to apply from 1.5 to 1.75 gallons of bitumen, when the depth of
the surface course is 2l/2 inches. The size and kind of stone employed
and the thickness of surface course will influence the amount to some
extent.
—
^Characteristics of Bituminous Binder. The bituminous binder may-
consist of either tar or asphalt. Both are successfully used in different
sections of the country, although personal preference for one over the
other is shown by individual engineers. The characteristics should vary,
depending upon the temperatures to be encountered, the kind of stone
used, whether hard or soft, and upon the severity of traffic. It is to
be presumed, however, that when a bituminous macadam surfacing is
to be constructed, the traffic is at least of a moderate intensity or heavier.
Keystone or Choke Stone. — Immediately
after the first coat of bitu
men has been applied, keystone is broadcast over the surface from stock
piles which have been previously placed along the sides of the road
before the coarse stone has been spread. If a 10-foot strip has been
penetrated with bitumen, only a 9-foot width should be filled with key
stone, leaving a strip one foot in width down the center, unfilled. This
will prevent a ridge from forming in the center of the road due to the
use of excessive keystone.
The purpose of the keystone is to fill the voids between the coarse
stone and to wedge them tightly into place. It is not at all the idea
that the keystone shall form an extra layer on top of the coarse stone.
It should be understood that the most important function of the_key-
stone is to wedge the coarse stone into position and thus keep it from
corjûgatnTg_un.der traffic. When the coarse stone is hard and of a size
lJA-2l/2 inches, it is recommended that the keystone extend from Y% to 1
inch in diameter, as determined by circular opening laboratory screens.
When 1J4-3 in. soft limestone is used, good results are obtained with
keystone, )4-l/4 inches in diameter. It has been claimed, however, that
when tar is used better results are obtained with smaller keystone of
Vz to in. average diameter. If the keystone much larger than the
is
l/i
maximum above stated, difficult to force into the surface voids

is
it
it
without undue crushing. All keystone _snould_ be __cl_ean jnjd_Jx£e_frorjl,
dust.
Tbe amount of keystone should be regulated so that just enough will
be applied to fill the voids in the. coarse stone with no excess oii-tlie.^w-
faee. \{ too much keystone applied, the excess will crush under the
is
roller dnd form crust on the surface which will_ interfere with the
a
adhesion'of the next application of bitumen.

Roughly, one ton of stone per 40 sq. yds. recommended for hard, stone
is
and one ton per 194 sq. yds. when softer and larger stone used If
is
the stonels softer than the hardest of trap rocks the amount of keystone
should be reduced, as indicated, because there will be some filling of the
voids due to crushing of the coarse rock.
Immediately after the application of the keystone the road should be
very thoroughly rolled before the bituminous material hardens to such
an extent as to prevent the keystone from being thoroughly incorporated
with it. Necessarily the bitumen will harden faster in cool weather, thus
requiring an early completion of the rolling, whereas, in hot weather the
rolling should be continued longer, or perhaps delayed. As the rolling
progresses may be found that more keystone should be added and
it
broomed over the surface to fill the voids. The idea should be borne in
mind, however, that an excess should not be used, for the roller should
bear on the coarse stone and should not be supported by the keystone.
Care must be taken with the rolling at this stage. The roller must not be
permitted to stand on the surface before the completion of the rolling
and the surface must be kept clean and traffic should not be permitted
on it. If, during the progress of the rolling deformations of the surfaces
develop, these should be corrected by rolling into the depressions, bitu
minous coated stone of suitable size. At this stage of the work,
a
thorough rolling must be given until the surfacing compacted to

is
solid, smooth layer. After rolling completed, the surface should be

is
broomed clean of all fine stone not firmly held by the bitumen. It is
then ready for the application of the second coat of bitumen.
Amount of Binder in Second Application.

— Thesecond coat of bitu
men is thefinal coat. It is applied in the same way as the first coat,
but the amount is decreased to y2 or f\ gallons per sq. yd. It is not
the idea that this coat shall form a mat or carpet over the surface. It
should not be applied in such excessive quantities that pools will remain,
but it should be absorbed in large part by the voids in the surface course.
If a 10-foot strip of bitumen is applied on the left side of the road
in the first application, it will be well to apply only an 8-foot strip in
the second application so that the edge of the two applications will not
fall in the same line. This will make for uniformity in quantity of
bitumen in the center of the road.
Building paper should be spread and weighted down on the road
surface and the distributor should be opened before it reaches the desired
point of application; and the excess bitumen is caught on the paper. In
this way the distributor may be given a flying start and will be running
at the proper speed at the beginning of the strip to be treated.
Cover Stone. — The final application of bitumen is covered with stone
of a size which will wedge into the voids remaining in the surface course.
When hard stone I'A-'Zyi in. has been employed with ¥%-\ in. keystone,
the cover stone should be Y%-Y% in. With 1J4-3 in. hard stone, -kj-1 54
in. keystone, in. cover stone is of about the right size. The cover
stone should be broadcast so as to secure as uniform a distributidn as
possible. An excess of cover stone, more than will bind with the bitu
men, is to be avoided. It is well to apply the cover sparingly at first
and during its application the surface is rolled. As the need for more
cover material develops, it is applied in the desired spots until the entire
surface is uniformly covered with little, if any, more cover than will
combine with the bitumen.
The rolling must be thorough after the cover has been applied and
rolling should be given every day for 5 or 6 days at a time of the day
when the road is sufficiently warm so that it will be compacted by the
roller.
Final Appearance of the Surface. — The above directions have
been made with the idea that, if followed, the road surface will not
have a heavy mat of bitumen on the surface, but, on the contrary, will
have a mosaic appearance due to the coarse stone. This is considered an
ideal condition and roads having this appearance quite generally remain
free from any corrugations.
Maintenance. — If for any reason, due to improper construction, a
maintenance treatment is required, it should be under all circumstances
either a quick-setting cutback asphalt, such as RC-1, a quick-setting emul
sified asphalt, or a rapid curing tar as TC-1. There is no place for road
oil in this class of work to obtain the light sealing required sufficient to
hold the cover coat to produce the character of non-skid surface desired,
unless a completely new surface of 1 in. thickness or more is expected to
be obtained. This phase of maintenance work is covered hereinbefore
under Bituminous Surface Treatments.
Estimating Quantity in Distributor or Tank Car. — An interesting
and important field problem in the application
of bituminous binders is
or tank car. Asphalt in
the estimating of the quantity in the distributor
creases in volume when heated and does not flow freely until heated to
about 225° F. Thus a distributor takes on a load at from 225 to 350
deg*
On the job the load must be heated to 250° F. or 275° F. to get good
penetration. The quantity required in the road, however, has been figured
at 60° F. or what is known as "cold." To add to the confusion some
companies weigh the bitumen, thus eliminating the variation in volume,
while other companies merely rate the volume of their tank trucks at 800,
950 or 1,000 gal. of material whether hot or cold.
That this expansion amounts to something both in money and material
is evident when we realize that asphalt expands 10 per cent in being
heated from 60° F. to 350° F. The following rules have been worked out
for handling this problem:
1. Buy the asphalt by weight. Thus so many tons are converted into
"cold" gallons.
2. Pay the contractor who "heats, hauls, and applies'' the material the
same gallonage that you pay the producer.
3. On job
theconvert the weight slip weight into cold gallons and
figure the yardage of penetration by dividng by the quantity applied per
sq. yd.
4. W hen no weight slip is received on the job, take the gallonage.
In this way one may compensate for the volume change.
GENERAL DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY

The term, "low cost," must not be so construed as to be open to the
objection poor workmanship
that is to be permitted to accomplish "low
cost." Oftimes a type of surface is penalized because of improper sub-
grade preparation or improper attention to drainage, when the type of
surface itself is durable and smooth if properly laid.
Bituminous surfaces have been brought to the attention of engineers
rather forcibly in recent years and although several different methods are
in use they are. in the final result, very similar. Much research has been
reported, giving valuable information and guidance, and much more re
mains to be done.
•Refer to pg. 116 of Manual Number Two of the Asphalt In«t:tute for a complete table of
volumetric change. The values given in this table apply to tars also. The table is based on a
coefficient of expansion of 0.00034 at 60° F. For more definite information see paper by J. M.
YVeis<- entitled "The Coefficient of Expansion of Tar," Jour. Franklin Institute, Vol. 172,
pg. 277, 1911.
The mention of the question of bituminous content invariably induces

discussion. There are those who regulate the quantity by empirical rule ;
those who proportion by eye; those who insist that the stain test deter
mines the quantity ; and those who proportion the bitumen according to
the voids in the aggregate. We have discussed all three methods herein,
and have given data as to the employment of each. Naturally and logically
the characteristics of the bituminous material as well as the characteristics
of aggregates have a bearing upon the
the question as to how much
bitumen the surface mixture must contain.
Standardization of Asphalt Grades. — The rapid nationwide devel

opment of low-cost roads has increased tremendously the use of fluid
bituminous materials. In this work the many methods and types of con-
struction^ described herein, have been developed which have brought into
use different grades of fluid asphaltic products. The tar producers have
established grades, which, while not directly comparable with asphaltic
products, may be used with equal results on similar work. The simplifica
tion program instituted cooperatively by the U. S. Bureau of Public
Roads, the Asphalt Institute, the asphalt producers, and the state high
way departments, however, does not consider tar products in its investiga
tions. This program has, at present, resulted in a general agreement for
standardized methods of testing. Likewise the Asphalt Institute has
recommended the number of grades of liquid asphaltic products to be
manufactured. The various uses of these asphaltic products are given in
Table VI.
The specifications* for liquid asphaltic road materials presented here
inafter were developed as the result of the conferences mentioned above
and supersede former Specifications Nos. 1 to 7 inclusive of The Asphalt
Institute. They have been prepared to conform with the simplified scheme
of analysis developed at these conferences, and cover the great bulk of
satisfactory products which are now being furnished by the producers
for various of highway treatment and construction.
classes
General adoption of the simplified form of specification by the users
of liquid asphaltic road materials is to be greatly desired for the follow
ing reasons :
1. The simplified form reduces all specifications to a common

language by means of which the various products can be correctly
compared and evaluated.
2. It eliminates a large number of unnecessary tests heretofore
commonly used, with their accompanying variations, and makes pos-
J sible a clearer interchange of opinions and experiences among con
sumers and producers.
3. It prevents the unnecessary overlapping in grades of products
' Published by permission of the Asphalt Institute from their pamphlet dated Dec. 1, 1932,
entitled "Specifications for Liquid Asphaltic Road Materials."
\S
TABLE VI
Liquid Asphaltic Road Materials
Principal Uses of Materials Meeting Specifications Recommended
by the Asphalt Institute
R. C. M. C. s. c.
(Rapid Curing) ( Medium Curing) (Slow Curing)
Specification Designation
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 S 1 2 3 4
fSE
——
- -
X
Seal, thin carpet coat with min-

x
—
Blotter or Mulch Treatment X
Cold Patch X
Road Mix, Macadam Aggregate.. *

-
Cold Laid Plant Mix, Mac. Agg.
1X
— —
Road Mix, Dense graded agg.,
max. dia. 1", traffic com
pacted :
Dry climate, cool weather X
X
Dry climate, hot weather —
x
Road Mix, Open graded agg., roll
er compacted, max. diam. 1"
high per cent pass. 10 mesh,
low per cent 200 mesh X
Cold Laid Plant-Mix. Dense grad

ed agg., max. diam. 1", traffic
compacted :
Drv climate — X
Severe climate X
Cold Laid Plant Mix, Open grad

ed agg., roller compacted, max
diam. 1", high per cent pass.
10 mesh, low per cent 200 mesh. X
Cold Laid Plant Mix, Open grad

ed agg., roller compacted, max
diam. 1", high per cent pass. %" , 1
no 200 mesh X
which are to serve a single purpose, which overlapping has resulted

from the variable forms of specifications developed by individual
localities.
The simplified scheme embodies the following three fundamental deter
minations :
1. Determination, by means of a viscosity test, of the consistency
or degree of fluidity of the original material at as near normal tem
perature as practicable, which indicates the suitability of the product
fiom the standpoint of application, for a given type of treatment or
method of construction.
2. Determination, by means of the distillation test, of the amount
and character of lighter constituents which may be expected to elim
inate themselves through volatilization or absorption during manipula
tion and early use, which indicates the probable rate of curing.
3. Determination, by means of the penetration or float test, of
the consistency of the residue from distillation, which indicates the
probable extent of curing and the character of the product eventually
retained by the mineral aggregate in the highway which has been
treated.
In the following tabulated specifications, liquid asphaltic road ma
terials have been grouped under three classifications: R.C., or rapid
curing cut-back asphalts; M.C., or medium curing cut-back asphalts; and
S.C., or slow curing products. Under each classification the individual
specifications have been numbered consecutively as the viscosity of the
products increases. Numerical values opposite the individual tests, when
followed by a + sign, signify not less than the value shown and if
followed by a — sign, not more than the value shown.
Following each set of tabulated specification requirements are descrip
tions of the type of treatment or construction for which materials under
each individual specification are best suited. Table VI summarizes these
descriptions and illustrates the interrelationship of all of the products
specified. Reference to standard tests and descriptions of tests not yet
officially adopted as standard, which are embodied in these specifications,
are given on pages 224, 225, and 226.
Tests for emulsions are given on pages 229, 230, 231, and 245.
Type R.C.-i. — This specification supersedes former Asphalt Institute
specification for asphaltic road material No. 5.
It provides for a rapid curing liquid product of low initial viscosity
suitable for surface treatment and retreatment as seal coat, or in the con
struction of thin bituminous carpet courses with a light cover of suitable
mineral aggregate free from dust.
It is not intended for use as a primer on untreated roads as it is apt
to harden before it can penetrate the surface. Before application to non-
bituminous surfaces the road should preferably be primed with Type
M.C.-l material.
Specifications for Type R. C. Materials
Specification Designation RC-1 RC-2 RC-3 RC-4

The material shall be free from water
and shall meet the following requirements
General Requirements when tested in accordance with the methods
hereinafter enumerated.
Flash Point (Open Tag.) °F 80+ 80+ 80+ 80+
Furol Viscosity at 122° F 80-160 200-400
Furol Viscosity at 140° F 275-400 700-1400
Total Distillate to 374° F 5+ ....
Total Distillate to 437° F 12+ 10+ 3+ 0.5+
Total Distillate to 600° F 25+ 20+ 14+ 7+
40— 35— 30- 25-
Tests on Residue from Distillation :
Penetration 77° F., 100 g. 5 sec 60-120 60-120 60-120 60-120
Ductility at 77° F 60+ 60+ 60+ 60+
Per cent Soluble in Carbon Disulphide 99.5+ 99.5+ 99.5+ 99.5+
Type R.C.-2. — This specification supersedes former Asphalt Institute

It provides for a rapid curing liquid product of relatively low viscosity,
suitable for the preparation of cold-patch mixtures, with open graded
mineral aggregate having little or no material passing the 10-mesh and
practically none passing the 200-mesh sieve. If the asphaltic material is
warmed prior to admixture with the mineral aggregate, suitable pre
cautions should be taken to avoid fire hazard. The mixture should prefer
ably be aged in stock piles for 24 hours or more before use.
This material may also be used in cool weather for the type of con
struction described under Type R.C.-3.
Type R.C.-j. — This specification supersedes former Asphalt Institute
It provides for a rapid curing product of relatively high viscosity
suitable for use in the construction of roller compacted road-mix wearing
courses or for cold-patch mixtures in which the mineral aggregate is of
the open type, consisting principally of crushed fragments, maximum
size not over lj/
inches, and practically all of which is retained on a
inch screen. The asphaltic material should be warmed prior to appli
'<(
cation with suitable precautions to avoid fire hazard. not intended

It
is
for use with aggregate containing high dust content.

a
Type R.C.-2 material may be used for this class of construction in

-ool weather, particularly in cases where the maximum diameter of
mineral aggregate particle does not exceed inch.
1
Type R.C.-f. — This specification provides for rapid curing product

a
of high viscosity suitable for use in the construction of roller compacted

<:old laid plant-mix wearing courses in which the mineral aggregate of
is
the open type, consisting principally of crushed fragments, maximum

size not over lyi inches and practically all of which is retained on a %
inch screen. It is particularly adapted for use under conditions where
the mixture is to be laid and compacted immediately after mixing. The
asphaltic material should be warmed prior to use with suitable precau
tions to avoid fire hazard.
Specifications for Type M. C. Materials

Specification Designation MC-1 MC-2 MC-3 MC-4 MC-5
The material shall be free from water
and shall meet the following require-
General Requirement ments when tested in accordance with
the methods hereinafter enumerated.
Flash Point (Open Tag) °F 150+ 150+ 150+ 150+

Furol Viscosity at 77° F 40-150
Furol Viscosity at 140° F 150-250 300-500 500-800 ....
Furol Viscosity at 180° F 170-280
Total Distillate to 437° F 10— 2— 2— 1— 1—
Total Distillate to 600° F 25+ 10-20 8-20 16— 14—
Total Distillate to 680° F 50— 27— 25— 25— 20—
Tests on Residue from Distillation:
Penetration 77° F., 100 g., 5 sec 70-300 100-300 100 300 100-300 100-300
Ductility at 77° F 60+ 60+ 60+ 60+ 60+
Per cent Soluble in Carbon Disulphide.. 99.5 + 99.5 + 99.5 + 99.5 + 99.5+
Type M.C.-i. — This specification supersedes former Asphalt Institute

It provides for a liquid product of very low viscosity for cold appli
cation, suitable for use as a primer for initial surface treatment of road
surfaces preparatory to the construction of a bituminous carpet or wear
ing course. It is readily and completely absorbed by earth, gravel or
broken stone surfaces, where it hardens in place. While it develops con
siderable cementitiousness upon drying, it is not intended to hold a cover
of stone chips or gravel.
Type M.C.-2. — This specification supersedes former Asphalt Institute

It provides for a medium curing liquid product of low viscosity suit
able for use in the construction of traffic compacted road-mix wearing
courses in which the mineral aggregate is densely graded, from a maxi
mum diameter of 1 inch down, with from 35 to 60 per cent of material
passing a 10-mesh sieve and from 7 to 14 per cent passing a 200-mesh
sieve. This material should ordinarily be warmed before application. Its
viscosity increases materially after use so as to develop considerable
cementitiousness. It is therefore adapted for the type of construction de
scribed, under severe climatic conditions. It does not, however, harden
with sufficient rapidity to be used to best advantage as a binder for coarse

open mineral aggregates free from dust.
Type M.C.-j. — This specification provides for a medium curing liquid
product of medium viscosity suitable for use in the construction of traffic
compacted cold laid plant-mix wearing courses in which the mineral ag
gregate is densely graded from a maximum of 1 inch down, with from
35 to 60 per cent of material passing a 10-mesh sieve, and from 7 to 14
per cent passing a 200-mesh sieve.
It is also suitable for use in the construction of roller compacted,
road-mix wearing courses in which the mineral aggregate is of the open
graded type with a maximum diameter of not over 1 inch, containing
little or no material passing the 200-mesh but having a relatively high
percentage passing the 10-mesh sieve.
This material should be warmed before application. Its viscosity in
creases materially after use so as to develop considerable cementitiousness
and it is therefore adapted to both types of construction described, under
severe climatic conditions.
Type M.C.-4. — This specification provides for a medium curing liquid

product of relatively high viscosity suitable for use in the construction
of roller compacted, cold laid plant-mix wearing courses, oC road-mix
wearing courses in hot weather, in which the mineral aggregate is of the
open graded type with a maximum diameter of 1 inch, containing little
or no material passing the 200-mesh but having not less than 35 per cent
passing the 10-mesh sieve. The asphaltic material, and sometimes the
aggregate, require warming before mixing.
Type M.C.-5. — This specification provides for a medium curing prod
uct of high viscosity suitable for use in the construction of roller com
pacted, cold laid plant-mix wearing courses, in which the mineral aggre
gate is of the open graded type with a maximum diameter of 1 inch,
containing practically no material passing the 200-mesh but having an
appreciable percentage passing the }4 mch screen. The asphaltic material
and usually the aggregate require warming before mixing.
Type S.C.-i. — This specification supersedes former Asphalt Institute
It provides for a product of very low viscosity suitable for cold
application as a dust layer. It may also be used for initial treatments in
the progressive method of mat construction on soils or fine gained aggre
gates where gradual improvement is to extend over a number of years
with subsequent treatments employing more viscous asphaltic road ma
terials. This product is not intended to serve as a hardening or cementing
medium.
Type S.C.-3. — This specification supersedes former Asphalt Institute
specification for asphaltic road material No. 3 . and covers material
formerly designated in the Pacific Coast territory as 654- road oil.
Specifications for Type S. C. Materials
Specification Designation SC I* SC-2 SC-3 SC-4

The material shall meet the following
General Requirement requirements when tested in accordance
with the methods hereinafter enumerated.
2— 2— 2—
Flash Point (Cleveland Open Cup) "F. 150+ 200+ 200+ 250+
20-150 ....
.... 200-320
.... 150-300 350-550

Total Distillate to 437° F 2— 2— 2—
Total Distillate to 600° F 15— 10— 8—
Total Distillate to 680° F 50^ 25— 20- 18—
Tests on Residue from Distillation :

Float at 122° F 50— 25+ 25+ 25+
Per cent Soluble in Carbon Disulphide 99.0+ 99.0+ 99.0+ 99.0+
It provides for a very slow curing liquid product of low viscosity

suitable for use in dry climates during cool weather in the construction of
traffic compacted road-mix wearing courses in which the mineral aggre
gate is densely graded, from a maximum diameter of 1 inch down, with
from 35 to 60 per cent of material passing a 10-mesh sieve and from
7 to 14 per cent passing a 200-mesh sieve. It should ordinarily be warmed
before application. As it does not develop high cementitiousness, it can
not be expected to increase appreciably the stability of the aggregate.
This material may also be used in the blotter or mulch treatment of
clay roads with a loose or floating cover of gravel aggregate.
Type S.C.-j. — This specification covers material formerly designated
in the Pacific Coast territory as 72+ road oil.
It provides for a very slow curing liquid product of medium viscosity
suitable for use in dry climates during hot weather, in the construction of
traffic compacted road-mix wearing courses fn which the mineral aggre
gate is densely graded from a maximum diameter of 1 inch down, with
from 35 to 60 per cent of material passing a 10-mesh sieve and up to
14 per cent passing a 200-mesh sieve. It requires warming before appli
cation. As this type of material does not develop high cementitiousness,
it cannot be expected to increase appreciably the stability of the aggre
gate.
Type S.C.-4. — This specification provides for a very slow curing liquid
product of relatively high viscosity, suitable for use in dry climates in
the construction of cold laid traffic compacted plant-mix wearing courses
in which the mineral aggregate is densely graded from a maximum
• Within limits specified, the Pacific Coast Producers will, when required, furnish
the viscosity
material with a maximum Furol Viscosity limit of 40 at 77° F., formerly designated 30-40 Road
Oil.
diameter of inch down, with from 35 to 60 per cent of material passing

1
a 10-mesh sieve and from 7 to 14 per cent passing a 200-mesh sieve. The
asphaltic material and sometimes the aggregate require heating before
mixing. As this material does not develop high cementitiousness, it can
not be expected to increase appreciably the stability of the aggregate.
Standardization of Tar Grades. — Although tar specifications are fair

ly well standardized, there are several discrepancies in reference to minor
details in the specifications in use today. At the present time the various
tar companies are working with the State Highway Departments in an
endeavor to set up standard tar specifications for use throughout the
country. i
All of the various road tars made and used in the United States can
be divided roughly into five classes. In spite of this apparent simplicity
there is a lamentable lack of uniformity in specifications covering the
road tars in each of these classes. Practically no two highway depart
ments or individual users have exactly the same specifications. Manu
facturers of road tars are called upon to meet literally hundreds of speci
fications, all of which are intended to cover approximately the same grades
of material. There is no apparent reason why all the users of high car
bon road tars in the United States cannot employ the same specifications.
Classifications have been made and the following specifications were pre
pared. Tbey were recommended to the American Association of State
Highway Officials in the hope that their adoption will help to eliminate
the confusion and expense that results from lack of proper standard
ization.
The words "high carbon" as used above and in the following speci
fications are intended to differentiate those road tars consisting entirely
or principally of high temperature coal tar from so called low carbon
tars that consist entirely or principally of water gas tar.
The five classes of road tar covered by these suggested specifications
are divided further into a total of twelve grades. Each grade is particu
larly suited to the purpose for which it is intended or to the conditions
under which it is to be used.
T.C. i and T.C. 2 (High Carbon Tar, Cold Application) .—Used for
prime coating of sand, clay, top soil, macadam, oyster shell, lime rock,
chert, shale or other types of surfaces which are to receive a second appli
cation of bituminous material.
T.C. 1 can be used throughout the road season in those sections of the
country that do not have extremely high summer temperatures. In sec
tions having extreme summer temperatures it is recommended that T.C. 2
be used during the hotter months of the road season.
P.oth T.C.I and T.C. 2 usually can be applied at atmospheric tempera
ture except in the cooler months of the season when they should be heated
to 100° to 150° F. for best results.
They are excellent primers. They penetrate into the surfaces to which
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.SSSgJJrj «! c (J
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c _ n
.2 ms?*
< - - — n « re ~ >s->~,9
< xr.isiir, ^ S- W ^.7- ■
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U
o O c
Elvira a (- -
they are applied with little or no separation of their constituents. They

are also excellent binders for tar sand cushions for brick pavements.
T.C. 3 and T.C. 4 (High Carbon Tar, Cold Application). — Used for
the original treatments of stone and gravel roads, for mulch treatments
in which graded or fine aggregates are used and for the retreatment of
old surfaces to revivify them.
The choice of T.C. 3 or T.C. 4 for any particular purpose is deter
mined by existing conditions, such as type of surface to be treated and
atmospheric temperature. Either grade ordinarily is applied at atmospheric
temperatures, except in the cooler months of the season when it is desir
able to warm and apply them at temperatures not exceeding 150° F.
Road tars of this variety have been used for many years. Their ability
to produce durable and skid-resistant surfaces has long been recognized.
T.M. and T.M. 2 (High Carbon Tar, Medium). — Road-mix con
1
struction, retreatments and drag surface treatments.

During recent years two important developments have been taking
place in the maintenance and construction of bituminous roads. One of
these developments is road-mix construction and the other drag surface
treatments. For each of these purposes it is necessary to use a binder
that will set up reasonably fast, but not so rapidly that a smooth surface
cannot be obtained, work easily under drag or road-mix machine, bind
effectively and produce a durable and skid-resistant surface. T.M. meets
all of these requirements.
T.M. 1 and T.M. 2 also are used for the retreatment of bituminous
surfaces. They are especially suitable for this purpose because they hold
somewhat greater quantities of cover material than lighter grades of road
tar and set up more rapidly.
During summer months they may be applied at temperatures of 80"
to 100° F. but in spring and fall temperatures of 100" to 150° F. are
preferred.
T.H. 1 and T.H. 2 (High Carbon Tar, Hot Surface Treatment). — This
material is applied hot. It is particularly effective for the second coat
of a double application treatment of water bound macadam, gravel, etc.,
over a priming coat of T.C. 1, T.C. 2; retreatment of bituminous sur
faces ; surfacing of brick, cement concrete, bituminous concrete, granite
blocks, rock asphalt, etc. ; wearing surface for bridge floors (used in
conjunction with T.C. 3 or T.C. 4; inverted penetration type construction;
hot patching ; second application for road-mix construction.
liecause of its higher consistency T.H. has a rapid initial set-up that
results from cooling from application temperature to road temperature.
This type of road tar has been used for many years with very satis
factory results. It will retain maximum quantities of covering material
on any type of road surface. It produces durable surfaces that are skid-
resistant.
Road tars of the T.H. variety usually are applied at temperatures of

170° to 225° F.
T.P. i and T.P. 2 (High Carbon Tars, Penetration Construction). — -
T.P. 1 and T.P. 2 are used for penetration construction, hot mix tar con
crete, hot repairs and as crack fillers for concrete roads.
The grade of T.P. used for. penetration construction or hot mix tar
concrete depends upon atmospheric conditions, type of aggregate, grada
tion of aggregate, etc.
For hot repairs and the filling of cracks in concrete roads the lighter
grade usually is preferred.
It is recommended that T.P. materials be applied at temperatures of
approximately 200° to 250° F.
T.C.P. i and T.CP. 2 (High Carbon Tar, Cold Patch).— Used for
repairing surface breaks, holes and depressions in bituminous and water-
bound macadam, brick, sheet asphalt, asphaltic concrete and cement con
crete roads. Also for construction of railway grade crossings, wearing
surfaces on bridge floors and resurfacing of old and worn pavements.
This material may be used in place of hot application when it is desired
to surface treat an old road with a heavy base material that can be
applied cold.
Local conditions of temperature, aggregate, etc., determine the grade
to be employed. In the late fall and early spring it is advisable to heat
T.C.P. slightly, taking necessary precautions to avoid ignition of the
vapors since this grade of road tar contains a highly volatile solvent.
T.C.P. is mixed easily either by hand or in small mixers with local
aggregates and is used cold for the repair of any type of pavement. It
sets up rapidly.
Summary of Conclusions. — The

conclusions reached from an
extensive study of the existing data are summarized briefly as follows :
1. That the use of bitumens primarily as dust preventatives is re
garded as a temporary expedient. More detailed conclusions regarding
oiled roads will be found at the end of the section on that subject in this
chapter.
2. That bituminous surface treatments are preferred over bituminous
dust-layers because they have a higher residual value for continuous
maintenance or stage-construction purposes, and better riding qualities.
3. That the distinction between the single and dual surface treatment
is that the first prime coat on loosely compacted bases is usually mixed in
place before another prime coat is applied.
4. While up until three years ago, tar was used for prime coat appli
cation almost exclusively the development of an asphaltic product known
as MC-1 has proven to be very satisfactory for this class of work, and
is now being used interchangeably with tar in many places.
5. That the heavier the bitumens, the thicker will be the mat of
surface treatment and generally, the larger will be the required diameter
of the rock cover (dependent upon quantities used).
6. That cold applications of bitumen are growing in favor and heavier
grades are being used.
7. That without a prime coat there is a greater tendency for the
material to "peel," owing to the lack of a bond that penetrates into the
subbase.
8. That because of their thin skins — single bituminous treatments are
most serviceable on well-compacted macadams or heavy subbases.
9. That the character and thickness of the subbase, climate, traffic,
and subgrade, determine the type of surface course necessary.
10. That surfaces bladed during construction and traffic bound are
smoother riding than roller-compacted surfaces.
11. That the stability of the treatment, other conditions being equal,
depends upon the size, depth, and quality of the aggregate and the amount
and grade of bituminous material used.
12. That the riding qualities of the road-mix types are claimed uni
versally to be better than the penetration types because of the blading
during construction.
13. That a thin surface mat covered with small stone chips (34 inch
or less) has a tendency to form ridges or waves under traffic if not
bound to subbase.
14. That interlocking, angular, and relatively coarse aggregate is
desirable to provide internal stability in a bituminous surface.
15. That plant-mixed bituminous surfaces permit better control of
the materials than road-mixed surfaces, and interfere less with traffic. In
the State of California, with the western method, there is very little dif
ference in the cost of two types.
16. That the degree of hardness and toughness, and the character of
the surfaces of the aggregate used for cover, largely determines the dur
ability of a bituminous treatment. Glazed surfaces are not desirable be
cause of lack of adhesion to the bitumen.
a -
i a:
a.
-iS?
S
CHAPTER VI
USE OF CONCRETE FOR LOW-COST ROAD

CONSTRUCTION*
has been used for low-cost road construction for sev
eral years. The past few years have witnessed an increasing
CONCRETEinterest in this subject and, as a result, past experiences with low-
cost concrete construction is receiving more attention. The most im
portant uses of concrete for low -cost road construction are as follows:
1. Single Track Concrete Roads,
2. Minimum Design Standards for Two-Lane Construction,
3. Cement-bound Macadam.
These types of concrete construction are essentially low-cost construc
tion because they give completed pavements in cost ranges usually well
below $15,000 per mile for the completed roadway. The surfacing costs
themselves range downward from about $10,000 per mile.
In all cases of concrete road construction, the custom of the past has
been to speak of costs in terms of completed roadway. This includes
grading and drainage costs.
During the past few years, particularly since 1928, in low-cost road
construction discussions, a custom has developed of speaking of the cost
of a certain surfacing operation. In some cases this is the cost of gravel
surfacing, in others it is the cost of surface treating a gravel road or
preparing a road-mix or plant-mix bituminous surface on an existing
metalled surface.
Concerning the use of concrete, these factors should be clearly under
stood in case mental comparisons are made with other types of low-cost
road construction. The costs of slab are the costs, complete, of the sur
facing for the depths and widths given.
Grading and Alignment Standards. — The standards for grading
and alignment are practically the same for these three types of low-cost
concrete road construction. In principle, they can be summarized as fol
lows :
Grading and alignment standards should conform to present traffic
requirements or those of the near predictable future regardless of the
degree of improvement of road surface.
The details of grading, drainage and alignment given under "Single
Track Concrete Roads" also apply to cement-bound macadam and mini
mum design standard concrete road construction.
•Acknowledgment is due M. D. Catton. Highway Engineer, Portland Cement Association, for
preparing material in this chapter on the use of concrete for low cost road construction.
329
SINGLE TRACK CONCRETE ROADS

Single track concrete road construction falls definitely in the low-cost
road field in many areas on a first cost basis alone. Contracts for a nine-
foot slab with earth or gravel shoulders have been awarded for less than
$10,000 per mile. Awards as low as $6,500 per mile have been reported.
Average costs during 1932 were below $10,000 per mile. Comparisons of
their first cost with other types having similar grading requirements will
show they are more economical under some conditions without considering
life and maintenance costs.
Practical grading requirements as related to possible stage construction
is an important item in this connection. If concrete is laid as a surface on
a local road grade line as discussed in Chapter I, direct comparisons can
justifiably be made. A study of practical grading requirements is essen
tial in making comparison of annual road costs. Concrete surfaces are usu
ally laid, and desirably so, on a permanent grade line while other low cost
road types, even with stage construction, usually conform to the natural
contour of the land and do not, usually, demand as heavy grading work as
has been the case preparatory to laying a concrete slab. However, if grad
ing is not considered, and the concrete is laid to an undulating grade line
and location conforming to those pertaining to local roads, then the cost
comparisons can justifiably be made between surfaces only.
The single track concrete road is also a low cost road with even high
er construction costs because the annual road cost is low as a result of
longer life and lower maintenance costs. The importance of low annual
road costs has been stressed in previous chapters of this book and is now
recognized by highway engineers as the true criterion for comparing road
costs. The material on single track construction shows the application of
economics in the local road field and the methods of determining annual
road costs. Justification of new construction is based on the principle of
savings effected by lowered maintenance, replacement and vehicle opera
tion costs on the new surface.
County Road Classifications. — Some state highway departments

have attacked the problems involved in the economics of road improve
ment in communities in their states in an endeavor to assist counties and
other political subdivisions in choosing economic types. For example, the
Wisconsin1 and Minnesota- highway departments have made intensive
studies of road usage, construction costs, and maintenance costs. Data
obtained indicate that any road carrying 500 vehicles or more per day
can. economically, be paved with a high type surface. Missouri3 has also
made detailed studies which indicate a larger field for high type surfacing.
In Illinois, the chief engineer of the state highway department pre
1"Economic Comparison of Road Surfaces— Wisconsin," Nov., 1928 Proceedings, A. S. C. E.,
Vol. 54, No. 9.
'Annual Report of the Minnesota Highway Department. 19.10.
'"Designing State Highway Systems." by T. H. Cutler, Chief Engineer. Missouri State
Highway Department, Civil Engineering, Jan., 1931.
USE OF CONCRETE FOR LOW-COST ROAD CONSTRUCTION 331
pared a booklet for the use of county engineers in which general guiding
policies were given. In this case the state has supervision over road work
accomplished in the counties with certain funds.
The effect of trucks on low type surfaces is shown in the "Report of
Investigation of Low Cost Improved Roads" presented to the Seventh An
nual Meeting of the Highway Research Board of the National Research
Council. In the discussion of Selection of Type, the following statement
is made :
"There is no doubt that unit vehicle weight is a factor which cannot
be ignored in the selection of type. If the present or probable future
traffic is to include even a small number of heavy trucks, equipped with
solid tires, low type surfaces will become inadequate. This was proved
for average conditions of soil and climate during the war period of 1916-
1918 when many miles of macadam and lower cost roads were destroyed."
The consideration of the principles of local road improvement by the
local highway engineer as given in previous chapters, will permit him to
place his local roads into three road systems. The main county road sys
tem which spreads a network over the county as discussed in the chapter
on planning. An economic analysis of each branch of this system will
determine the type of surface to adopt. At the other extreme will be the
roads that carry light local traffic, the improvement of which can be post
poned until all other roads have been brought up to their traffic require
ments. The mileage of roads remaining will need some intermediate type
of improvement and are the roads requiring careful study to determine
the most economical type surface. These roads can be said to make up
the secondary system of county roads.
Before consideration can be given to the secondary system of county
roads it is essential that the primary system of county roads be adequate
ly improved first as they form the backbone of the local transportation
system. The local transportation system can be compared to a large drain
age system. In building a large drainage system it is obvious that the
main ditches must be completed first to give an outlet for the water added
as the secondary ditches or laterals are completed.
Questions of finance may occasionally make it necessary to resort to
paving only one lane of the main county roads as has been done in Mis
souri, Illinois, Texas, New York, Maryland, Oregon, Washington and
many other states. The investment made in the single track will not be
lost when wider roads are later required and quite high traffic service will
be available in the interim.
The improvement of the county road system requires close study and
care by the county engineer. His duty is to choose those types of improve
ment that will cost the least over a period of years. For example, he has
the option in some cases of building the entire mileage of gravel or to
build more permanently of high type construction. If he builds of gravel
he may find that the cost of maintaining these roads in usable condition is
so high that local finances will not bear the load and, as a result, they will
rapidly deteriorate and the community will soon be back in the mud again.
On the other hand, if he builds more permanently, the heavier financial
load will come at first but the future road costs will be at a minimum.
ENGINEERING POLICY
The establishment of policy for the use of single track
an engineering
concrete roads should be of appreciable assistance. This section is adapted
from the recommendations of the Portland Cement Association. The
authors have made changes which they thought desirable. The field avail
able covers three general groups of roads, depending on their use, the
status of road funds and road improvements in various areas. These three
general groups can be defined as follows :
I. Roads on state or county systems which will obviously need widen
ing when funds permit or because of traffic increases that can be definitely
predicted.
II. Roads on state or county systems have present low traffic densi
ties but which will probably develop traffic densities requiring widening at
some indefinite date in the future.
III. Roads on county or township systems having present low traffic
densities and upon which traffic increases beyond the capacity of a single
track road are improbable.
These three general groups are made from a design viewpoint. They
should not be confused with primary, secondary and tertiary road sys
tems as usually defined. Each classification has different design require
ments which can he used advantageously in reducing construction costs.
Portions of the state, county, or township road systems may fall in each
of the three classifications defined above.
The first point encountered in establishing design standards for single
track concrete roads is one of costs. The public and engineers have been
thoroughly educated to think of the highest engineering standards and
corresponding costs when concrete roads are mentioned. It has no clear
conception of the meaning of single track concrete roads either in service
or costs.
It is now necessary to make clear the meaning and significance of sin
gle track concrete roads. The prime consideration is a satisfactory "all-
weather" surface or roadway for the loaded truck, wagon, or farm auto
mobile. Such items as speed, pleasure, traffic convenience and refine
ments of design, location and alignment are of secondary importance.
"
In general, single track concrete roads are "farmers' roads, of par
ticular use and interest in only a small area and to a few people who be
come accustomed to their characteristics. These people know how to ob
tain full utility from the single track in bad weather and quickly learn
the rules in regard to right-of-way.
In the following discussion of design policies particular attention has
been given to Group III roads since it is in this field that the greatest
economies can be effected in first cost. It will be found that some phases
of the design requirements for Group IIIroads can be used to advantage
in the other classifications, particularly Group II.
Fig. I. — Grade Lines Should Followthe Grade Line of the Old Roadway
or the Ground Line of the New Location
Design Policies for Roads in Classification I. — The design policies

for improvements in this classification will follow state highway depart
ment standards in all respects very closely. Close attention should be
given to the possible use of local materials. No concessions on soundness
or cleanliness can be granted, but weight proportioning and the water-
cement ratio law will permit the production of high quality concrete from
poorly graded aggregates.
A 9 in. —6 in. — 9 in. cross-section should be used. A nine-foot width of
pavement is recommended. Ten-foot widths may be used, but an eight-
foot width should only be considered in special instances. The pavement
should be located with one edge on the center line of the roadway. The
inside edge sbould be raised one inch to provide crown when the original
improvement is widened.
State standards for cross-road culverts, widening, super-elevation,
sight distance, grades, etc., should be followed. There are possibilities
for effecting economies by using old bridges, side road and private en
trance culverts. State standards for roadway width and right-of-way
width must be provided for but, except at bridges and railroad crossings,
neeoV not be incorporated in the improvement.
/Grading quantities should be kept to a minimum by the use of old
//grades and the natural surface as much as poesible.
Design for Roads in Classification II. — The design re

Policies
quirements in this group are a blending of the requirements of Class I
above and Class III following and will generally conform to state require
ments for secondary roads.
A 9 in. — 6 in. — 9 in. or an 8 in. — 5 in. —8 in. section, nine feet wide
may be used. In this class an eight foot width may be considered more
frequently than in Class I because of savings in first cost and less ex
pected traffic. It should be located with one edge on the center line of
the roadway and raised one inch to provide crown when the original
improvement is widened.
In this group many economies may be effected. Each situation will
permit the use of some of the requirements of Classification IIIwith
subsequent savings in costs. These points cannot be enumerated because
of variations in each local situation. A full understanding of the minimum
requirements of Classification III will make their application readily evi
dent in each case.
It should be borne in mind that many design requirements may be pro
vided for in the improvement but deferred until subsequent improvement.
This applies particularly to roadway and right-of-way widths and the
grading costs incident to their inclusion in the original improvement.
Design Policies for Roads in Classification III. — There are many
details of design in this classification which will permit appreciable econ
omies. Specific examples of these design requirements should be person
ally investigated in the field by all directly concerned. It will be found
that these recommendations will result in a far more usable pavement
than their recitation indicates. It will also permit a full appreciation of
the application of some of these policies in the design of roads of Classi
fications I and II. It will be noted that the suggestions made herein
are not in complete accord with standards suggested in Chapter butIII
follow the general idea quite closely.
The minimum alignment requirements will allow curves to be driven
at 35 miles per hour in most cases. Even a fifty-foot radius curve can be
•driven at 20 miles per hour with safety. The standards given for this
class are higher than those in force on trunk line systems a few years
ago. Figure 3 gives many of the design requirements in convenient form.
Location and Alignment. — On existing right-of-way.
Alignment should be as straight as possible without requiring the
purchase of new right-of-way or extensive grading.
Correction of minor variations in alignment are not justified.
Horizontal sight distance —
Minimum of 350 feet in level or gently rolling terrain.
Between 350 and 150 feet in hilly or mountainous sections; will be
dictated by grading costs.
Curvature — Accepted good practice dictates a curvature of 8 to 20
degrees.
Minimum radius of 200 feet for right angle turns for sight distances
Minimum radius of 150 feet for very hilly or moun
less than 250 feet.
tainous terrain. Curvature reduced below 200 feet in accordance with
costs of new right-of-way and grading. A minimum curvature of 150 feet
should be used with steep grades.
Alignment changes at grade summits should be avoided.
The same curvature should be used throughout the length of each
curve. Compound curves, broken-back curves, and reverse curves should
be avoided.
Horizontal curves beginning or ending at grade summits should be
avoided.
Horizontal curves ending at bridges should provide at least 250 feet
of tangent as a bridge approach.
All locations having horizontal curves of less than 200 feet or sight
distances less than 250 feet should be marked with caution signs.
A consistent policy of uniform curvature and sight distance should
be adopted.
Unusual goose-necks, curves, etc., at stream crossings should be care
fully studied to determine the most economical location. Some cases will
require new bridges while others can be made safe by alignment changes
to permit use of the old bridge.
Grade Lines. — Grade lines should follow the grade line of the old
roadway or the ground line on new location. Fresno or wheeler grading
work may be desirable in some places.
Vertical curves — 200 foot minimum length.
A consistent policy of uniform curvature should be adopted.
Maximum grade should not exceed 10 per cent on hilly or moun
tainous terrain.
Minimum grade should not exceed 7 per cent on gently rolling ter
rain.
Somewhat higher grades may be used for distances less than 500
feet.
A steep grade is preferred to a sharp turn.
Width of Right-of-Way. — A width of right-of-way from fence line

to fence lineof 28 feet will generally be found adequate. Right-of-way
width in deep fill sections and deep cut sections must be greater than for
grade or slight cut and fill sections.
Width of Roadway. — A roadway width, exclusive of ditches, of 24
feet will generally be found adequate. A minimum of 20 feet may be
advisable for short distances. Roadway width in fill sections must be
greater than for grade or cut sections.
Pavement Location. — The pavement should be located on the center
line of the roadway since present and future traffic is low in this classi
fication and shoulders will not require constant maintenance. Such loca
tion may be desirable also when local stone is available on the roadway
for use as shoulders on each side of the pavement.
The pavement may be located with one edge on the approximate cen
ter line of the roadway. It should be on the right hand side of the roadway
facing in the direction a majority of loaded vehicles will move. Advan
tages of off center location are:
1. One shoulder becomes sodded and requires no maintenance.
2. Maintenance on the unpaved roadway is concentrated on one side
of the pavement and is. therefore, less costly.
3. One vehicle has definite, legal right-of-way.
Pavement location should be changed slightly as needed to utilize the
old roadway and keep grading operations for the pavement slab to a
minimum. It is desirable to pave on the old roadway and grade up the
needed additional roadway rather than the reverse.
Tit/, z. — Shalloiv Ditches Will Handle Surface

Water Efficiently
Sections subject to overflow should be paved on the downstream side

of the roadway and a concrete apron or rip-rap provided to protect the
downstream shoulder.
Grading, Drainage, and Shoulders. — All grading quantities must be
kept to a minimum.
The roadway section should not be distributed at the pavement location
unless unavoidable. Roadways which have been under maintenance for
several years will often be found in satisfactory condition for paving.
Where an old roadway is used without grading it should be scarified
and rolled to provide uniform subgrade support.
Low places in the roadway must be filled.
Unusual conditions encountered in the roadway, such as springs, seeps,

rock cuts, etc., should be handled with usual engineering practice.
Refinements of shoulder construction as practiced on Class I roads
are not justified.
New fills must be fully consolidated by carefully rolling and aging or
by jetting. '
Subgrades of uniform compaction are necessary.
The use of stone or oil shoulders should generally be avoided.
Some cuts may be paved full width in conjunction with concrete gut
ters cheaper than by making the wider cut required by earth ditches.
In many cases, all necessary grading may be accomplished with the
type of grader used for earth road maintenance.
Drainage Must Be Adequate. — Ditches should be wide and shallow.
Particularly shallow ditches may be used on steep grades.
Long ditches between cross drainage should be avoided.
Ditch lines need not be straight nor back slopes uniform.
Pavement Cross-Section. — A 9 in. —6 in. —9 in. or 8 in. — 5 in. —8 in.
pavement cross-section may be used regardless of pavement width. The
9 in. —6 in. —9 in. section is cheaper than even a uniform seven inch
section and has over 65 per cent greater structural strength. The 8 in. —
5 in. —8 in. section will be adequate except for roads carrying frequent
heavy trucks or for unusually soft subgrades that are frequently en

countered.
A width of 9 feet should generally be used. With limited funds,
an 8-foot width may be advisable as a minimum for the sake of economy
since the 9- foot width requires 11 per cent more material than an 8- foot
'
width.
A %-inch smooth, round edge-bar, painted and/or oiled should be
provided for best construction. (See figure 3 for position in slab.)
Expansion and contraction joints may be provided in case economic
conditions permit.
Expansion space must be provided on each side of all bridges.
Full width pavement for 50 feet each side of bridges is desirable for
safety but is not a necessity.
Widening and super-elevation of curves should be provided in accord
ance with highway standards.
Proportions, Aggregates, Mixing, Placing and Finishing of Concrete.

— Standard state specificationsfor proportioning, mixing, placing and fin
ishing should be followed.
State specifications for aggregates should govern but extensive and
careful consideration should be given all sources of local materials. Con
cessions on aggregate gradations can be made provided the water-cement
ratio law and weight proportioning are used. The use of local aggregates
will effect appreciable savings in construction costs.
Pavement edge on center line of roadway
Minimumwidth
to providedraineoa
variable
Inttdeedgeraised,/\»:<ry»ectton "l
»n»inch *h«r* wi(J«n"Vi ^--. H *dg«bftrV
>*anticipated 6-.S:6'S#ction.minimgm
for Cut and grade itctisnt
Curve*Shouftlt>«w,dtn«d »nd vjptr.r levated
Filt tactiona mv»i bewider
Pavement on center line of roadway

For light traffic uM where shoulder* will become sodded
erenlyreoîra2'of metalon each side to gwanjamaell maintenance.
24-Q- minimum
16'reeori mended
24.'mummg nd«d
Minimum w'dtfl Minimumdepth to
to provide<jr»in0qe 1»0'p'i((rtbit providedrainage
V.riabl. variable-,
— Vedaeber/
minimum
B"S*-D*5r<+i"©n.
For cot and grade •actions
Curve* should bewidenedandawper-eleveted
fill sec+ionemust be wider
F*9* 3-
— Minimum Design Recommendations for Single Track Concrete Roads.
Widths of Pavement, Shoulders, Ditches, etc., Will Be Dictated
by Traffic Requirements. These Requirements Are Given
in Detail in the Paragraphs on "Engineering Policy"
Drainage Structures. — Every effort should be made to utilize existing

drainage structures.
New bridges should have a roadway width of 20 feet.
New bridges should be designed for the legal loads of the state.
The construction of new bridges may often be deferred until after
some paving has been completed.
New cross-road culverts of concrete pipe or concrete encased concrete
tile are usually more economical than concrete box culverts.
Side-road and private-entrance culverts should be utilized in place or
salvaged.
SINGLE TRACK ECONOMICS

The problem of selecting road types has been simplified by the find
ings of a group of national highway authorities working on this factor
for several years for the Highway Research Board of the National Re
search Council. After years of study they have evolved practical methods
for determining road costs that can be used for all conditions. They have
USE OF CONCRETE FOR LOIV-COST ROAD CONSTRUCTION 339
weighed all the factors going into the cost of construction and main
tenance of roads and the road service supplied by these roads. By apply
ing these principles to the local problem the engineer is in a position to
determine road improvement programs that will not bankrupt a com
munity. These principles have been fully discussed in a previous chapter
but are repeated here to show their direct application to single lane con
crete roads.
The committee on highway transportation has found that the average
annual road cost is "the total average yearly expenditure that will con
BEE'
struct, replace, and maintain in perpetuity in standard serviceable condi
tion any existing road under existing traffic and climatic conditions." This
was put in the terms of a formula as follows :
C-r( A + — + \
+ + etc.
/)
. . . .
r (l+r)«- 1 (l + r)»*— 1
Wherein
C = average annual road cost,

A= cost to construct,
B = annual maintenance cost,
E = expenditure for periodic maintenance every n years,
E'= expenditure for periodic maintenance every n' years.
r — rate of interest prevailing in current state financing.
The ultimate objective of the committee is to determine the cost of

highway transportation per vehicle mile, which includes the annual road
cost and the cost of vehicle operation on the road. The costs of vehicle
operation on various types of roads were determined by the Engineering
Experiment Station at Ames, Iowa, and published in their Bulletins 69
and 91, as well as in the Proceedings of the Highway Research Board, as
discussed in a previous chapter.
The procedure to be followed in determining the most economical type
is,
of surface is to first determine the traffic on the road it planned to im

prove. The next step to compute the annual road cost for the types of
is
surface considered for use and this should be followed with a deter
mination! of vehicle operating costs, in the light of the traffic analysis, on
the various types. In computing the cost of vehicle operation, the pro
cedure simplified by first determining the differences in cost of vehicle
is
operation between high type surfaces and other surfaces, then applying
this to the traffic analysis.
Most recent computations of vehicle operating costs show the costs of
vehicle operation have decreased. Professor T. R. Agg, Dean of Engi
neering, Iowa State College, brought this point out at the eighth annual
meeting of the Highway Research Board. He made the following recom
mendations for differences in vehicle operating costs:
"Taking account of * * the various factors of tire wear, gas consump

tion and similar items, the present indication is that for composite traffic,
* * the value of
changing from a low type surface to an intermediate sur
face (the year round * * under all conditions in which the surface may be
found) ranges from three-quarters of a cent to a cent per vehicle mile.
A similar comparison between intermediate type surfaces and high type
surfaces indicates that the difference is likely to lie between three-quarters
of a cent and one and one-quarter cents per vehicle mile."
These differences in vehicle operating costs referred to road types
would be about as follows:
Differences in Cost of Vehicle Operation, High Type

Surfaces Taken as Zero
Cents per Vehicle Mile
I. E. S. Bull. 69 and 91
Dean Agg's Later Data
High Type Surfaces (Concrete, Brick, etc.) 0.00
Bituminous Macadam, well maintained 0.75-1.2S
(Comparable to bituminous treated types)
Gravel, good condition 1.00-1.25
Earth, yearly average 1.75-2.00
In other words :
Earth roads changed to gravel or macadam roads save of
a cent
}4
per vehicle mile in vehicle operating costs.
Earth roads changed to bituminous treated surfaces save 1 cent per
vehicle mile in vehicle operating costs.
Earth roads changed to high type roads save from 1)4 to 2 cents per
vehicle mile in vehicle operating costs.
Gravel or macadam roads changed to high type roads save \% cents
per vehicle mile in vehicle operating costs.
Bituminous treated surfaces changed to high type roads save % of a
cent per vehicle mile in vehicle operating costs.
In making economic comparisons of various road surfaces it will be
desirable to consider two lane high type roads as well as single track con
crete roads. When single track concrete roads are used in the compari
sons, the same life and relative resurfacing costs should be used and in
addition consideration must be given the efficiency of single track concrete
roads in order to place the single track road on a comparable traffic basis
with two lane roads.
Efficiency of Single Lane. — The efficiency of single track is quite
high as shown by data presented at the meeting of the American
1931
Road Builders Association. Extensive field tests were made by the

Pennsylvania State Highway Department on three lane paved roads to
determine the distances used in passing by automobiles approaching each
other in the same traffic lane. It was found that an automobile traveling
at speeds up to about 50 miles per hour needed less than 120 feet to
turn out, pass an automobile coming toward it in the same traffic lane,
and return. Check tests on single lane construction confirmed the Penn
sylvania data on passing distances but the actual average passing distance
of 113 feet has been increased to 120 feet to be conservative. With an
hourly traffic of 10 vehicles, moving at an average speed of 30 miles per
hour, this means that all automobiles are using the single lane for 99.6
per cent of the distance traveled. For an hourly traffic of 50 vehicles
moving at the same average speed, the single lane will be used for 98.1
per cent of the distance traveled. For average speeds of 40 miles per
hour these percentages are raised to 99.7 and 98.6, respectively, since the
passing distances are the same but the total distance traveled on the
paved surface per unit of time is greater.
These hourly traffic counts are found, on an average, on roads hav
ing average 24-hour traffic volumes of 100 and 500 vehicles, respectively,
or the type of road that is found where local road improvements obtain.
Since the single paved lane offers such a high degree of efficiency it can
be compared with other surfaces capable of carrying light traffic pro
vided these efficiencies are used in evaluating the single track road. In
general, it can be said that the sfpgle track has an efficiency of 98 per cent
or more of a two lane road.
The differences in vehicle operating costs previously cited must be
evaluated for single track. An efficiency of 98 per cent will be used as
representing average traffic conditions. The savings in vehicle operating
costs per vehicle mile on single track as compared to other type surfaces
are therefore, 0.98 times each of the figures in the preceding table.
In case it is desired to compare costs per foot of width of surface
this efficiency must likewise be considered. Since the single track road
gives 98 per cent of the service of a two lane road, its cost, in terms of
effective width, represents 98 per cent of a two lane road.
The following will illustrate an application to a specific problem. A
single track concrete road costing $10,000 per mile for a nine-foot width
gives 98 per cent of the service of a two lane road. From which we may
deduce that the cost of a two lane road in terms of effective traffic serv
ice should not exceed $10,000 divided by 0.98 or $10,204.82. This repre
sents the cost of giving full traffic service but having an effective
a road
width of two lanes, say 20 feet. Dividing $10,204.82 by 20 gives $510.24,
the limiting comparable cost per foot of width of roadway.
With these facts established, an example will serve to show the com
putations to be made of annual road costs for both two lane and single
track concrete roads. The former is needed to determine the traffic vol
umes that will pay for two lane construction and the latter for single
track construction. In the application of these principles to specific
projects, recent construction and maintenance costs prevailing in each
particular locality should be used.
The policies of the highway department may have established the
lower economic limit for the use of high type two-lane paving but a
check computation should be made for verification. Construction costs

may be lower or higher than those used in arriving at a general policy
for the state that do not prevail in a smaller area.
At this point it is well to make clear that the construction and main
tenance costs used in this computation are for the road surface only.
That is, the part used by the automobile. The costs of grading and drain
age structures will be the same regardless of the type of surface used
and cancel out in the final answer and for the sake of clearness and sim
plicity are best left out of the computation. This method was used in
the Highway Research Board Report on "Low Cost Roads."
Example of Lower Economic Limits — Two Lane Concrete. — As
an example of the check on the lower economic traffic limit, Illinois con
ditions will be adopted for the illustration. The average cost of an 18-foot
concrete pavement for nine years was $22,381.34. The nine-year average
cost of maintaining the surface of concrete pavements was $80.48. A
replacement charge of 50 per cent of the cost of the original surface and
a life1 of 25 years is indicated as a fair estimate. The interest rate pre
vailing in the slate is about 4 per cent. Substituting the figures in the
formula for annual road cost gives the following:
r- = nnA (I $22,381.34 + —
$80.48
—
$11,190.67 \
C 0.04 + — I
^ 0.04 (1 + .04)25— V
This computation is more simply shown as follows:
Annual interest charge on original investment is ($22,381.34) (0.04)
= $895.25.
Annual maintenance charge is $80.48.
Annual deposit at 4 per cent compound interest needed to accumulate
$11,190.67 (resurfacing cost) in 25 years = (0.02401) ($11,190.67) =
$268.69.
The sum of these three costs, $895.25 plus $80.48 plus $268.69, equals
$1,244.42, the "Annual Road Cost." The earth road maintenance cost
prevailing before improvement, say $200 per mile per year, must be sub
tracted to give the net difference in annual road cost or $1,044.42, the
sum that must be earned by reduced vehicle operation costs to justify
the new construction.
It is at least 1.75 cents per vehicle mile cheaper to drive an automobile
on concrete the year 'round than on earth roads. This is ($0.0175) (365)
or $6.38 per mile per year for an average daily traffic of one vehicle.
All roads carrying traffic that will build up an amount in vehicle
operation saznngs due to decreased vehicle operation costs equal to this
annual road cost may be paved with 18 foot concrete costing $22,000 per
mile and be economically justified. For a difference in annual road cost
1 Designing State Highway Systems." by T. H. Cutler. Chief Engineer. Missouri State
Highway Dept.. Civil Engineering, Jan., 1931. Proceedings of 14th Annual Convention of the
Good Roads League of British Columbia at Kelowna, B. C. Statement by C. H. Purcell, Chief
Engineer, California Highway Dept.
of $1,044.42 this traffic must equal, $1,044.42 divided by $6.38 or, an

annual average of 164 cars per day. It will be noted that this is less
than found for general conditions in Missouri where the average daily
traffic for the year must equal 210 cars per day to economically justify
concrete.
With this economic limit for full width paving established, the county
engineer can tell from his traffic survey the roads that should be paved
full width. He may be confronted with a deficiency of funds, however,
and in that case it will be necessary to use single track high type pave
ment which will double the road mileage that could be built with the same
initial outlay.
Example of Lower Economic Limit — Single Track Concrete. —

The next step is to determine the lower economic limit for the use of sin
gle track pavement. The same formula is used but the vehicle operation
saving must be taken at 98 per cent of that orn full width paving, 98 per
cent of 1.75 cents, or about 1.71 cents per vehicle mile.
Single track 9-foot concrete roads in Illinois cost about half full
width paving or $11,000 a mile, although recent average costs are below
$10,000 per mile. They have an average yearly maintenance cost per
mile of about $75 on roads carrying 200 to 600 vehicles per day. A main
tenance cost of about $30 per mile per year is shown for lighter traffic
roads in New York and Delaware and an average of $50 will be used.
Following through the same computations as shown for full width paving
gives an annual road cost of $622.08. The maintenance cost of the earth
road will be taken at $100 per mile per #ear to give a net difference in
annual road cost of $522.08. The saving<in vehicle operation costs is 1.71
cents per vehicle mile or $6.24 per vehicle mile per year. $522.08 divided
by $6.24 gives 84 vehicles, the lower economic traffic limit for single track
concrete paving when that average number uses the paving every day in
the year. With construction costs of $7,000 per mile and an average
maintenance cost of $30, an average daily traffic of 47 vehicles will pay
for single track construction.
There may be some roads that will require two lane and some that will
require single track construction regardless of traffic volumes because of
a preponderance of heavy truck traffic. After these roads have been de
termined, the proper type of surface for the remaining mileage can be
determined and a county can then start on a definite plan of road building.
The county engineer can apply these methods to all the roads in the
county and prepare a map showing the types of road that should be
built. In working out the details it will be necessary to determine the cost
of each type and this permits immediate budgeting of road revenues. A
construction program should be made out for at least the next three years,
and preferably the next five years. All details of financing can easily be
determined and a county can then start on a definite plan of road build
ing by proper resolutions by the county government.
TWO-LANE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

MINIMUM DESIGN STANDARDS
Main heavy traffic state route construction is well advanced in the
several states. Highway engineers are therefore directing their attention
to the design of concrete pavements for lightly traveled state and local
routes.
Longitudinal joints are used in every state and mark an advance in
pavement design. Without going into the details of the needs for longi
tudinal joints it can be said that they are required on plastic subgrades
and in areas having freezing and thawing weather. It is therefore evi
dent that practically all concrete pavements should be built with longi
tudinal joints.
Test data having a direct bearing on concrete pavement design for
low-cost road construction indicate that there is a direct relation between
slab thickness and repeated stresses. It has been established that any load
producing a stress of less than 50 per cent of the strength of the con
crete could be repeated an indefinite number of times without danger of
rupturing the concrete at any time. One section of the Bates Test Road
having a cross-section of 9 in. — 5 in. — 9 in. withstood concentrated truck
traffic having a maximum wheel load of 13,000 pounds on solid tires
without failure. Research by the U. S. Bureau of Public Roads has de
veloped the fact that pneumatic tires reduce pavement stresses by 20 to
25 per cent. Pneumatic tires are now standard equipment on 97 per cent
of truck production. These facts alone show that cross-sections of 8 in. —
5 in. —8 in. will withstand considerable present day truck traffic. Cer
tainly a design of this nature will be ample for most light traffic roads
carrying automobiles and only an occasional heavy truck. Exceptions
may be found in a few isolated locations where soils of an unusual nature
are encountered. These soils may have properties of expansion and con
traction in the presence of moisture that will require a thicker section.
Other soils may heave an unusual amount with repeated freezing and
thawing. These instances are isolated, however.
A review of concrete road design indicates that the thickness of slab
has never been developed fully for light traffic use.
The width of pavement will be determined largely by traffic charac
teristics. In the case of very little truck traffic and only light passenger
car traffic a width of 16 feet has been used with success in secondary
road construction in many states. In case there is any question as to
width, it will be advisable to use 18 or 20 feet. An important considera
tion entering into this problem is that of costs.
CEMENT-BOUND MACADAM
Penetration Type
Cement-bound macadam is the common term applying to penetration
type construction.
The first cement-bound macadam in the United States was built in

Lynn, Mass., in 1905. It later became known as Hassam and was pro
moted and built in this country until about 1920, when it was entirely
supplanted by standard concrete.
A slightly different form of cement-bound macadam is being con
structed in Great Britain and to a smaller extent in France and Belgium.
Australia is using cement-bound macadam of the penetration type.
Description. — This pavement is rolled coarse stone held together
by portland cement mortar. It is constructed by placing mortar having
the consistency of thick cream over a layer of rolled stonejof the specified
thickness in such a way that the mortar penetrates the voids in the stone
and completely fills them. The grouted stone is then consolidated by roll
ing and an even surface texture secured with a burlap belt. Specifications
for this type of construction may be obtained from the Portland Cement
Association.
Materials. — The fine aggregate should pass a standard number 4
sieve ; not less than 5 nor more than 30 per cent should pass the standard
number 50 sieve ; and not more than 5 per cent should pass the standard
number 100 sieve.
If it shows more than 6 per cent, by volume, of clay, loam or silt in
1 hour's settlement, after shaking in an excess of water, it is undesirable.
Fine aggregate which fails to pass the standard colorimetric test
should not be used unless it can be shown that the failure to pass is
caused by harmless materials.
The coarse aggregate should contain not more than 20 per cent of
uncrushed particles. Not more than 5 per cent should pass a standard
1 '/2-inch sieve and not more than 10 per cent be retained on a standard
23/j-inch sieve. As is evident, only large size stone is used.
Coarse aggregate showing more than 4 per cent loss in the standard
test for abrasion of rock or having a toughness less than 6 is undesirable.
Stone showing a loss of more than 4 per cent but not more than 6 per
cent may be used provided not more than 5 per cent passes a 2j/>-inch
sieve and at least 95 per cent passes a 3^-inch sieve.
Construction. Procedure. — In preparing the subgrade a trench is
formed to retain the stone. Wood forms, a height equal to the depth of
the pavement, may be used for the sides of the trench. A longitudinal
dummy joint is installed by setting a 1 by 2-inch wooden strip vertically
on the subgrade, along the center line.
Transverse dummy as well as expansion joints are used as desired bv
the engineer. Tn this respect standard practice is followed.
When grouting operations are discontinued for sufficient length of
time to permit hardening of the grout, a temporary bulkhead is placed.
If the construction joint comes within 10 feet of the location for a
transverse expansion joint, the expansion joint is placed at the con
struction joint. Where the construction joint comes within 10 feet of a
transverse dummy joint, the dummy joint is eliminated.
Placing and Rolling Crushed Stone Course. — After the subgrade has
been prepared the stone course is spread between the forms by a stone
-spreader or other approved method to a depth which, after rolling, will
provide a thickness for penetration equal to that required for the finished
pavement. The stone must be so handled that there will be no segregra-
tion of sizes nor any other variation in distribution and a uniform, even
surface having a slope from center to sides of J^-in. per foot is secured.
Ordinarily only sufficient stone for one day's grouting is spread in place
at one time.
The loose, ungrouted stone is rolled with a roller weighing not less
than 7 tons. Rolling is concentrated in the area immediately ahead of the
grout. After rolling, the surface is tested with a straight edge and in
equalities corrected.
Mortar or Grout. — Mortar of the consistency of thick cream is then
spread over the surface for filling the voids in the stone. It is propor
tioned 1 bag (94 lb.) of cement to 2 .cu. ft. of sand, measured dry and
rodded.
Regardless of how it is mixed the grout is deposited upon the stone
without segregation and in such a way that the stone is not disturbed.
The operation should be continuous between joints or during each day's
work. Two or more light push brooms will be required for assisting
grout distribution.
Initial Grout Rolling. — As soon as a sufficient amount of grout is de
posited (50 to 100 sq. yds.) the grouted stone is immediately rolled with
a tandem roller weighing not less than 5 nor more than 7 tons in order
to facilitate complete penetration of the grout. (One rolling should be
sufficient at this time.)
The grouted surface is then straight-edged and all irregularities
greater than y2-mch on a 16 foot straight-edge are adjusted by proper use
of stone forks while the grouted stone is still' pliable (due to wet grout).
If depressions occur which cannot be adjusted in this manner, then
J/2-inch stone is added and thoroughly consolidated to give an even sur
face. If the straight-edging and leveling work is done at the proper time,
very little small stone will be required to adjust the surface.
Final Grout Rolling. — At the proper time, determined by temperature
and working conditions, the final rolling (with a 5 to 7-ton tandem
roller) begins. Rolling continues and if necessary additional grout added .
until an even dense surface is obtained, but with a minimum accumulation

of grout above the surface of the stone. The desired amount of surplus
grout is determined by trial and is sufficient to provide for further set
tling into voids; to insure against projection of stone above surface and
to allow an even surface finish.
Finishing Surface. — At the proper time after final rolling, as deter
mined by working conditions, the slight excess of mortar is evenly dis
tributed over the pavement surface by means of long or short-handled
Fig. 4.
— Placiny Grout on Rolled Stone Course
floats or light push brooms. This is then followed by a 4-ply burlap belt
moved forward with crosswise sawing motion in order to smooth up the
surface. This process is then followed by pulling a single strip of burlap,
approximately 3 ft. wide, with a direct forward motion over the pavement
as a final surfacing operation. Burlap clings to the surface, smooths
same, removing any surplus water and other accumulation. A final
broomed surface would tend to gouge mortar from the tightly packed
stone, resulting in a rough surface with projecting stones.
Curing. — When water is available in city mains or other pressure
lines, the pavement is cured with wet burlap. It is placed on the pave
ment as soon as it can be without marring the surface, wetted, and left.
Hardening may be accelerated by incorporating calcium chloride in the
grout in the proportions of 2 pounds of calcium chloride for each sack
of cement, and omit curing.
The pavement may be opened to traffic in five days when favorable
weather conditions prevail.
Sandwich Type
WITH BlTUMINIZEl) CEMENT
The sandwich type of cement-bound macadam differs from the pene

tration type in that it is usually built in thinner sections, is used as a
resurface over old gravel or macadam roads and mortar is placed between
layers of stone and pressed into the voids by compaction. This latter
Fig. 5.
— Construction of Sandwich Type Cement-Bound Macadam
construction operation is responsible for the terminology, sandwich type,

as the mortar is placed between two layers of stone.
Its greatest development so far has taken place in Germany, where
several hundred miles of successful resurface has been built by this
method. A new and special kind of cement used is composed of stand
ard portland and a small quantity of asphalt. The resulting cement has
characteristics of lengthened hardening period and, it is claimed, reduces
expansion from moisture and temperature changes. Traffic, it is claimed,
can use the road as soon as the final finishing operation is completed. No
curing is necessary.
ConstructionProcedure. — A layer of coarse aggregate is placed
On the prepared surface of the old roadway. This layer is rolled and
then covered with a "sandwich spread" of stiff bituminized mortar. Over
this mortar bed a second layer of coarse aggregate is spread after which
the sandwich is thoroughly rolled causing the mortar to work upward
and downward into the aggregate voids.
The final finishing consists of spreading a light surface coat of mortar
on the top. The mortar is slightly more plastic than that placed between
the lnyers of stone. Costs will probably run as high as those for a slab
of mixed standard concrete of equal thickness.
Cost. — The projects constructed in the fall of 1932 in New Jersey.
Pennsylvania and New York ,had an average cost of about $1.00 per
sq. yd. or $10,560 per mile for an 18-foot width and a six-inch thickness.
CHAPTER VII
MATERIALS MANUFACTURE AND/OR PRO
PRIETARY MIXES
held of bituminous materials at the present time presents to the
THE average person a confused vista

names, all of a highly technical
of definitions, tests, and trade
nature, and urgently requiring
clarification. It is the object of this chapter to describe some of the com
mon types of bituminous materials as well as to give a glossary of most
of the patented types.
Bituminous materials for highway purposes are derived or prepared
from four sources: (1) petroleum, (2) tar, (3) natural asphalt, (4) rock
asphalt. This chapter is confined principally to those produced from the
first two. When either is fractionally distilled, there are produced two
general classes of products, viz. : distillates and residues. Erom petroleum
the first distillate fraction is gasoline, the second kerosene, followed by
gas oil and lubricating oils. Erom tars come benzol, toluol, solvent naph
tha, etc. Those removed in the earlier stages of distillation will naturally
evaporate more rapidly than the later ones. Distillates are oily, rather
than sticky. They are not used by themselves in highway work, except
perhaps infrequently as dust layers, but do constitute an important part
of many fluid products.
That part of the crude oil or tar which is not vaporized in the distilla
tion process is the residuum. It, of course, has a higher boiling range than
the distillate and carries whatever adhesive hydrocarbons are contained in
the crude. If the fractional distillation of the crude be so conducted that
only the lightest of the distillates is removed, the residue will be a viscous
fluid. The removal of the heavier oils yields progressively heavier residue
until bituminous cements are obtained which are semi-solid, and are used
as the binders for bituminous macadam and the various hot-mixed types.
Perhaps a short description of the methods of manufacture of bitu
minous products would clarify the subject to some readers. Primarily
these originally were by-products from other manufacturing processes.
They have been closely studied though and are being prepared to meet spe
cifications for use in road work.
MANUFACTURE OF TAR ROAD MATERIALS

The following discussion on the manufacture of tar road materials
was prepared for the authors by E. O. Rhodes, Technical Department,
Koppers Products Company, Pittsburgh, Pa. :
General. — In the United States, the term Tar Road Materials re
fers to those bituminous road compounds that are produced from coal tar,
from water gas tar or from combinations of such r>rs or their constitu
349
ents. The restricted meaning of tar in this definition is Lased upon com
mon usage extending back over the many years that coal tars and water
gas tars have been employed in compositions for the construction or
maintenance of roads. It should not be confused with definitions for tar
that are intended to cover tars in general, such as wood tar, bone tar,
petroleum tar, shale tar or peat tar, that result from the destructive dis
tillation of wood, bones, petroleum, shale and peat.
Coal Tar. — Coal tar is a general term that applies to all varieties
of tar that are obtained from coal. When bituminous coal is destructivelv
distilled, or carbonized, out of contact with oxygen, coke is produced
and coal tar, ammonia, naphthalene, sulfur, cyanogen, light oil and gas
are, or may be, recovered as by-products. The relative proportions of
these materials from a given quantity of coal and their characteristics
depend, principally, upon the character of the coal employed, the tem
perature of carbonization and the type of carbonizing equipment used.
Coal tars are classified according to types of equipment and carbon
izing temperatures in the following manner :
Low Temperature Coal Tars :
Low Temperature Retorts
High Temperature Coal Tars :
Vertical Retorts
By-Product Coke Ovens
Horizontal Retorts
Low Temperature Coal Tars. — Low temperature tars, as their
name implies, are produced by carbonizing equipment that operates at
relatively low temperatures, approximately 500° C. to 700° C. Such tars
are characterized by low specific gravities, low viscosities, low naphtha
lene content, low free carbon content, low binding capacity and high
percentages of tar acids and paraffins. They have been produced in the
United States in limited quantities only and have not been used exten
sively, if at all. in road materials. Such supplies as have been made,
because of insufficient binding capacity, high tar acid content and for
other reasons, have been unsatisfactory for. this purpose.
High Temperature Coal Tars. — High temperature coal tars in
general have higher specific gravities, viscosities, naphthalene content,
free carbon content, and binding capacities, and lower tar acid and paraf
fin contents than low temperature tars. However, the three varieties of
high temperature tars differ somewhat in these respects and two of them
are superior to the third for the making of road materials.
Vertical Retort Tars. — Vertical retort tar is lower in binding capacity,
higher in tar acid content and otherwise less satisfactory for this pur
pose than coke oven and horizontal retort tars. Furthermore, it is made
in relatively few locations. For these reasons vertical retort tar is not
employed extensively in road materials.
Horizontal Retort Tars. — Horizontal retort tar. frequently called gas
MATERIALS MANUFACTURE AND/OR PROPRIETARY MIXES 35l
house tar, is produced under carbonizing conditions that cause it to have

higher viscosities, specific gravities and free carbon content than any of
the other varieties of coal tar. High temperatures, prolonged contact of
tar vapors with hot surfaces and high proportion of hot surfaces to
volume of tar vapors causes certain constituents that are present in the
other varieties of high temperature tar to be partially cracked or poly
merized in horizontal retort tars. In other words, the higher specific grav
ities, viscosities and free carbon content of horizontal retort tars are pro
duced at the expense of other characteristics.
Prior to 1914 the principal constituent of most road tars used in the
United States was horizontal retort tar. Low temperature tar had not
yet been produced commercially; vertical retort tar was available in fairly
large quantities but, for reasons mentioned above, was not considered a
satisfactory road material and coke ovens had not yet been constructed
in sufficient numbers to make available large quantities of tar of that
variety. Obviously the use of large proportions of horizontal retort tar
in tar road materials was the result of conditions prevailing at that time.
Coke Oven Tars. — Horizontal retort tars still are employed in some
road materials, but the proportion used is very small in comparison with
coke oven tar. Since 1914 the production of horizontal retort tar has
decreased somewhat, whereas the production of by-product coke oven
tar has increased enormously.
A comparison of the physical and chemical characteristics of coke
oven tar with vertical retort and horizontal retort tars is presented in
Table I. The table clearly illustrates the fact that in its various physical
and chemical characteristics coke oven tar occupies a position interme
diate between the other two varieties of high temperature tars.
TABLE I
Analysis of Typical Vertical Retort, Coke Oven AND
Horizontal Retort Tars
V-rtical By-Prodnct Horizontal
R»tort Cok- Oven R-tort
Tar Tar Tar
Specific gravity at 15.5° C 1.122 1.172 1.240
Specific viscosity, Engler at 40° C 9 22 120
3.5 4.5 24.5
Tar acids, % bv volume 10.5 3.6 2.6
2.1 0.1 0.5
A. S. T. M..
Distillation, E-l flask:
% bv wt. to 170° C 1.8 0.3 0.0
235° C 14.6 9.9 6.0
270° C 25.2 17.4 13.8
300° C 37 0 25.0 20.0
335° C 40.3 32.1 23.1
C 355° 50.0 38.0 27.4
Softening point of distillation residue at
355° C, cubc-in-air, °C 85 P2 112
Free carbon content of distillation residue
at 355° C— % by wt 12.1 15.2 38.2
>
The carbonization of coal in by-product coke ovens and recovery of

by-products therefrom has been developed to a very high degree in the
United States since 1914. The average yields of products per ton of coal
carbonized in modern by-product coke oven plants are shown in the
following :
When bituminous coal is heated in a coke oven at a temperature of
2000° F., coke is formed and coal gas, containing heavy dark brown
vapors, is given off. These heavy vapors contain many commercially
valuable products. In order to recover them, the by-product coke plant
has been developed. The products obtained, their uses, and the amount
produced per ton of coal, are shown below :
COKE— 1400 pounds
Several varieties of this material are produced, such as blast-furnace coke
for smelting iron ore, foundry coke for melting metals, and domestic coke.
The latter is widely used as a smokeless fuel for home and industrial heating.
COAL TAR— 10 gallons
This material is processed in tar distilling plants to make certain bulk com
modities, such as wood preserving oils, flotation oils, insecticide oils, road tars,
various grades of pitch and pitch coke. By further processing and refining
operations certain individual constituents of coal tar are obtained, such as phenol,
cresols, xylenols, naphthalene, acenaphthene, anthracene, and fluorene, from
which dyes, medicinals, disinfectants, insecticides, synthetic resins and numerous
other products are made.
AMMONIA — 25 pounds as Ammonium Sulfate
The ammonia from a by-product plant is usually recovered as ammonium
sulfate. Most of the production is used for agricultural purposes, for it has
been found to be an excellent fertilizer. It is used alone or mixed with other
materials, such as limestone dust.
NAPHTHALENE— 0.5 pounds
While best known as an insecticide for clothes moths, this compound is used
very extensively in the dye industry for making important dye intermediates,
such as phthalic anhydride, beta naphthol, H-acid and chromotropic acid. Also,
by suitable chemical treatment, naphthalene is converted into solvents, motor
fuels and waxes.
SULFUR— 2.5 pounds
The successful development of new methods for the removal of sulfur com
pounds from coke oven gas has resulted in the production of a special type of
sulfur. It is obtained in the form of particles of extreme fineness. Due to its
ability to control most fungus diseases, such as mildew and rust and certain
plant pests, such as red spider, it is widely used as a protective spray for
orchard and garden crops.
LIGHT OIL— 3.5 gallons
The light oil, a crude product, is redistilled at the by-product plant into the
following commercial products :
BENZOL:
This compound is an excellent solvent for rubber, waxes and gums, and
thus finds use in the paint and lacquer industries. Alone or mixed with gas
oline, it is an excellent motor fuel. It is the mother substance of a large
number of organic chemicals, for, by chlorination, nitration, sulfonation and
coupling, it is readily transformed into an almost endless series of dyes, medi
cinals, explosives and solvents.
MATERIALS MANUFACTURE AND/OR PROPRIETARY MIXES 353
TOLUOL :
Similar to benzol in many ways, toluol finds many corresponding uses.
Among the well known products into which it is transformed by chemical
synthesis are benzoic acid, saccharin and T.N.T.
XYLOL:
While organic synthesis claims some of this material, a larger portion is
used as a high boiling solvent for lacquers, varnishes and rubber cements.
SOLVENT NAPHTHA:
This product is an excellent solvent for tars and pitches and is used in
making bituminous paints and as a volatile thinner for cold application road
materials. It is used as a plasticizer in the lacquer industry and is a source
of cumarone and indene resins.
GAS— 11,000 cubic feet
Coke oven gas is composed largely of hydrogen and methane. Nearly two
hundred billion cubic feet of this gas are distributed yearly through city mains
for domestic and industrial heating purposes.
Water Gas Tar. — As stated in an earlier part of this discussion,
road tars are produced from coal tar, from water gas tar or from com
binations of such tars or their constituents. Water gas tar or distillates
therefrom are especially important as fluxing agents for bases made from
coal tar. Freedom from tar acids and tar bases, low viscosity, low naph
thalene content, high volatility and high solvent power make certain water
gas tars and water gas tar distillates especially suitable for this purpose.
Water gas tars are obtained as by-products in the manufacture of
carbureted water gas. In this process coke or anthracite coal is heated to
incandescence in a blast of air which at regular intervals is replaced by
steam. The steam and incandescent carbon react to form a mixture of
hydrogen and carbon monoxide called "blue gas." Petroleum oil is sprayed
into this hot "blue gas" where it vaporizes and cracks to form permanent
gases and water gas tar. The latter is recovered from the gas by suitable
condensing and scrubbing equipment.
Although water gas tar is derived from petroleum it has few of the
characteristics of that material. On the contrary it has many of the char
acteristics of coal tar. Like coal tar and unlike petroleum, it consists
principally of aromatic hydrocarbons. Certain reactions that occur while
the petroleum is in the vapor phase, influenced perhaps by the presence
of hydrogen and carbon monoxide transform the original straight chain
hydrocarbons of the petroleum into the cyclic hydrocarbons of coal tar.
The nature of the carbureting oil, to a large extent, determines the
character of the water gas tar produced by a water gas retort. In general
there are two kinds of carbureting oil in use at this time. They may be
classified as gas oil and fuel oil, or as light and heavy carbureting oil.
The latter sometimes is called "Bunker C" oil because it sometimes con
forms with the specifications of the U. S. Government for that material.
These two varieties of oil differ widely in specific gravity, viscosity and
other physical and chemical characteristics and the water gas tars pro
duced from each vary somewhat in the same manner.
I-
C
o
*0
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(0
12 3 LU
— u
■«■
if fjj
lu T3
Q o
a _
J
<
<D
E
in
LU
O E
o
U u
|
I-
"Jo
Q.
u
c
w
i
z
M
LU
-1
rIL'
1U
3
II-
1*
< u
<
\
Itf
!
X
<
z «H <
««T
*
.
In Table II
are given typical analyses for water gas tars produced from
different carbureting oils.
TABLE II
Analyses of Typical Water Gas Tars from Different Materials
and Different Operating Conditions
Gas Oil Gas Oil Fuel
Type of Carbureting Oil Light Heavy Oil
Type of Fuel in Generator Coke Coke Coke
Specific gravity at 15.5° C 1.073 1.123 1.203
Specific viscosity, Engler at 40° C 2.2 14.1
Specific viscosity, Engler at 60° C ... 48.3
Free carbon, % by wt 0.4 1.1 12.1
Tar acids, % by volume ... 0.5
Sulfonation residue, % by volume 3.3 2.1 0.5
Distillation, A. S. T. M., E-l flask:
% by weight to 170° C 2.0 0.2 0.8
235° C 17.7 11.6 4.0
270° C 34.2 29.0 12.7
300° C 45.0 37.8 21.6
335° C 62.8 48.8 29.0
355°C 69.3 57.3 35.8
Softening point of distillation residue at
355° C, cube-in-air, °C 126 116 133
Tar Distillation. — The various grades of tar that have been de

scribed in the preceding pages comprise the raw materials of the tar dis
tilling industry. Tar distillation essentially is a bulk commodity business.
It involves the purchase and storage of millions of gallons of these raw
materials followed by blending, distilling, chemica treating and carbon
izing operations to produce such bulk commodities as road tars, pitches,
pitch coke, wood preserving oils, tar acids and naphthalene.
ROAD TARS
vy>** Initial write* bettment of earrb, top-soil, sand-clfy.qravel and lime-rocfc roads
Co etimiMta duet Ml to provide an trnproved wearmq surface. Surface treatment
torn and concrete, brick, wood-btoctt and stone-bloc* pavements,
bituminous macadams by mlad-in- piece, penetration and piembt
Fig. Z, — Showing Road Tar Classifications

Contrary to popular belief, tar distillation practice ordinarily does

not include the manufacture of chemicals, medicinals, dye intermediates,
etc. They are manufactured by chemical companies that obtain their raw
materials from tar distillers.
Figure 1 is presented to show the principal breakdown of coal tar
into classes of commodities that are manufactured by the tar distilling
companies of the United States.
Obviously the manufacture of such bulk commodities can best be
handled by tar distilling companies that have varied supplies of raw ma
terials, adequate storage for raw and finished products, ample transpor
tation equipment, modern and efficient manufacturing apparatus and thor
ough technical supervision.
Summary of Manufacture. — Some of the factors involved in the
manufacture of road tars by tar distilling companies are as follows:
Purchase, transportation and storage of coke-oven, horizontal-
retort and water-gas tars from steel plants and city gas works.
Testing and examination of the various tar supplies followed
by selection and blending of those most suitable for road tar
purposes.
Distillation to remove low boiling constituents from individual
or blended tars to make bases or finished products.
Distillation of individual or blended tars to produce suitable
fluxes.
Fluxing of distilled bases with flux oils to produce certain
varieties of road tars.
Testing of finished products to check compliance with specifi
cations.
Shipment of finished road tars in tank cars, distributors, tank
wagons or drums.
Different types of distilling equipment are used in the manufacture of
road tars, but the results are much the same in each case. Greater differ
ences occur when these different methods are used to produce tar products
that require more complete distillation than road tars. For a complete
discussion of this subject the reader is referred to the article by John
Morris Weiss entitled "The Distillation of Coal Tar" (J.S.C.I., March 11
and March 18, 1932, Vol. LI, No. 11 and No. 12, "Chemistry and Indus
try," pp. 219-223 and pp. 246-250).
MANUFACTURE OF ASPHALT
The following discussion in this section was prepared for the authors
by Gene Abson, Chief Chemist, Chicago Testing Laboratory, Inc., Chi
cago. 111.
General. — Bituminous materials for road building purposes fall

commercially into two main classifications, namely, those produced from
petroleum, known as "asphaltic products," and those produced by gas-

making and coal-coking processes, known as "tar materials." Judging
from a strictly technical classification, there is some overlapping and
merging, but, practically, the separation is convenient and desirable. The
discussion in this section is devoted only to the products manufactured
from petroleum sources. Further, it is intended to include both the prod
ucts found in nature in the form of asphalts, pure or associated with
mineral matter, as well as those manufactured from crude liquid petro
leum. There is general agreement or belief that the naturally occurring
bitumens are metamorphosed petroleum products, so, therefore, this classi
fication is likwise acceptable.
Asphaltic products as used in the construction of roads and pavements
range from limpid fluids to hard, solid asphalts. Almost invariably all
petroleum products when combined with or applied to mineral aggregates
or earthy materials are used in more or less fluid condition. When not
initially fluid, liquefaction is secured by the application of heat, by "cutting-
back" with diluents to either eliminate or minimize heating, or by emul-
sification with water.
Except for such instances in which crude oils may be used as dust
palliatives or for some forms of surface treatment, and obviously except
ing those asphalts naturally existing as solids or semi-solids, all asphaltic
products are residuals from a distillation process. The extent of the dis
tillation process is the main control factor in the production of the vari
ous types and grades of materials ; the longer the distillation is continued,
the less fluid is the residue, and when semi-solids are approached, con
tinued distillation under proper conditions results in asphalts of progres
sively increasing hardness. When distillation is carried to the ultimate,
carbon in the form of coke and gas are the final products.
Composition. — Petroleum oils are mixtures of exceedingly com
plex and variable structure called hydrocarbons, because the predominat
ing elements are hydrogen and carbon, with or without small percentages
of other elements such as sulphur, nitrogen and/or oxygen in chemical
combination. The physical state of the individual hydrocarbons ranges
from gases, through liquids and semi-liquids to hard, brittle solids. This
difference in both the chemical and physical form is attributable to two
major factors : first, the relative proportion of hydrogen atoms to carbon
atoms which form the hydrocarbon molecule ; second, the spatial arrange
ment of the constituent atoms in respect to their method of combination
with each other and the number of bonds or linkings by which they are
attached to one another. Chemically, the hydrocarbons which are found
in varying proportions are known as paraffins, olefins, naphthenes and aro-
matics, which include the so-called saturates and unsaturates, but no sat
isfactory methods have yet been devised for isolating anything but groups
of these constituents; the structures of most of the individual higher
boiling point compounds are still unknown. The paraffin series is consid
ered representative of the saturated hydrocarbons.
In addition to the differences in composition caused by variations in
the percentage composition of the elements of the hydrocarbon, the varia
tions in structure of those having the same percentage composition is
enormous. Those hydrocarbons with the same number of atoms in dif
ferent arrangement or attachment are called "isomers," and for the more
complex structures, number into the thousands. For example, one of the
low boiling point members of the paraffin series, C8H18 (octane, one
isomer of which is used with heptane in determining anti-knock relations
of gasoline) has a theoretical 18 isomers, while C13H28 (a medium boiling
point compound within the kerosene . fraction) has a theoretical 802
isomers. With the highly complex asphaltic hydrocarbons containing as
high as probably 100 carbon atoms, the possible isomers are almost with
out limit.
As an example of the range of relative proportions of the elements
constituting hydrocarbons, the following may be cited : Methane, the low
est in the paraffin or saturated series of hydrocarbons, is a gas with the
formula CH4 or a ratio of 75 per cent carbon to 25 per cent hydrogen by
weight ; semi-solid asphalts contain hydrocarbons with a ratio probably as
low as 10 per cent hydrogen to 90 per cent carbon, but their chemical
formula is still a mystery.
All distillation processes in the manufacture of road materials, from
the original batch, shell still operation to the modern, continuous tube still
with all its appurtenances, arriye at similar end products. The chemical
and physical qualities, the quantities and the usefulness of the resulting
products are in a measure functions of the form of the distillation process,
but inherently there is no distinction. Petroleum products, since they are
mixtures of more or less volatile, mutually soluble organic compounds, as
mentioned previously, are for the most part readily fractionated when
heated to their vaporizing temperatures. Physically they afe simply me
chanical mixtures of volatile liquids or semi-solids, with the exception of
the final, hard asphaltic residues, which are not volatile under ordinary
refinery conditions. These latter, on account of their exceedingly high
boiling points, decompose into their constituent elements rather than
change to the vapor phase.
Refinery Practices. — Distillation is simply the progressive vapor
ization and removal of volatile components as they change from liquids
to vapors under the influence of heat, and is purely a physical change.
Concurrently, depending upon the time, the temperature and the method
of heating, chemical changes in the nature of polymerization or condensa
tion of hydrocarbons take place ; broadly speaking this latter is simply the
formation of larger molecules by the linking together of the smaller ones,
with or without elimination of hydrogen. Unless carried to a degree which
impairs the usefulness of the product, there is no necessity for distinction
as to types of distillation apparatus.
Similarly, there is no need for distinction between the so-called "paraf
fin," "semi-asphaltic" or "asphaltic" base petroleums ; the characteristics
of the product to be used, as determined by intelligent laboratory data,

should be the criterion of quality or usefulness. There is considerable
overlapping in oils from various sources which have been designated, more
or less loosely, by the above terms. Under proper refinery procedure any
asphalt bearing residue, whether the source of the crude is predominantly
paraffinic or predominantly asphaltic, can be separated, leaving a useful
asphalt.
The first distillation operations were carried out in cylindrical shell
stills by the batch method. Such stills, set in brickwork, were partially
filled with crude oil or topped residues and fired from underneath with
gradually increasing temperature to keep up a steady formation of vapors.
It was found that by the use of steam, led into the still by means of per
forated pipes along the bottom, distillation could be carried on at much
lower temperatures, depending upon the amount of steam and its partial
pressure effect in reducing the boiling point of the oils. This was the ad
vent of "steam refined asphalts." By reason of using lower temperatures
and the mechanical agitation by the steam, decomposition was prevented,
local overheating due to stagnant oil films was minimized and better and
more uniform products were obtained. The steam refined asphalt even
tually became the criterion of quality and today the term is still used
even though most of the available products are made by continuous vac
uum-flash operations, with or without steam. The term is gradually losing
its significance, however, and the products themselves are commanding the
merit which the process formerly connoted.
In order to eliminate the expense of batch still operations, continuous
batteries of shell stills were employed to some extent and shell stills op
erating under vacuum were also used, but the latter were never a real
success. The rate of heat transfer and the overall efficiency of shell stills
are quite low as compared with modern continuous operations ; further,
the time required for each batch ranged from twelve to twenty-four hours
or more. The temperatures used were of the order of 600 to 700° F.
and higher temperatures could not be used without danger of coking or
decomposition.
Very recent years have seen the introduction of tube or pipe stills for
heating oils to distillation temperatures and the removal of vaporized
products by separation in vaporizing drums, flash drums or fractionating
towers ; the separation of the vapors from the non-volatile residue is aided,
either by the use of steam for reducing the partial pressure, or operating
under a vacuum to reduce pressure, and often combinations of both. The
rate of heat transfer through pipe coils by reason of rapid velocity and
turbulence is high and the period of maximum temperature is usually only
a matter of seconds as compared with hours in the shell still operation.
Much higher temperatures can be used since the time factor is so low that
the effect of cracking is eliminated. This permits the processing of crudes
which could not be separated in shell still operations on account of the
exceedingly high boiling points of the intermediate fractions.
Flash Vacuum Coil. — The modern tube still and vacuum tower, or
"flash vacuum coil," is probably the most efficient refinery operation yet
devised for processing asphaltic products. It simply consists of an inter
connected scries of pipes or tubes mounted in a furnace, the oil being
pumped through the tubes under pressure, mainly to overcome frictional
resistance, and receiving its heat in the furnace. By proper arrangement
of the tubes in the radiant and convection sections of the furnace, the rate
of temperature rise and the time of maximum temperature subjection can
be very accurately and carefully controlled. The tubes on ordinary in
stallations are about four to five inches in diameter and may consist of
any number of convenient lengths joined together by return bends. The
number of tubes is dependent upon the size of the furnace and the desired
capacity of the equipment. It is not unusual to construct such furnaces
with 150 or more 30-foot length pipes, giving almost a mile of tube heat
ing length and capable of handling upwards of 500 thousand gallons of
CONOBNSfc* •AROMCTftlC
COOblly
Reduced «rud<-
fhorqlnq otoch from
pr«v'tou» otrno»ph«rie or
vacuum distillation
FLOW CHART
Continuous vacuum pivnu-ATiON unit
— -
C.«»».T«,t.n. taMBBSjM 1-c. AfcPMAUT PRODUCTION
Fig. j. — General Flow Diagram of Asphalt Production
charging stock per day. Units of this size, however, are more adapted to
production of lighter residuals rather than asphalt manufacture. At the
present time, 200 thousand gallon per day units are being operated for
asphalt manufacture, and this may be contrasted with about a maximum
of 15 to 20 thousand gallons per charge in batch still operation.
From the tube outlet the hot oil is discharged into a separating drum
or fractionating tower at a reduced pressure, and usually under a high
vacuum. The steam is led into the base of the tower and assists in vapor
izing the heated oil by reducing the partial pressure of the oil vapors. For
example if the tower is maintained under a normal operating vacuum of
50 mm. of mercury absolute pressure, only half of this pressure may be
due to the oil vapors, the other half being the partial pressure of the steam
used. Therefore the oil vapors will have to overcome only an effective
pressure of 25 mm. of mercury, thus liberating more oil vapors at a given
temperature than if no steam were used. The incoming oil at a relatively
high temperature is immediately flashed into vapor and residue, due to
the release of pressure. The residue which is left is withdrawn continu
ously from the bottom of the tower and the vapors are removed through
the top, later to be condensed and utilized. The consistency of the residue
is controlled by the maximum temperature reached in the furnace and by
the control of the pressure reduction and the amount of steam in the
tower. The higher the temperature and the lower the pressure (or the
higher the vacuum), the more material will pass out as vapor, consequently
leaving a heavier or harder residue. Dry vacuum (that is, without steam)
can be used, but requires lowering the vacuum to 10 mm. or less pressure
and is not as economical as using 30 to 50 mm. vacuum supplemented with
steam.
In making paving asphalts of the hot mix grades, as low as 30 to 40
penetration residue can be taken directly from the bottom of the tower,
but on account of the higher temperature required with the attendant
danger of injury, usually material of about 100 penetration or softer is
removed and this is later processed to the desired consistency by oxida
tion, commonly called "air-blowing." This operation is usually carried
out in batch stills, although continuous processes are now being adopted.
Blowing. — Air-blowing treatment, briefly, consists in contacting the
hot residuum or asphalt with an oxygen containing gas. almost always
air, and is a chemical transformation. The residues at a temperature of
about 450 to 500° F. are agitated by blowing with air through perforated
pipes placed along the bottom of the stills. This reaction is of the exo
thermic type, that is, it generates heat and therefore very little external
heat is necessary after the reaction is once started. This process, by rea
son of the comparatively low temperatures used, removes practically none
of the material by distillation. Rather the oxygen in the air combines with
some of the hydrogen of the hydrocarbon molecule forming water which
is liberated as steam and as the hydrogen is eliminated, hydrocarbon mole
cules join each other to form larger molecules ; probably some oxygen
is also chemically attached to the hydrocarbon. The continued agitation
with air gradually hardens the residuum forming asphalts of harder and
harder penetration. At the same time there is a substantial increase in the
softening or melting point and a decided decrease in ductility. Due to the
chemical effect of the oxidation process, for a given consistency, these
asphalts are much less susceptible to changes in consistency at low and
high temperatures, as recorded by the penetration test. However, when
carried to any extreme, the effect of loss of ductility more than offsets any
advantages of low susceptibility to temperature changes. When judiciously
practiced in connection with paving asphalts, some reduction in suscep
tibility can be procured without any dangerous loss in ductility, and to
this degree the practice is desirable. Air-blown asphalts possess charac
teristics more advantageously adapted to uses other than those with which
this chapter is concerned.
The naturally occurring asphalts, which are represented mainly by
Trinidad, Bermudez and Gilsonite, are usually refined only to the extent
of removing water and gas, if any, and then raising to the desired con
sistency by "fluxing" with a liquid or semi-liquid petroleum oil. Gilson
ite is almost always used in a pulverized state and is more or less con
fined to a few patented types of "cold-mix" pavements.
Cracking. — A logical step in the production of bitumens suitable for
road uses is that of adapting the "cracking processes" for gasoline pro
duction to operations whereby the residues are available for asphalts or
asphaltic oils. The cracking of hydrocarbons for gasoline production is a
chemical transformation brought about by heating oils to dissociation
temperatures, usually under pressure, to cause disruption of the heavier
molecules, thereby forming those boiling within the gasoline range. The
high temperature causes the molecules to break apart and re-arrange them
selves into different groups of both lower and higher molecular weights,
thus producing not only gasoline hydrocarbons, but at the same time
heavier ones which, under the influence of both heat and pressure, poly
merize to form larger aggregations similar to the asphaltic molecules. The
chemical phenomena which results is that the charging stock is broken up
into lighter products possessing a higher ratio of hydrogen to carbon than
that found in the starting material, at the expense of dehydrogenating the
remainder which is left as the residuum. In this process the effects of
time and temperature, and to some extent, pressure, are all-important.
Only recently has this been made a factor which can be readily controlled
and with further progress and knowledge, other factors which permit or
prevent the production of suitable road materials will be discovered and
controlled.
As with asphalt production, the first cracking process was of the batch
shell still type in which the residue was the final product left in the still.
Economic necessity and the inventive genius of men engaged in that art
both worked toward the development of continuous processes, and it was
really from this development that the modern flash vacuum coil for asphalt
processing owes its inception. The present-day cracking processes are in
a high state of development and control of the various factors is fast
approaching a stage from which the quality and character of the residue
can be predetermined without any material sacrifice in gasoline produc
tion or quality. Dependent, of course, upon the charging stocks, which
may be anything from light naphthas to heavy asphaltic residues,, includ
ing kerosenes, gas oils, fuel oils, wax distillates, either alone or in any
combinations, the type of cracking unit, the pressure, time and temper
ature used, the amount of recycling and many other less important vari
ables, almost any conceivable end product can be obtained. Perhaps, most
notable in the last few years has been the control of the processes to pro
duce residues 100 per cent soluble in carbon disulphide and nearly so in
carbon tetrachloride, thus insuring a bitumen free from decomposition
products.
Cracked materials from some of the processes have been more or less
successfully used in almost all the various phases of low-cost road devel
opment with the exception of the hot-mix types. This does not mean,
however, that all cracked residues produced by all the various commercial
processes, from all the various charging stocks, can be used to supplant
all uses of straight-run asphalts, unless changes in the cracking plant
manipulation or restriction to certain stocks can produce corresponding
changes in the final product. Some of the present-day cracking processes
subject only a part of the residuum to cracking temperature and only for
short periods ; some operations produce asphaltic residues from such purely
synthetic processes as cracking a light naphtha or kerosene fraction. To
group all of these products under one head, or to condemn all on the basis
of the characteristics of any one particular product, is obviously neither
fair nor scientific. Proper correlation of available information and co
ordination for further research and development work between refinery
engineers and paving technologists will undoubtedly lead to production
of suitable materials from these processes, and judging by some of the
impressive developments in gasoline production, may possibly improve
upon present-day products in their adaptation to specific purposes.
Usage. — In low-cost or stage construction types of road building,
the greatest quantities of asphaltic materials used are the medium and
heavier oils, cut-backs and emulsions. Very little of harder grades of
asphalts, that is, under 85 to 100 penetration, are consumed until, at
least, the final stages of construction. This final stage may well be of
hot-mix types, sheet asphalt or asphaltic concrete, using asphalts of 40 to
70 penetration, mixed hot and laid hot. Some of the many varieties of
proprietary and patented types of pavements use bitumen of many types
from oils to extremely hard grades of pulverizable asphalts. These pave
ments may be mixed hot and laid cold, mixed cold and laid hot, or mixed
cold and laid cold, with many variations and ingenious methods for com
bination, manipulation and preservation of workability after storage.
Oils and Cut-Backs. — The oils used cover the entire range of materials
available, from light, fluid priming oils possessing no binding properties, to
heavy asphaltic base oils which require heating for manipulation and which
possess high binding properties. Many of the oils are heavy residues or as
phalts, "cut-back" with naphthas, kerosenes or light gas oils which remain
fluid until the diluent evaporates. The rate of evaporation is a function of
the amount and volatility of the diluent and this in turn is a regulation im
posed by the method used in the road construction. For road mixes, in
which the time of manipulation and mixing in place is comparatively long,
the preservation of workability until thorough coating is obtained, is nec
essary. This can be regulated by the amount of diluent, or the volatility
of the diluent or both. Dependent, of course, upon the type of work at
hand, this end may be obtained by using a larger quantity of a very vola
tile diluent, or, preferably, by using less of a higher boiling point range
distillate. With the latter, an equal degree of fluidity can be obtained for
initial distribution and application by preheating to a somewhat higher
temperature. In plant mix operations the opposite is required, since the
mixing time is a matter of seconds and not hours. The aggregate grading
in this type of construction is one of the important considerations in the
selection of proper cut-backs. In open stone mixes a volatile diluent in
lesser quantities than in road mix is essential, the only other regulation
necessary is that a higher preheating temperature is desirable to insure
adequate mixing. For dense mixtures in which fine aggregate with or
without filler is used, more slowly volatile diluents are preferable and the
percentage should be as low as possible, consistent with workability during
the mixing period.
In treatment of existing surfaces where deep penetration is necessary,
the rate of volatility of the distillate is more of a decided criterion than
the percentage of the diluent. The more slowly volatile diluents permit
greater penetration and eventually the binding or non-binding character
istics of the base are produced. In both the road mix and plant mix, heavy
oils of slow curing properties are likewise used, the stability of the road
in its initial stages being obtained from the denseness of the compacted
mineral aggregate and filler.
Emulsions— Bituminous emulsions are very fluid compositions in which
water is used as the liquifying means in place of heat or solvents. As
developed within the past few years, these emulsions are particularly adapt
ed to a wide range of usefulness. The different types of emulsions now
available can be used as equivalents of almost all the numerous types of as-
phaltic materials, and in all the various methods of construction. In low-
cost road construction their adaptability to application on damp or moist
aggregates makes them extremely useful, especially in such sections of the
country in which only a few weeks of the year are free from rainfall.
Recent development in emulsion manufacture permits them to withstand
long periods of mixing without breaking down even in the presence of
high percentages of fines and filler, thereby opening up a large field for
pre-mixed and plant mix development.
Bituminous emulsions as used in road construction are simply disper
sions of very fine particles or globules of asphaltic materials in water,
stabilized against coalescense by a protective colloid, commonly called
"the emulsifying agent." The protective colloid generally used is a soap
in the water solution, which, by its ability to lower surface tension and
concentrate at the interface of the oil globule, forms enveloping films

about each minute dispersed particle ; these films prevent contact between
the asphaltic particles. Other emulsifying agents of both organic materials
and inorganic mineral powders are used, but the soap emulsions are tne
most common in this industry.
Emulsions may be of two types, water dispersed in oil, or oil dispersed
in water, the type and quantity of emulsifying agent usually determining
this quality. The dispersed phase must be immiscible with the continuous
or external phase, or an emulsion does not result. In road construction
the type always used is that in which the water is the continuous phase
and which, therefore, can be further diluted with water, but not with oil ;
this obviously means that the asphaltic material is the one which is broken
up into minute particles, surrounded by films of the protective colloid and
suspended in water.
Emulsions as used are of four general types and have been classed as
"quick-breaking," "medium-breaking," "slow-breaking" and "mixing"
emulsions. This refers only to their action when exposed in films and in
contact with mineral aggregates ; when in bulk or in storage, all types are
of the same relative degree of stability, and do not become destroyed as
long as water is present. The different types are produced by variations
in the amount and type of protective colloid, the method of manufacture
and the relative sizes of the minute dispersed particles. There have been
claims that emulsions are made without an emulsifying agent, but this in
its broadest sense cannot be true because some sort of stabilization is
essential to any emulsion. Protective colloids can be formed by the action
of an alkali salt with the naphthenic acids present in the asphalt to form
a soap in situ, which functions the same as any other protective colloid.
Emulsions are commercially manufactured in high speed disintegra
tors called "colloid-mills" or adaptations of the mill principle, and are
continuous processes. The heated liquid asphalt and the water solution
or mixture of the protective colloid are fed simultaneously between the re
volving surfaces of the mill, .which are in. very close contact and moving
at enormous peripheral speed. . In some mills a cone shaped "rotor" re
volves in a suitable shaped "stator" with surfaces nearly in contact ; some
mills have two close fitting discs revolving in opposite directions. With
whatever apparatus used, the mixture of the two liquids is subjected to
high shearing action, impact stresses and mechanical disintegration. The
average size of the dispersed particles has been estimated to be one ten-
thousandth of an inch, with many of them much smaller. These high
speed disintegrators produce emulsions which are much more stable than
those formerly made in batch agitators and permit the use of a consider
ably lower percentage of emulsifying agent.
What colloids may be used? Undoubtedly the most effective type of
colloid to use for asphalt emulsions is some form of soap. A soap is a
very sensitive material and alters its characteristics very readily with slight
changes in the method of preparation. It is necessary to adopt very strict
standards if soap is to be successfully employed in emulsion manufacture.

Other colloids which are used by some manufacturers are starch, glue,
gum, Irish Moss extract, resinates, chinawood oil and many others.
All these will render emulsions stable. Colloids possess the property
of concentrating at the surface or interfaces of their solutions. This is the
reason why they stabilize emulsions. They concentrate at the interface
of the oil globules and the aqueous continuous phase, and form a protec
tive film round the globules which prevents them from coalescing. This
film is spoken of as the "adsorbed film" or "adsorbed layer." In simple,
non-technical English this film may be called a soap bubble.
Colloids greatly reduce the surface tension of the liquid in which they
are dissolved. This reduction in surface tension is the first criterion for
efficient emulsification.
Fig. 4.
— Emulsified Asphalt as It Appears Under a Microscope Greatly Magnified.
The Actual Diameter of the Area Shmcit Is Such That It Could Be Placed
on the Edge of a Sheet of Good Writing Paper. This Gives an
Idea of the Extremely Small Size of the Droplets.
Methods of Preparing Emulsions. — The essential factor in prepar

ing an emulsion is to agitate the two liquids together in the presence of
the emulsifier. The following methods of agitation may be employed :
1. Shaking — Intermittent shaking is more effective than continuous.
2. Slow stirring — In the older processes a slow stirring mixer was
employed, and advantage was taken of the chemical action between
the two constituent parts of the emulsifier to supplement this.
3. Trituration.
4. High Speed agitation. An interesting form of high speed agitator
is the colloid mill in, its various forms. The feature of the colloid
mill is that the two liquids, disperse phase and emulsilier solution,
are brought into contact under conditions of tremendous mechanical
disintegration, usually in a narrow zone between a stationary mem
ber and a rotor revolving at some thousands of revolutions per
minute.
In a general way, the colloid mill is used more as a finishing process
than in the actual preliminary making of asphalt emulsions. By this, we
mean that the emulsion is prepared by the old method of beaters, paddles,
etc., and this crude emulsion is then passed through the colloid mill from
which it comes as a finely dispersed, finished product. Portable units
are used for this work, the mill being mounted on, wheels and rolled up
to the mixing tank as and when required. On some types of Mexican
asphalt, the simultaneous introduction of the stream of asphalt and emul
sifying agent (sodium hydroxide) into the colloid mill, just ahead of
the milling chamber has been found satisfactory and very good emulsions
have been produced by this system. This, of course, eliminates the mixing
tank, also paddles and other additional mixing equipment.
The cost of producing these emulsions is comparatively low, inasmuch
as a colloid mill, having) an output capacity of 600 gallons per hour, can
be operated on 50 h.p. At $0.04 per h.p. this would cost $2.00 per hour.
Plus another $1.00 for attendance, etc., would bring the cost to less than
Y2 cent per gallon These figures hold for almost any quantity.
The Use of Emulsions in Road Building. — Water may be lost

from an emulsion after application to the road in three ways:
1. Evaporation.
2. Capillary Action.
3. Mechanical Disturbance.
As between one emulsion and another there is little difference to be
observed in the rate at which water evaporates. The water behaves almost
as if it were pure water, and the rate of evaporation is controlled by the
temperature, humidity, and wind velocity. The last named factor is par
ticularly important; a breeze of 12-15 m.p.h. will increase the ra.c of
evaporation 10-15 times over that in still air.
Capillary action on an emulsion is illustrated in the rate of break test.
The surface tension forces brought into play by the absorbent paper, used
in this test, cause the water to leave the emulsi6n and saturate the paper.
Certain types of road are porous and exert a similar action, while on ev
ery dry road, however well swept, there is always a considerable amount
of dust which acts as an absorbent. The loss of water in this way depends
much more on the emulsion than is the case with evaporation. Generally
the viscosity of the emulsion affects its rate of break under capillary
368 LOW COST ROADS AMD BRIDGES
forces. The thicker the emulsion the more slowly it loses water on por
ous materials.
Mechanical disturbance as a cause of loss of water in the setting of an
emulsion does not enter the picture until a considerable proportion of the
original water has been lost by evaporation and capillary agencies. When
a certain water content is reached the mere exertion of mechanical pres
sure on the emulsion film will cause the complete coagulation of the
bitumen. Again, this is not true of all emulsions, but an important
is'
property for road emulsion to possess. In the final stages of the setting
a
of the emulsion the mechanical disturbance caused by rolling and passing

tniffic may be very important.
What Becomes of the Water? — When applied to the road surface,

the emulsion separates
:
a. The asphalt particles running together or coalescing. Below 40°
(
F. the small asphalt particles do not coalesce but resemble in
a
minute form mass of "caviar.")
a
The water and emulsifier evaporate, are absorbed or run off the
b.
road.
Water in an emulsion enables
:
a. The asphalt to be applied cold.

minimum of asphalt to be used.
A
b.
r. The greater penetration to be achieved.

Permits work being done in wet weather.
</.
Wherever water penetrates, such an emulsion properly made will fol

low, leaving film of asphalt throughout the mass of the road metal and
a
coating each piece of broken-stone or gravel with which comes in con

it
tact with thin covering of asphalt.

a
(ireat improvements have been made in the art of manufacturing cold

asphalt emulsions so that now manufacturers can accurately control the
time that required for the water content to disappear after the emulsion
is
has been applied to the road. That is, the "rate of break" of the emulsion
can be varied at will during its manufacture. Twenty to thirty minutes
theaverage time required for slow breaking emulsion to '"set.''
is
Specific Properties of Emulsions for Paving Purposes. — may be

It
well to enumerate some of the characteristics necessary for successful

a
paving emulsion.
should contain asphalt of penetration, ductility, cementing value
It
1.
and other characteristics normally suited to the type of use contemplated.

must have bulk stability. That is, must not be broken down
2.
It
it
upon long periods of storage, or upon agitation during transportation.

must have sufficiently fine particle size so as to be freely sus-
It
3.
pendable.
must have controlled degree of stability as system, so that
It
4.
a
a
it will not break prematurely when sprayed or when mixed with mineral
aggregates, mert mineral powders, or with diluting water.
5. Its time of coalescence or "rate of break" must be suitable to the
conditions for which it is to be used. In other words it should break when
deposited upon the road in the shortest time compatible with its other
stability requirements.
6. Its viscosity must be definite, constant and suited for the purpose
for which it is 'to be employed.
7. It must have a concentration of asphalt which does not vary for
the particular use for which it is intended.
8. The relation between asphalt concentration and viscosity should be
such that a regulated and predetermined film thickness is always deposited.
9. The concentration of the emulsifying agent should be a minimum
and always less than that which would in any way modify the properties
of the asphalt binder.
COLD MIXES
The cold mix field presents one of the most interesting as well as the
most complex and unsettled phases of the present art of bituminous pav
ing. Few of the processes and methods are more than fifteen years old,
yet at the present time the manufacture of these mixtures is taking on the
complexion of a major industry.
Many of the cold mixes have much in common, either in methods of
manufacture or laying. However, they cannot be grouped readily due to
differences in design or application. For example, a few are in reality
hot mixes, for they are actually mixed hot. But they may be included in
asmuch as they may be stockpiled, transported, and laid while in a cold
condition. Also, a few of the included types not only are mixed hot, but
are laid hot ; these too may be classified as cold mixes, due to their ability
to be transported and stockpiled while cold. It may be seen then, that the
one qualification common to all materials included here as cold mixes, is
the ability to be stockpiled or transported with comparative ease at normal
air temperatures over extended periods of time.
Cold mixes are used for high type as well as the so-called low type
surfaces. They are very often specified on rigid bases in new construc
tion. Sometimes economic policy or some specific local construction prob
lem indicates their use. An example of the latter was encountered in
1931 in Washington, D. C. The location of a projected reinforced
concrete pavement crossed a very unstable side-hill cut. The section over
this poor subgrade was changed to a six-inch hot asphaltic concrete base,
with a two-inch cold mix top. The change was made because of the known
ability of such materials to easily conform to subgrade adjustments with
out distress. Justification for this type of construction is already appar
ent. The fills have settled in two places, but the asphaltic mixtures have
adjusted themselves to the settlement without cracking.
While the use of cold mixes in new work of a high type is increasing,
yet perhaps the largest field at present exists in reconstruction work.

Usually these materials are excellently adapted to the covering and widen
ing of old macadam, concrete, and other surfaces. The flexibility of some
of the mixtures is a particularly valuable characteristic in reconditioning
work of this nature.
Classification. — Present day cold mixes may be divided into sev
eral general types : those involving the cut-back principle, those involving
the fluxing principle, the emulsions, the impregnated native products. The
types that follow are described and reported without prejudice, insofar
as proprietary aspects, relative merits, and extent of use are concerned.
Construction details of each group have so much in common that they
will be treated together.
GROUP "A".
Inthe cut-back group may be included several of the oldest and most
successful cold-mixtures. The principle is simply that a stone at air tem
perature may be uniformly coated with hot asphalt cement by first treating
the stone with an asphalt solvent. Eventual evaporating of the solvent is
delayed long enough to permit transportation, spreading, and compaction
while in a cold condition. Also, until final evaporation takes place the
asphalt cement film retains a more or less plastic quality. An example of
this group is the cold mix bituminous concrete in extensive use in the Dis
trict of Columbia at present. Modifications of this mixture are appearing
in various specifications and are being widely used. This is one of the few
cold mix processes which are not covered by patents. The mixture is de
signed to be laid in two courses, having a compacted thickness of two
inches; the finished base course one and one-half inches, and the
top course one-half {y2) inch. Stone for the bottom course is graded
from one and one-half inches down to one-quarter inch.
Stone for the top course is graded from one-half inch to a number 8
sieve. The stone may be prepared for mixing in a drier, in the usual
way, provided, however, that the stone reaches the mixing chamber in a
cool condition (100° F. or less). Prior to admission to the pug-mill
mixer, the proper amount for each batch is obtained by means of scales
and tell-tale device attached to a weighing hopper. After weighing, the
stone is dumped into the mixer and thoroughly coated with a light sol
vent. This solvent is commonly a petroleum product having a distillation
range of from 300° F. to 415° F. After the stone is coated with the sol
vent, the asphalt, having a penetration of from 85 to 100, pre-heated to
about' 300° F., and carefully weighed, is poured into the mass. A small
quantity of screenings is sometimes added to the mixture at this time,
the claim being made that this material helps hold the unusually thick film
of asphalt on the stone. After all the ingredients have been thoroughly
mixed, the batch is dumped for transportation or stock-pile.
In this group also are Amiesite, Tarmac, Tarvialithic, Willite, Slag-
mac, Penolithic, Penotread, and Warcolite, all of which are either patented
processes or copyrighted names. The principles employed are much the

same, varying only in character of materials. An exception is noted in
the case of Warcolite, where the claim is made that the solvent used is
non-volatile, which would then automatically place this material in the
"Flux" group.
In some cases the solvent and the asphalt base are combined prior to
coating the aggregate. Producers are in a position today to offer for this
purpose almost any consistency of asphalt base and any grade of volatile
solvent, depending on local conditions.
Stone, slag, and crushed gravel are in use as aggregates. Asphalts
and tars both are in use as the binders. In some cases, pulverized hydrated
lime is added as an ingredient, the claim being made that the oxidation of
the bitumen is retarded. Another patented material, Willite, adds copper
sulphate. Usually relatively little fine aggregate is employed, so that the
finished pavement is rather open and porous in texture, to allow for the
volatilization of the cut-back.
Most of these mixtures are manufactured at central or stationary plants
and transported by truck or freight to the job location. Bituminous mate
rials in this group are marketed as Stanolind, Tarvia, Tarmac, Texaco,
Calol, Standard, Atlantic. Shell, Roadite, and Socony. Some of these
would also fall in Group B because they are slow or non-drying oils.
GROUP "B".
In the second group, we have those mixtures which utilize the fluxing
principle. Thatis to say, the aggregate is treated with both a hard and a
soft asphalt in such a manner that the eventual blending of the two will
result in one having the desired characteristics. The slowness of this
fluxing action provides an interim during which the material may be
handled while cold. Practically all the mixes of this class require a plant
mixing. Some are mixed, transported and laid cold; others are mixed
hot, transported and laid cold; and still others are mixed hot, transported
cold, but require additional heating at the job location. The low penetra
tion asphalt used may be either a native product or a blown residual as
phalt. The high penetration material is usually a refined petroleum prod
uct. Both fine and coarse aggregates are used in these mixtures, depend
ing on the texture of finished roadway desired.
In this classification are found such products as Interaco, Lincolnite,
Westphalt, Macasphalt, and Colprovia. The processes used in these four
products are patented. A typical mixing procedure is as follows : The
aggregate is heated and weighed for each batch, after which it is admitted
to the mixing chamber. The soft asphalt is then poured on the churning
stone. When the aggregate is thoroughly coated, the hard asphalt in a
powdered form is broadcast over the mix so as to be thoroughly dis
tributed throughout. The mixture is then discharged for transportation.
In the case of Lincolnite the hard asphalt is spread over the surface of the
road after the material is placed.
GROUP "C".
The emulsions comprise the third general type. Two liquids which
are not miscible are treated with a third substance so that when one of the
liquids is dispersed as fine globules in the other, the resulting product
becomes comparatively stable. In the case of emulsified asphalts the as
phalt is broken down into microscopically fine particles which are sus
pended in water. Various mediums are used by producing companies to
bring about this dispersion and stabilization. Asphalt emulsions are
shipped to the mixing plants in cars or drums.
Bitumuls, Colas, Amulco, Headley Company and the Barber As
phalt Company products, are some of the better known asphalt emulsions.
Two types of emulsions are produced — "slow breaking" and "quick break
ing," depending on the length of time elapsing after coating the aggregate
before the emulsion "breaks" and the water leaves the emulsion.
Aggregates are usually coated with the emulsion by mixing in a me
chanical pug-mill mixer, a converted concrete paver, patented plant equip
ment as Saturmix and Precote, or by applying the emulsion to the stone
spread on the roadway with a pressure distributor. In the case of "Pre
cote," a patented process, the emulsification of water and asphalt is ac
complished at the site of the job, in a small portable emulsifying machine.
The emulsified asphalt is then pumped into a vat, into which stone is
delivered from hopper-bottom cars and coated by dipping. This coated
stone is then picked up by a special bucket conveyor. The buckets are
perforated to allow the surplus emulsion to drain back into the vat. Two
of the claims made for this process are that the stone particles are com
pletely coated and that the percentage of bitumen can be controlled at
will. In a "Saturmix" plant a crane drops stone into a perforated bucket
which is submerged in a tank of bitumen. The bucket then dumps the
stone out into a hopper out of which excess bitumen drains back into the
tanks.
Whatever the method in mixing, sometime after the aggregate
used
is coated, the water and emulsifying agent then leave the asphalt coating
by evaporation, absorption, or by capillarity. The time of separation or
"break" of the water and asphalt, may be fairly accurately predeter
mined. Such control, of course, is quite important to the successful use
of emulsions.
Either fine or coarse aggregate, or both, are used in various combina
tions with emulsions. A variety of asphalt characteristics, percentages of
water and asphalt, and methods of application, are recommended by the
producers of emulsions.
GROUP "D".
Some of the oldest known examples of asphalt paving were con
structed with the materials comprising the next group — the native rock
asphalts. Thev may be properly classed as cold mixes, inasmuch as they
are usuallv laid cold. The more common rock asphalts useable for pav
ing are the asphalt-impregnated limestones and sandstones. Usually the

only treatment necessary is mining, crushing, and screening. More re
cently one or two producers have adopted the practise, of adding various
amounts of residual oil asphalt to the material as mined. In the case of
Altapave pavement the raw sands are freed of some of the light oils.
After crushing and screening, the rock asphalt is loaded on cars for ship
ment. Until compaction is applied it may be handled with ease at normal
air temperatures. "Kyrock" and "Bituroc" impregnated sandstones, and
"Uvalde," an impregnated limestone, are well known examples of each
class of the native group.
REFINED PRODUCTS
It would be desirable in this book to include a discussion of the vari
ous grades of bituminous products made by refiners for paving work.
Because of its length and the variable number of grades made by pro
ducers, we decided to list the trade names, only, of products marketed by
refiners. Following is a partial list of trade names asphaltic material in
America : Arkalite, Atlantic,* Barber asphalt,* Bermudez, Berry's as
phalt, Calol.* H. P., Indiana asphalt, Montezuma, Mex. Pete.,* Norco,*
Petrol, Roadite, Seaside, Shell,* Socony,* Sohio,* Stanacola,* Standard,*
Stanolind,* Texaco,* Trimount, Trinidad, and probably others.
Following is a list of tar product trade names in America : In tar,
Rotar, Tarco, Taric, Tarine, Tarite, Tarmac,* Tarvia,* and Ugite.
Those starred (*) are among the principal refiners. In general, the
refiners make products to meet standard specifications as well as products
to meet special specifications. They make various grades of the bitumi
nous products which they recommend for the various types of construc
tion listed hereinbefore. Bituminous material can be treated and handled
so many different ways that each case should be studied individually.
For example, Texaco lists 11 different surfacing products for road work,
each designed to perform the binding action under different conditions ;
in the tar group, Tarvia lists 9 grades for special purposes, and Tarmac
thirteen.
Until such time as tests and specifications for materials are standard
ized for particular road types, bituminous products will probably continue
to be sold in varying grades with varying characteristics. Considerable
progress has been made toward simplification and standardization of tests
which should later lead to standardization of products.
In studying the various mixtures prepared from both asphalts and
tars, one should thoroughly investigate the adhesive qualities as well as
the weathering qualities of the bitumens when mixed with aggregates.
An excellent technological discussion of adhesion tension and adsorption
as they relate to bitumens appeared in Roads and Streets for March,
April, and June. 1932. It naturally stands to reason that the better a
bitumen adheres to aggregate and the better it weathers, the better surface
the binder should make.
PATENTED TYPES AND/OR COPYRIGHTED NAMES

Included under this heading will be mixing methods, mixing equip
ment, sold under trade names, and trade named bituminous materials. It
is not necessarily understood, nor is it true, that these types can be classed
entirely as low-cost road types. Because this glossary is included in this
book it does not follow that we do or do not recommend any of the types.
The glossary is included primarily to give the reader a general idea of
the method of mixing or material under discussion. It is probably true
that the most of the proprietary types discussed here fall without the
pale of a discussion on "Low Cost Roads and Bridges." Were it not for
the fact that salesmen for these types endeavor to promote them to public
bodies in competition with one another and with low cost types they
would not be discussed here. Some of the types described have made
good pavements. Others have not been so good. The engineer must in
vestigate each product or method to greater extent than is given herein
before passing judgment on it.
Agrolith. — This patented process consists of double coating the
aggregate first with a hard bitumen, then, after cooling, with a softer
bitumen. The prepared material is a hot-mix cold-lay type, especially for
sheet asphalt gradings. Compaction is obtained by a roller rather than by
traffic. It is claimed by the promoter that with any grading of any type
aggregate, a satisfactory surfacing material can be produced.
Altapave. — Manufacture consists of passing raw sands of the
Alberta Tar sand deposits through process which eliminates the light oils,
bringing materials up to a standard and fixed percentage of asphalt.
Material is then compressed into brick or slab form, and powdered with
sandstone dust. Sands are found in the deposits at McMurray, Alberta,
Canada.
Amiesite. — Broken rock is placed in a mixer and intermingled.
The specified quantity of a liquifier which may be any mineral oil, such
as kerosene, gasoline, crude naphtha, or volatile petroleum distillate, is
then sprayed into the mixer, coating the surfaces of the rock.
Amiesite asphalt cement at a temperature of between 250° and 300°
F. is then poured into the mixer so as to coat all of the stone. The mix
ing continues until the mass presents a uniform black color. Hydrated
lime is then added to the mix and mixing continues until the uniform
black color again appears. The mineral filler is finally added in such a
way that the particles are uniformly spread throughout the mass. The
batch is dumped as soon as the mineral filler has thoroughly adhered to
the asphalt coated aggregate. Both bottom layer (of coarse rock) and
top layer (finer rock) mixtures arrive on the work cold. These mixtures
MATERIALS MANUFACTURE AND I OR PROPRIETARY MIXES 375
are deposited outside of the area in which they are to be laid. The layers
are then spread in a loose condition one over the other and are compacted
simultaneously by rolling. The surface is sealed with a top dressing.
Alabama Asphaltic Limestone. —The asphalt contained in the

pores of both the Alabama and Texas asphaltic limestone is hard. The
penetration of that found in the Alabama rock is about 20. The bitumen
content of the Texas rock as shipped as around 9 to 11 per cent. The
Alabama product contains from 4 to 6 per cent bitumen when shipped.
Both of these materials, of course, must be fluxed to provide a film of
bitumen around the aggregate that is soft enough to prevent cracking and
is in sufficient quantity to bind the particles together. Too little bitumen
results in a mixture that is hard to compress and therefore is not durable.
Tests indicate that with this material, safe stability, to carry the heav
iest traffic, is secured when an added asphalt of 85 to 100 penetration is
used in sufficient quantity" for the total "recoverable" asphalt to fill the
voids. By "recoverable" asphalt is meant the bitumen that can be extracted
from the crusher-run rock asphalt plus the added bitumen.
Amulco. —This is the trade name of a bituminous emulsion. Like

other emulsion manufacturers, the company produces various grades for
the various uses in road work. The manufacturer claims that it was not
until the introduction of the Amulco processes and materials that fine
materials could be used successfully in mixtures with emulsified asphalt.
Asbestophalt. —This product is a standard stone-filled sheet asphalt

mixture in which asbestos fiber had been substituted for the limestone
dust or filler. The mix is composed of proportionate parts of crushed
rock, sand, asbestos fiber and asphalt cement. The material is mixed hot,
at an asphalt plant and hauled in trucks to the roadway where it is laid
at 325° to 400° F. Extracted bitumen in samples showed content to be
12.3 per cent of 57 penetration asphalt.
Azrock. —This is the trade name for a group of products mar

keted by a Texas rock asphalt producer. Natural bituminized limestone
rock is quarried, crushed and pulverized to a fine grading.
Characteristics of the crushed rock are similar to the limestone de
posits of Alabama except that the Texas rock has about 10 per cent as
phaltic content. The material is laid cold. Sometimes emulsified asphalt,
in small quantities, or asphaltic road oils are mixed with the finely ground
rock asphalt before it is laid.
Bitucote. — This is the name applied to a series of stable emulsi

fied asphalt products all of which are designed for the particular purpose
for which they are intended. They are liquid compounds of proper pene
tration asphalt finely dispersed in water, being stabilized with various
amounts and kinds of emulsifying agents, depending on the desired use.
In certain refined and modified forms they are used for protective coatings
for exposed surfaces: on bridges, etc. They are used for water and
damp proofing.
In temperatures above freezing these products are used cold. They
are not injured by freezing prior to use.
Bit-U-Crete. — This is a bituminous concrete prepared from a
stable emulsion. The ingredients of the mix are weighed out and voidage
reduced to a minimum. Clay or a similar mineral filler is used in making
the stable emulsion.
Bitumuls. — This is an asphalt emulsion prepared according to the

manufacturer, by employing a "seed" from a former batch in place of a
soap solution for the emulsifier. This, while it may be true in a sense,
is not the whole story because an alkalai water is used which forms a
saponified emulsifier in the process of dispersing the asphalt throughout
the water. Practically the same claims are made by the manufacturers
of Bitumuls as are made by manufacturers of other emulsions.
Bituroc. — This type paving generally falls in the high type con
struction. It is mined from natural Kentucky selica sandstone deposits
containing varying amounts of bitumen from 0 to 12 per cent. It is
quarried and crushed to fineness of sand grains and the bitumen content
controlled to about 7 to 9 per cent by mixing leaner and richer sand
stone mixtures as needed.
Bitusprink. — A chemically treated liquid asphalt or tar compound

containing not less than 50 per cent bitumen, which will mix with a chem
ically treated hard water in any proportion without noticeable separa
tion, breaking or clotting. It is used as a dust preventative. Water is
placed in a tank, the water compound added and stirred, then Bitusprink,
in the proportion desired, is added to the treated water and given a slight
stirring. The emulsion is then ready to spray on the road.
Colas. — This is another emulsion of asphalt in water. Soap is the

emulsifying agent. The asphalt is a medium soft straight run Mexican
asphalt. The manufacturers claim that when Colas breaks, the water and
dissolved emulsifying agent run off or evaporate. Colas specifications
call for a layer of sand over the base first before the aggregate is placed.
In rolling, the sand works up through the aggregate from the bottom.
Chips are spread for the seal coat and the entire mass rolled more. Colas
was introduced here from England. It is made in several grades for use
under certain conditions.
Colprovia. — The Colprovia process consists of coating the aggre

gate with a non-volatile prepared asphaltic softening medium in a twin-
shaft pug-mill or other suitable mixer and then introducing a hard asphalt
in powdered form which forms a film over the particles to prevent their
sticking together. The proportions of flux oil and powdered asphalt may
be varied to produce any penetration cement commonly used. At at
mospheric temperatures and pressures the solution of. the hard in the soft
asphalt is very slow but at increased temperatures or rolling pressures
becomes more rapid. It can be shipped by rail in gondola cars and un
loaded with a clam-shell bucket or stock piled. Upon rolling it starts to
harden and the work may be opened to traffic as soon as rolled. The sur
face of sheet types can be planed like rock asphalt only during the first
day or two after rolling.
Standard sheet, stone-filled sheet, Topeka top, asphaltic concrete,
binder, and black base mixtures are all readily made by the Colprovia
Process. This process was invented in England and perfected in America.
Crown Rock. — This is essentially a hot mix, cold-lay sheet asphalt

wearing surface. The materials are fine crushed gravel graded, fine
crushed limestone graded, fine crushed air cooled slag, blown asphalt,
fluxing asphalt, and flux oil. The product is manufactured under the
Downard Process patents. The crushed gravel aggregate is dried in a
standard drier and mixed with about 6 per cent of blown asphalt. After
mixed it is fed onto a belt and run through a tank of water and thor
oughly cooled. The crushed limestone is dried in a standard drier, mixed
hot (about 250° F.) with a fluxing asphalt (Furol viscosity, about 270
seconds at 200° F.), then run into a blender where it is thoroughly
blended with the coated, cooled, crushed gravel aggregate in equal pro
portions. This material is then stock piled or shipped in open top gondolas
or trucks.
The flux oil is used to render the fluxing asphalt less viscous if the
air temperature is below 60° F.
The prepared fine material is then laid, spread, and rolled to form a
one course surface.
Dillonite. — This patented type is made from any aggregate which

need not be free from clay. Sodium hydroxide in a 2 per cent solution
is sprayed onto the dried aggregate in the mixer. The patent claims that
when this is done the NaOH forms the clay into balls and they harden.
The patent also claims that the 10 per cent of asphalt, which is next
added, adheres better to the aggregate in the presence of the alkalai solu
tion. The mixed material is then hauled onto the road, raked, and sealed
after being rolled.
Duraco. — This is a Texas rock asphalt like the Alabama product.
It is about 75 per cent rock asphalt, and 5 per cent trap rock with a small
amount of flux oil and other ingredients added to make the mixture easy
to handle. It can be laid either hot or cold depending on the bitumen
fluxed with it. Aggregates may also be mixed with it. The function of
the added trap rock is to make the material shippable and the pavement
nonskid.
Flint Fait. — Flint Fait is a bituminous concrete made from a
stable asphalt emulsion. To it is added Joplin flint or similar hard stone,
which is graded in size to leave the lowest percentage of voids. It is

shipped in open top coal cars from a plant at Webb City, Missouri. The
minimum shipment is 35 tons.
Headley. — This is one of the first asphalt emulsions manufactured

in America. It is a soap emulsion prepared from straight steam distilled
Mexican asphalt. Various grades are manufactured for various purposes.
It is claimed that their emulsion, Viafalt, is not injured by freezing. Like
other emulsions, Headley products are not heated for application.
Interaco. — This is a mixture of definitely proportioned mineral

aggregates,bituminous solvent, soft bitumen, bituminous filler, and sup
plementary mineral filler. The solvent is mixed with an oil asphalt with
a softening point of 40° to 60° C, and penetration of 60 to 110 at 25°
C, 100 g., 5 seconds. The bituminous filler is a blown asphalt of 170°
to 230° C, softening point and a penetration of 10 to 60 at 27° C. The
seal powder is a mixture of 20 per cent by weight of blown asphalt of
10 to 25 penetration and 80 per cent mineral aggregate smaller than the
10-mesh sieve The mixture is laid cold after being mixed in a close
blade pug-mill.
Kyrock. — Similar to Bituroc described above. It is quarried from

a natural silica bituminized sandstone deposit in Kentucky. As in other
asphalt construction repairs, the surface of an old base is painted with a
liquid bitumen prior to placing rock asphalts.
Lincolnite. — This is a finely pulverized hard asphaltic compound

of high melting point. When placed on the road in contact with soft as
phaltic oils it fluxes with the oil and forms a mat on the surface of the
road. The powder is pulverized to pass the 100 mesh sieve. It may be
shipped in bags without hardening or compacting. Dusting the surface
of a freshly oiled road with this material makes it possible for cars to
drive over the road immediately without picking up the aggregate. The
powder is spread with a lime spreader at the rate of J/ to 1 pound per
square yard.
Lincoln road oils are also produced by the same manufacturer.
Macasphalt. — In the process of manufacture an asphalt cement is

made by blending together hard natural Cuban asphalt with a petroleum
flux (topped Mexican crude). The blending is done at a temperature not
over 230° F. The powdered asphalt and flux are placed in steam heated
kettles with revolving blades. The proportions of asphalt to flux are such
as to give a cement of about 200 penetration.
In preparing a pavement the aggregate is heated and dried in a stand
ard asphalt plant. If over 150° F. it is passed through cooling driers
until brought down to that temperature. If it is desired to store the ma
terial, two or three quarts of water are thrown into the pug-mill just prior
to dumping the batch. Addition of water fluffs up the material so that it
is more easily raked. Laying on street is done by same methods as are

employed for hot mix pavements.
It is one of the earliest types of cold laid sheet asphalt mixtures and
is generally made with well graded sheet asphalt aggregate.
Penolithic. — Penolithic is a patented asphaltic type pavement, the

patent rights of which are controlled by Warren Bros. Co., Boston, Mass.
Penolithic wearing surface course is constructed upon the base prepared
as specified by Warren Bros. Upon the prepared base course a layer of
stone, coated with a penetrating oil, is rolled to the approximate thickness
of the finished surface course and treated with hot asphalt cement. The
surface voids are then filled by applying and rolling in sufficient oil coated
stone of intermediate size ; a seal coat of hot asphalt cement is applied and
covered with fine stone or coarse sand. This type of pavement is in the
nature of intermediate construction between penetration macadam and the
familiar Warrenite Bitulithic pavement.
The penetrating oil used is cold-applied, non-volatile, and limpid oil.
Hot asphalt should follow the oil coat in about a half hour.
Penotread. — This is a variation of the above designed for surface

treatments of light traffic.
Plant Mix. — This is a bituminous product manufactured at Jop-

lin, Missouri.
Plant Mix is a product containing cut-back asphalt, Joplin flint chat,
Carthage limestone and lime dust as a mineral filler and is manufactured
at a plant at Webb City in three grades; namely, 1, 2, and 3.
Grade No. 1 contains a maximum size of lyi in. flint, flint sand and
mineral filler (lime dust) and is used as a base course on gravel or
broken stone surface.
Grade No. 2 contains maximum size of yi in. flint chat, flint sand
a
and limestone (mineral filler) andis used as a second course, but chiefly
used for resurfacing and patching brick, concrete, asphalt or other hand
surface streets or highways.
Grade No. 3, seal coat, contains flint sand and limestone (mineral
filler) and is used for sealing No. 1 or No. 2 grades, but can be used for
resurfacing by itself. This material has the appearance of sheet asphalt.
It is laid cold and can be used without heat, except in extremely cold
weather. It should not be placed while raining, and the subsurface should
be primed with a light application of bituminous primer before the plac
ing of the plant mix. It is raked and rolled in much the same manner as
a hot mix asphalt, care being taken not to over rake, as it may cause a
wavy finish. Laboratory control is kept on all asphalt and aggregates
during production at the plant.
Pre Cote. — The cold laid mix known as Pre Cote is a coarse ag
gregate plant mix prepared in a Pre Cote patented plant. In the manufac
ture of this product, the aggregate is immersed in an emulsion prepared

on the job by the Pre Cote portable emulsifier. A bucket elevator with
perforations in the bottom of the buckets dips into the emulsion vat, picks
up the aggregate from which excess emulsion drains as it goes to a hop
per. The excess emulsion flows back into the vat. Any desired viscosity
of emulsion may be prepared by the emulsion machine. Water is softened
on the job as it is required.
Either tar or asphalt emulsions may be prepared.
Saturmix. — This is a plant for coating coarse aggregates. The

unit operates on the immersion principle. Aggregate is dropped into a
vat within which is a perforated container submerged in the vat of bitu
men. After aggregates are dropped into this, the perforated container
rotates out of the vat, dropping the coated aggregate into a hopper, the
bottom of which is perforated so that excess bitumen may drain off and
run into a collecting tank to be used again.
Slagmac. — This surface consists of a two course pavement in

which slag is used as the aggregate and an especially prepared, refined
coal tar is used as the bitumen, the material being laid cold. Samples
analyzed show extracted bitumen in the base course to be 4.4 per cent
and in the surface course to be 6.0 per cent. The pavement is laid with
a seal coat.
Tarmac. — This pavement is laid in two courses, a base and a

surface course. The aggregate in the base course is graded from V/i in.
to 34 in-i and the surface course from in. to No. 10. The bituminous
J>£
binder specially prepared refined tar. This mix laid cold.

is
is
a
Tarvialithic. — This hot-mixed, cold laid, refined tar product

is
a
manufactured in three grades. has been discussed quite fully in Chap

It
ter V.
Warcolite. — This cold laid mixture which prepared in

is
is
a
a
standard asphalt plant. Warcolite solution added, of course, before the

is
batch leaves the mixer. tempering agent which, theoretically, forms

It
is
a
thin film over the bitumen coated mineral aggregate. prevents ag

It
a
glomeration until the mass has been spread on the roadway and rolled.
Westphalt. — Westphalt stone filled asphaltic mixture. It

is
a
consists of hard, properly graded mineral aggregate composed of such

a
materials as stone screenings, broken slag, fine tailings, crushed and un-
crushed gravel, and sand uniformly mixed with mineral filler, and un
a
blended asphalts so proportioned that when blended by heating the mix

ture just prior to laying, true asphalt cement having correct physical
a
and chemical properties formed therein, binding the mineral aggregate

is
together. The material Westphalt shipped as loose, uncompacted gran

is
ular mixture prepared at centrally located plants and shipped in open top
freight cars or delivered in trucks and may be carried in stock piles as long
as desired.
It is heated on the job to 250 or 275 degrees F. just prior to laying, but
when being prepared before shipment, it is mixed cold.
The producer states that the mix is composed of aggregate combined
with hard Gilsonite in a powdered state, and a fluxing oil. While in a
cold state the fluxing oil and Gilsonite will not combine.
There may be and probably are other types of patented materials or
processes. Those listed above are the types which have come to the atten
tion of the authors.
Willite. — This surface is laid in two courses.

The base is pre
pared from a coarse graded aggregate while the surface course is
prepared from finer aggregate between the No. 8 sieve and Yi inch
screen. The bitumen is a cut-back asphalt with an admixture of
copper sulphate.
CHAPTER VIII
INTERPRETATION OF TESTS ON BITUMINOUS

ROAD MATERIALS
The bulk of litis section was written by Richard H. Lewis, Associate
Chemist, U. S. Bureau of Public Roads, for publication in
Roads and Streets magazine and then used in this book.
increased use of bituminous materials has been accompanied by
THE a desire on the part of many highway engineers, who have previous
ly been unfamiliar with bituminous construction and maintenance,
to know something of the nature of the asphalt, road oils, tars, and
bituminous emulsions which they are called upon to use and the tests
around which the specifications for the materials are drawn.
Tars. — Tars derived, in case of coal-gas tar and coke-oven tar,
from the destructive distillation of coal, and water-gas tar produced from
the decomposition of petroleum used to enrich water-gas, are further
reiined and combined to make all grades of road tars from thin fluid prim
ing material to heavy tar pitches used in filling cracks.
Asphalts. — Since native asphalts after refining are much too hard
for use, the refined asphalt is softened by adding a suitable flux to secure
the desired consistency for the particular construction in which it is to be
used. Asphalts produced from petroleum are called oil asphalts.
Road oils of various degrees of fluidity or consistency and different de
grees of adhesiveness are produced from crude petroleums. The refiner
may also make up road oils by blending various oils and otherwise modi
fying his process to get the proper grade of material; or by fluxing semi
solid or viscous fluid asphaltic materials with certain distillates such as
naphtha and kerosene to produce so-called cut-backs. An incident relating
to the inception of the use of cut-backs is of interest in this connection.
Much of the early surface treatment of macadam roads was done with
crude asphaltic petroleums. This material, in many cases, did not dry fast
enough or develop sufficient hardness to hold the cover stone A few years
ago one of the leading asphalt producers was asked to furnish a product
made up of an asphalt fluxed with a volatile solvent. The idea was then
considered ridiculous by the producer, but it is quite reasonable to say
that, at the present time, practically all the cold surface treatment ma
terials designed for mat-forming treatments are naphtha cut-backs.
While the chemical composition of the various bituminous products is
of interest to the chemist, and while the work of Richardson and others
has indicated the necessity for further research along purely chemical
lines, it is nevertheless true that the tests which control the specifications
for the many bituminous road materials are physical tests. Mainly em
382
INTERPRETATION OF TESTS S$2
pineal, these tests have been gradually standardized as to method and

equipment so that in the United States, at least, they have a definite pro
cedure and can within certain limits be expected to demonstrate particular
qualities inherent in the materials and their suitability or unsuitability for
particular types of highway construction.
SEMI-SOLID ASPHALTS
In the construction of the higher type bituminous
pavements, such as
sheet asphalt and bituminous concrete, the harder asphalts are utilized. In
penetration macadam, the softer asphalts, viscous tars, and asphaltic emul
sions have all been employed as binding materials. The tests controlling
various specifications for asphalts will be first briefly discussed.
Asphalt Specifications. — Asphalts are usually described by specifi
cations so that the particular type and grade desired by the user can be
properly identified. The types which are most generally specified are
petroleum or oil asphalt, Bermudez asphalt, and Trinidad asphalt. The
grades in greatest demand and usually stocked bv producers are identified
by penetration and are 120-150, 100-120, 85-100, 60-70, 50-60, 40-50.
The higher the penetration, the softer the asphalt. The three higher
penetrations are generally used in penetration macadam, the choice being
dependent usually on climatic and traffic conditions. The lower pene
tration materials form the bituminous binders in bituminous concrete and
sheet asphalt construction. Typical specifications covering the various
tvpes in a grade suitable for graded bituminous concrete in southern
United States or northern United States, under heavy traffic or for sheet
asphalt in northern United States under light or moderate traffic are
TABLE I
Typical Asphalt Specifications
Petroleum
or Bermudez Trinidad
Oil Asphalt Asphalt Asphalt
Material AP-6-25 AB-6-25 AT-6-25
1. Specific gravity, 25°/25°C. Not less than 1.050—1.070 1.200—1.250
(77°/77°F.) 1.010
2. Flash point not less than 175°C. (347°F.) 175°C (347°F.) 175°C. (347°F.)
3. Softening point 40°C— 60°C. 45°C— 55°C. 4S°C— S5°C.
104°F.— 140°F. 113°K.— 131°F. 113°F.— 131°F.
4. Penetration at 25°C. (77°F.) not less
than 50—60 50— 60 50—60
5. Ductility at 25°C. (77°F.1 not less than 40 cms. 40 cms. 40 cms.
6. Loss at 163°C. (325°F.), 5 hrs., not
mo-e than 1.0 3.0 3.0
(a) Penetration of residue at 25°C,
100 gms., 5 sec., as compared to
penetration before heating, not less
than 60% 50% 50%
7. Bitumen soluble in CS„ not less than.... 99.5% 94.0% 68.0%
Oil Organic matter insoluble. .02%
(b) Inorganic matter insoluble, not
more than ...j. 2.5 — 4.0% 20.0 — 30.0%
In o-dcr to secure a uniform product for a given contract, the following requirements, type
and grade, a provision that the material shall not vary more than 10°C. in softening point from
the test limits specified in the above table nor more than .020 in specific gravtiy where no
maximum limit is specified, are often made a part of the specification.
given in Table I. Typical analyses of materials meeting these specifica

tions are shown in Table II.
TABLE II
Analysis of Typical Asphalts
Petroleum Fluxed
or Oil Asphalts Native Asphalts
Cali Colum Ber-
Mexican fornia bia Blended mudez Trinidad
Specific gravity, 25°/25°C _ _ 1.045 1.018 1.025 1.016 1.068 1.248
Flash point, Cleve. open cup (°C.) 249 277 315 263 185 207
Softening point, ring and ball (°C.) 55 4(, i2 59 51 56
Penetration at 25°C 53 59 57 53 60 59
Ductility at 25°C. (cms.) 110 + 110 + 110 + 59.5 42.4 40.5
Loss ]63°C, 5 hrs. 50 gms. (%) 0.05 0.15 0.04 0.19 1.2.! 0.46
(a) Penetration of residue at 25°C 41 42 49 49 43 43
(b) Original penetration (%) 77.3 71.2 86.0 92.4 70.2 72.8
Bitumen soluble in CS2 (%) 99.89 99.83 99.86 99.88 94.74 69.09
Organic matter insoluble (%) 0.09 0.09 0.12 0.12 2.07 4.40
Inorganic matter insoluble (%) 0.04 0.08 0.02 .5.1/ 26.51
Proportion bitumen insoluble in 86°B.
naphtha (%) 30.43 10.69 28.13 25.18 31.13
Fixed carbon (%) 16.22 8.78 13.12 14.16 11.18
Specific Gravity. —The specific gravity of

an asphalt when con
sidered in connection with the consistency of the material is of value in
identifying the type. If the petroleum asphalts are derived from the same
base petroleum the higher the specific gravity, the lower the penetration.
It is quite indicative of the uniformity of the products supplied from a
given source. In examining a series of samples of material to be used on
a large construction job, the agreement in the specific gravity values was
found to be surprisingly close. The grade of material was 50-60 penetra
tion. Seventy samples showed a specific gravity range of 1.019 to 1.026.
Three samples were over the penetration limit of 60 with specific grav
ities of 1.019 and 1.020 so that 67 tank cars of this material showed
a small density range of .006. The determination is not only a valuable
identification test, but it is also useful in making calculations needed for
proper control of proportions in bituminous construction. Purchases are
made on both a volume and weight basis, and the gravity is important in
changing from weight units to volume units, or from volume units to
weight units. Specific gravities at two different temperatures make it pos
sible to determine the coefficient of expansion of the asphalt, which is a
necessary factor in computing tank car measurements.
In order to compare the bitumen content of various bituminous aggre
gates, the specific gravity of the asphalt as well as the density of the min
eral aggregate must be considered. To accurately determine whether the
pavement has received the desired compression under the roller, the spe
cific gravity value of both the bitumen and aggregate must first be deter
mined in order to compute the maximum possible density of the mixture
and in turn the per cent of voids in the compressed pavement.
Flash Point. — The flash point values of asphalts are generally con
siderably above the minimum requirements given in Table I, except in the
case of the fluxed native asphalts. Lower refining temperatures and the
INTERPRETATION OF TESTS 385
presence of readily volatile matter in the flux are responsible for lower
flash point values for fluxed native asphalts. For a given type and grade
of asphalt the flash point will vary within narrow limits. Asphalts are
seldom heated over 325° F. (163° C.) in paving plants and the fire hazard
is very low.
Softening Point. —The determination of the softening point of
asphalts is purely an attempt to record the temperature at which the
material freely flows. Asphalts being a mixture of many different chem
ical compounds have no definite melting point. The standard method for
determining the softening point of asphalt is the ring and ball method.
Of two asphalts having the same penetration, the one with the lower
softening point generally is more susceptible to temperature change. As
phalts produced by blowing air through residual petroleums have, for the
same penetration, much higher softening points than steam distilled as
phalts, and are therefore less susceptible to temperature change.
The volume of traffic and climatic conditions are important factors to
consider in designating the penetration of the asphalt suitable for a par
ticular construction. For the same method of construction softer grades
of asphalts are generally selected for pavements in northern sections than
those that are preferred in southern sections. Heavy traffic roads require
the harder grades ; and pavements which serve only a moderate amount of
travel are best constructed with the softer grades of asphalt.
Penetration. — The susceptibility of asphalts to temperature change
may, perhaps, be better shown by the penetration values at various tem
peratures. The normal penetration temperature is 77° F. (25° C), the
weight of the needle 100 grams and the time 5 seconds. The other two
temperatures used are 46.1° C. (115° F.), the load being changed to 50
grams and the time remaining 5 seconds and 0° C. (32° F.) with a load
TABLE III
Effect of Variations in Temperatures on Penetrations of A sphalts
with Variable Load and Time
Temper California Mexican Blended Blown
ature Load Time Asphalt Asphalt Asphalt Asphalt
Deg. C. Grams Sec. Pen. Pen. Pen. Pen.
- 0 200 60 3 13 22 27
0 200 5 2 8 12 19
0 100 5 1 4 6 8
- 25 100 5 46 49 60 44
25 50 5 32 32 40 26
25 100 1 25 26 35 36
46 50 1 180 116 121 54
- 46 50 5 340 227 220 70
46 (a) 100 5 503 338 328 104
(a") Assuming that the same relation would hold between 50-gram and 100-
gram loadings as has been found to exist for various penetrations of same material
made at normal temperature. Factor used for California 1.48; for the Mexican and
blended 1.49; for the blown 1.63.
of 200 grams for 60 seconds. As a general rule, asphalts designed for use
as fillers are only tested at these three temperatures. However, informa
tion of great value to highway engineers could, no doubt, be obtained if
the asphalts used in the higher types of construction were tested in the
same way, or in some manner to definitely bring out the effect of tempera
ture on asphalts which have the same consistency at normal temperature
77° F. (25° C).
A study of Tables III
and IV will show some very interesting relation
ships. In Table IV the load and time are constant for the three tem
peratures.
TABLE IV
Penetrations at Three Temperatures ; Time S Seconds,
Load 100 Grams
California Mexican Blended Blown
Temp. Asphalt Asphalt Asphalt Asphalt
0°C 1 4 6 8
25°C 46 49 60 44
46°C. (1) 503 338 328 104
(1) As in Table 3, values are calculated.
It will be readily seen that California asphalt shows the greatest sus
ceptibility to temperature changes as measured by the penetration at the
three temperatures. The penetration at 25° C. is 46 times greater than
at 0° C, and the penetration at 46° C. is 12.4 times the penetration at
25° C. For the Mexican asphalt the 25° C. penetration is 12.25 times
0° C. penetration, and at 46° C. it is 6.9 times the value of 25° C. For
the blended, the 25° C. penetration is 10 times the 0° C, and the 46° C.
is 5.4 times the 25° C. penetration. The behavior of the blown asphalt
clearly shows why this material is particularly desirable for use alone as a
filler. It has a very low susceptibility, the penetration at 46° C. being just
13 times the penetration at 0° C. or about the same relationship as exists
between the 0° C. and 25° C. penetrations for Mexican asphalt and be
tween the 25° C. and 46° C. penetrations for the California asphalt.
The importance of the susceptibility of various asphalt to temperature
changes has not been thoroughly appreciated by highway engineers. The
effect of too soft an asphalt in a pavement is somewhat similar to that
caused by too much asphalt. Some years ago the Bureau of Public Roads
built a number of test sections of sheet asphalt and bituminous concrete,
among which were the following variables. The consistencies, as meas
ured by the penetration, of the asphalts used were 45, 55, 65, 78 and 85.
The amount of asphalts varied from what was obviously insufficient to
what was undoubtedly an excess. These pavement sections were con
structed early in the fall and immediately subjected to traffic. As long
as the air temperature was below 65° F. there was no effect on the sur
faces. The pavement was perfectly rigid. When air temperature reached
80° F. the sections in which the softer penetration asphalt and high per
centages of asphalts were used began to show evidence of shoving and
rutting. The maximum pavement temperature in any of these sections

was 140° F., corresponding to a maximum air temperature of approx
imately 100° F. The sections having high penetration asphalt as binder,
and high percentage of bitumen, showed the greatest movements. With
the return of colder weather all the sections again became rigid. Undoubt
edly the susceptibility of asphalts to temperature change is an important
factor in the road behavior of the higher type bituminous pavements, yet
most specifications for oil asphalts are so written that no provision is
made for securing an asphalt which has the susceptibility range best suited
to the particular climate and construction.
Ductility. — The ductility requirement is not present in all specifi
cations for asphalts. It is usually omitted for the softer grades. In this
day of more careful refining technique the minimum of 40 centimeters
called for in the specification of Table I is very liberal. Many asphalts
produced from various bases have ductilities in excess of the length of
the machine in which the test is run. A few laboratories have ductility ma
chines capable of recording pulls of two hundred centimeters. The
majority of the testing laboratories are limited to machines 100 centimeters
in length. To properly compare the ductility value of the different grades
and types, two suggestions have at various times been made. The standard
temperature for making this test is 25° C. The rate of pull is 5 centi
meters a minute. It has, therefore, been suggested that the temperature
be lowered to a point where all the ductility values are within the range of
the 100 centimeter machine. The! other suggestion is that the rate of pull
be increased which will cause a number of materials to break within 100
centimeters. Some specifications require that the ductility be made at
4° C. and 1.5° C. Many asphalts having high ductility at 25° C. are brit
tle at the low temperature. Short materials or materials of low ductility
at 25° C. may retain a relatively high ductility at the lower temperature.
The ductility test has been severely criticized by some bituminous
authorities and defended by others. Highly adhesive materials are very
ductile, and, until such time as a satisfactory test for adhesiveness is de
veloped, the ductility test will undoubtedly remain in the specifications.
Where the pavements constructed with asphalt are subjected to exceed
ingly heavy traffic, a high ductility is demanded. It is also worthy of note
that where climatic conditions are very moist, those engineers and chem
ists observing the road behavior have held that high ductility asphalt has
proven most serviceable.
Volatilization Loss. — It has, at times, been contended that the

volatilizationtest at 163° C. is too severe,and that it subjects the ma
terial under test to changes that would not occur under ordinary condi
tions of exposure. This is to some extent true of semi-solid asphalts; but
there are few carefully prepared asphalts, oil or native, which cannot
successfully meet the specification requirements for this test. Few oil
asphalts will lose as much as one per cent after five hours in the 163° C.
oven, and the consistency or penetration of the residue is usually well over
60 per cent of the original penetration.
If, however, an asphalt did have an excessively high loss and the pene
tration after heating was low, it is very probable that it would harden
materially when distributed in thin films over the mineral aggregate in
the mixing box at the paving plant. This would be especially true if the
stone and sand were slightly overheated.
It has been definitely established that semi-solid asphalts in relatively
thin layers harden in many cases without an appreciable loss of volatile
matter when exposed to air and light. If a sample, prepared for the
penetration test, is allowed to stand exposed to light and air in the labora
tory, it will gradually become harder as measured by the penetration test,
but on reheating and cooling to test temperature, returns to the original
penetration. The thin hardened skin on remelting and mixing does not
materially lower the penetration of the entire mass.
Asphalt, used as seal, undoubtedly does harden rapidly on continued
exposure ; but the examination of a large number of sheet asphalt and
bituminous concrete pavements after 10 to 15 years' service, indicated that
there was not a very great hardening of the asphalt in these more dense
surfaces. The penetration of the extracted bitumen was generally very
close to the original penetration reported when the material was used.
This is in spite of the fact that the consistencies on extraced bitumens
tend to run low because of the prolonged heating necessary to remove the
last traces of solvent used in extracting them. The relatively large volume
of mineral aggregate protects the asphalt in the mix from the light and
air which so rapidly harden surface films of pure asphalts.
Solubility in CS2. — By definition, asphalts are bitumens and are
distinguished by their solubility in carbon disulphide. A carefully pre
pared petroleum asphalt is nearly completely soluble in carbon disulphide.
The native asphalts, because of first, their origin, and second, the dif
ficulty of removing all the organic and mineral impurities during refining
are not as soluble in carbon disulphide as the petroleum asphalts. The
amount of both organic and inorganic matter insoluble in carbon disulphide
is kept within fairly narrow limits in fluxed native asphalts and will gen
erally fall within the minimum and maximum values of the specification
shown in Table I.
When Trinidad asphalt is used in sheet asphalt or bituminous concrete
construction, the plant proportions must be altered to adjust for the high
inorganic matter which acts as a filler. The per cent of asphalt is in
creased and the usual amount of limestone or cement filler decreased in
order to compensate for the high percentage of mineral matter present in
the asphalt cement.
Before refining processes reached their present high efficiency, many
oil asphalts showed a high percentage of organic insoluble in carbon disul
phide. This was due to incipient cracking, and it has been considered
that a high carbon disulphide insoluble, accompanied by a high insoluble
in carbon tetrachloride, indicates that the material had been injured. Many
specifications include a determination for carbenes (organic insoluble in
carbon tetrachloride) as well as the carbon disulphide solubility, but a
high organic insoluble with carbon disulphide in petroleum products, usu
ally points to a high percentage of carbenes. Therefore, both determina
tions are often not included in the same specification. In some specifica
tions the organic insoluble clause is eliminated and in its place a require
ment of 99.0 or 99.5 per cent solubility in either carbon tetrachloride or
carbon disulphide is substituted.
Several tests, such as the per cent of bitumen soluble in 86° naphtha,
fixed carbon, and paraffin scale are not called for in most asphalt specifi
cations. The first two are purely identification tests. Materials meeting
the requirements of the usual asphalt specifications have definite per
centages of both asphaltcnes and fixed carbon, which are typical of the
particular petroleum from which the asphalt is produced. The paraffin
scale test has been the subject of much controversy ; first, because of the
inaccuracy involved in methods proposed for its determination ; second,
because the injurious effects of the so-called paraffin scale in asphalt on
the road building properties of the asphalt have never been substantially
proven.
FLUID ASPHALTIC MATERIALS
The first employment of liquid bituminous materials began with the
introduction of the automobile, when they were employed as dust pal
liatives to allay the dust stirred up by the faster moving rubber tired
vehicles. Then came the development of the surface mat-forming treat
ments in which both hot and cold applications of asphaltic material were
used to protect the underlying macadam from the wear and tear of traffic.
At the present time there are numerous types of low-cost road surfaces
employing fluid bituminous materials of many different characteristics and
degrees of consistency or fluidity. Double surface treatments, oiled earth,
sand mixed-in-place, retread, oil processed, blotter treatment, oiled macad
am and many other locally named surfaces are built and maintained with
various grades of these fluid products.
The fluid asphaltic products are derived from crude asphaltic, semi-
asphaltic and, in some rare cases, highly paraffin petroleums, topped and
residual petroleums, cut-back asphalts, blends of topped and residual
petroleum with cracking coil residues, and cracking coil residues of a
satisfactory fluidity or viscosity.
The specifications governing semi-solid asphalts are well standardized ;
but the specifications and tests controlling the quality, the characteristics
and use of the fluid asphaltic materials are quite varied, even in neighbor
ing states.
Nevertheless, the following laboratory tests are usually found in the
majority of specifications, and, like the tests for the semi-solid asphalts,
they attempt to discover the original character of the material and its prob
able behavior under traffic:
1. test at 25° C, 50° C. or 100° C.

The viscosity
2. Loss is 163° C, or additional temperature, with consistency test
on the residue.
3. The per cent of residue of a specified penetration, with a ductility
test on the residue.
4. Distillation test with consistency tests, float or penetration and
ductility test on the residue.
These tests, within certain limits, show the original character of the
material, the amount of volatile matter it may lose, the rate of volatiliza
tion, the amount of residue after drying, and the consistency and adhesive
ness of the residual bituminous material.
Viscosity. — The viscosity of fluid asphaltic materials may be run
with either the Engler 01* the Saybolt Furol viscosimeter. Furol viscosity
in seconds may be roughly estimated as four times the Engler specific
viscosity for the same temperature. The specifications state the instru
ment to be used and the temperature at which the determination is to be
made. The temperatures at which the viscosity is determined are often
not the same for the identical materials in different states.
The temperature of applying the material on the road controls the
specification temperature in one state, while the ease of making the test
and the need for expediting the laboratory routine govern the selection
of the test temperature in other states. At higher temperatures, the time
consumed in making the determination is greatly reduced. Thus similar
materials are run at 25° C. (77° F.), 40° C. (104° F.). 50° C. (122° F.)
and 60° C. (140° F-) by various state laboratories. No accurate com
parison of viscosities at these different temperatures can be made, since
the rate of change in viscosity for change in temperature is not constant
for road oils from various sources.
The following table, showing viscosities at four temperatures for cer
tain grades of road oil, will illustrate the difficulties involved in con
verting values from one temperature to another when the factor for the
particular product is not known.
TABLE V
Effect of Temperature on Viscosity
SpecificViscosity Engler at
Material 25°C. 40°C. 50°C. lOCC.
California residual 80.6 24.6 14.5
*
California residual * 94.6 41.4 3.6
36.0 15.0 9.0 *
82.3 29.0 16.2
Wyoming * 51.3 28.3 27
residual .
Wyoming residual .
* 85.9 37.8 2.9
California residual 111.8 37.7 20.6
California residual * 137.9 65.9 4.9
Naphtha cut-back . . 112.0 31.0 * *
* *
Naphtha cut-back . 62.0 34.0
cut-back * 79.0 *
Kerosene 167.0
Kerosene cut-back * 212.0 95.0 *
*Test not run at this temperature.
The required viscosity of a material for a given purpose depends upon

the character of the surface to be treated, climatic conditions and the
construction equipment available. A dust palliative should be fluid enough
to secure rapid penetration into the road surface without appreciable resi
due. In surface treatment work, the bituminous material should remain
on the surface and accordingly, extremely low viscosities which permit
the road oil to penetrate the road surface are avoided. In repair work,
the cold patch materials can be more viscous if the mix is made by ma
chine. If hand-mixed material and stock piled for partial hardening, the
lower viscosities prove more desirable. A more fluid product is needed
for road mixes than for plant mixes. A more viscous material is prefer
able in coarse aggregate type road-mix where the aggregate is of an open
grading.
In hot surface treatment, the bituminous material should have suf
ficient body and adhesiveness to hold the cover stone immediately when
placed with small or no loss of volatile so that many specifications not
only include a viscosity requirement at 100° C, but also have a float test
requirement on the original material. In one state the specification calls
for the application of the hot surface asphalt at a temperature close to
150° C. and the specific viscosity Engler is from 12-17.5 at 150° C. Be
cause of the character of the mineral aggregate, the low viscosity at time
of application is undoubtedly a distinct advantage in this particular con
struction.
Volatilization Loss. — The laboratory determination of the amount
of volatile matter the road oil may be expected to lose on exposure can be
done in two ways. An evaporation test, loss at 163° C. for five hours, and
a distillation test are both valuable for this purpose. Often specifications
call for an additional volatilization test at a lower temperature as an indi
cation of the speed of drying.
TABLE VI
Comparison of 50 and 20 Gram Losses at 163°C. in Various Road Oil.
50 Gram Sample- -20 Gram Sample -~
Consistency Test Consii itency Test
on Residue on Residue
Float Test Penetra Float Te st Penetra
Loss 50°C. tion Loss SO'C. tion
Material Per Cent Seconds 25°C. Per Cent Second s 2S°C
0.37 136 0.77 177
California 80-85 road oil.. 0.44 192 0.95 240

Hot surface treatment oil. . 0.73 122 1.49 210
2.29 202 3.84 341
5.65 68 9.12 116
11.55 16 17.65 43
10.90 20 19.20 49
24.10 117 25.50 58
22.10 164 23.50 101
26.20 78 27.30 44
26.60 67 27.70 42
The standard A. S. T. M. method for the volatilization test calls for

a 50 gram sample ; but many states, while using this size sample for semi
solid asphaltic materials, have retained the old 20 gram sample for fluid
materials. In reporting the loss at 163° C, the size of sample should al
ways be stated. The material in the 20 gram container has a smaller
depth and greater cross-section, and the loss and degree of hardening are
much more pronounced. In the case of highly volatile cut-backs, the
agreement in per cent loss is quite close, but the difference m hardness of
residue is very evident. If possible, consistency tests on the residue should
always be made.
Distillation. — The distillation test by several methods has been
substituted for the volatilization test in many cut-back specifications, and
it has been suggested for general use for all types and grades of road
oils. It gives a better picture of the material under examination than the
volatilization test. Two materials may lose the same amount of volatile
matter in the oven tests, but the distillation will show that in one case the
distillate will come over at lower temperature than in the other case. The
material with a greater per cent of distillate in the low temperature frac
tions should develop cementing value much sooner than where the greater
proportion of distillate is in the higher temperature fractions.
A material whose residue is fluid in one test will be fluid in the other,
and a semi-solid residue will be obtained from both determinations if the
material under test is a rapid curing cut-back. There is considerable
hardening of the residue not due to loss of volatile oils in the oven tests,
and this does not take place to the same extent during a distillation. Con
sistency tests (float or penetration), ductility test and carbon disulphide
solubility are made on residues from distillation.
Road oils suitable for surface treatment, cold patching and road-mix
construction, with open graded aggregates, should lose most of their
volatile and develop a residue of good cementing value. Dust palliatives
should have a low loss and the residue should have little binding value.
Road oils used in mixed-in-place work where mineral aggregate is high
in fines should show a slow drying tendency, and, where the development
of cementing value is low, these roads can be successfully machine main
tained. Where cut-backs are used in road-mix construction with fine or
graded aggregates, the presence of considerable volatile matter in the pave
ment, as laid down for traffic, produces surface crusting and the hard
surface cannot be successfully maintained by machine.
The per cent residue of 80 or 100 penetration for road oils appears in
many specifications. The road oil is heated between temperatures of 249°
C. to 260° C. until a residue of the desired penetration is obtained. While
many cut-backs will come down to the required penetration with one-half
hour heating, there are many materials being used in road work which
require many hours heating at this high temperature to produce a residue
of the consistency wanted. In one case, a mid-west residual took 42
hours heating to attain the penetration of 100.
Where the fluid material is spread so that comparatively thin films are
exposed to light and air, there is unquestionably a hardening which is
due to the loss of the volatile parts of the road oil ; but slow and medium
drying oils, which are placed either by penetration or admixture below
the road surface and are protected from atmospheric action, will take
many years to come to a semi-solid condition. Oils extracted from sam
ples obtained from oil processed roads of the west and the oil earth roads
of Illinois after three and four years in the road were still decidedly fluid.
If a time limit, within which a road oil should, under the conditions
of the test, come to a specified consistency, is stipulated, the test might
prove of great value for identification of road oils where a variable source
of supply and non-uniformity of blends vitally affect the road behavior of
the mixes in which these materials are used. Nevertheless, it is probable
that even in this case the test is of little, value in actually predicting the
serviceability of a particular road oil.
Identification Tests. — Other tests appearing in many specifica
tions are largely used as means of identification and are as follows: 1.
Specific gravity. 2. Flash point. 3. Solubility in carbon disulphide. 4.
'Solubility in naphtha. 5. Fixed carbon. 6. Paraffin scale.
It will be seen that with the exception of the per cent of residue of a
given penetration and the distillation tests, the materials are defined in
about the same way as the semi-solid asphalt.
The specific gravity test on fluid asphaltic materials is not as indicative
of the source of the material as is this test with the semi-solid materials.
This is because blends and cut-backs may vary greatly in gravity of com
ponents. As a control test, however, for a number of shipments of the
same grade of road oil, the determination is valuable.
The flash point determination has been thought by some to give an
idea of the probable volatility of the light oils in a road oil. This is not
always the case, since a very little of a light naphtha can lower the flash
point considerably, yet the greater part of the volatile material may be of
such a character that the material may prove to be exceedingly slow dry
ing. The flash point test, however, should give the field man some idea as
to what temperature the road oil can be safely heated. The flash point
determination is dependent on the type of tester in which the test is made.
The values for closed cup are lower than the values for open cup. In
reporting the flash point temperature the instruments used for making
the test should be stated.
The solubility in 86° naphtha and fixed carbon tests when run on
topped or residual petroleum can be used to identify the source. Those
road oils having little or no naphtha insoluble (asphaltenes) can hardly
be expected to develop a great amount of adhesiveness.
The paraffin scale requirement is even of more doubtful value in a
road oil specification than in an asphalt specification. The clause setting
a maximum of two per cent paraffin is included in many of the far west
specifications covering road oil for use in oil processing. These oils have
TABLE VII
Analyses of Typical Road Oils

+
85-100 100-120 94
60- 70 60-70 60-70 A. C. A. C. Road Oil
45% Road Koad Road Naphtha Kerosene Kerosene
Road Oil Oil Od Cutback Cutback Cutback
Name of Materia] Oil Road Road Road Surface Road Road
Material Used As Prime Mix Mix Mix Treatment Mix Mix
.943 .957 .956 .965 .942 .977 .967
Flash point, open cup (°C.) 91 161 141 132 30 85 84
o
Spec, viscosity, Engler, 25° 35.0

Spec, viscosity, Engler, 40° 15.0 100.5 135.8 62.0
CCC
Spec, viscosity, Engler, 50° 9.0 78.5 53.6 62.3 34.0 57.0 95
o
S
.
Loss 163° C, hrs., 20 gms. (per cent). 25.13 5.01 8.11 11.37 25.9 21.8 15.9
)
Float test on residue, 50° C. sec. 30 28 37 48
(C
Penetration on residue, 25° 56 139 199
5
.
Loss 163° C. hrs., 50 gms. (per cent) 15.40 3.24 6.00 6.95 25.3 16.3 12.8
11
Float test on residue, 50° C. (sec.).... 26 30 27 102
C
o b CO
Penetration on residue, 25° 104 110
in
.
.
Soluble carbon disulphide (per cent) 99.93 99.85 99.95 99.88 99.91 99.75 99.86
Organic matter insoluble (per cent) 0.07 0.11 0.04 0.08 0.07 0,23 0.11
Inorganic matter insoluble (per cent).... 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.03
in
Bitumen insoluble 86° B. naphtha (pel 13.30 7.50 12.60 11.30 15.52 17.51 10.05
to *J
51.4 62.5 64.3 63.2 73.8 75.3 76.7

5
52.4 45.8 45.2 46.3 48.4 44.0 45.7

en
110+ 110+ 110+ 110+ 110+ 110+ 110+

to
C.
Ductility of residue, 1.5" (cms.) 7.2 4.5 4.7 5.2 6.4 7.0 4.8
:
Simplified distillation
,
Total percentage by volume to 150° C. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 0.0
,
C
Penetration of residue, 25° 82
Float test of residue, 50° C. (sec.) 133 33 42 65 236 204
Ductility of residue, 25" C. (cms.) 110+
exceedingly slow drying properties and it is improbable that the presence

of paraffin scale would retard the development of any binding properties,
yet its presence in the road oil may decidedly improve the water resist
ing properties of the road mixture.
Simplification. — The greatest drawback to a systematic and com
plete study of the bituminous work being done throughout the country in
which fluid asphaltic materials are used, has been the variation in tests
methods and specifications controlling these products in the several states.
The United States Bureau of Public Roads and the Asphalt Institute have
secured the cooperation of the states and producers in testing all the
liquid asphaltic products according to their own method and according to
the simplified scheme of analysis given in a following section.
A partial study of the results of this cooperative project seems to
show that the proposed tests are reliable, that the producer and state test
ing laboratories check very well ; and that an adequate indication of the
probable behavior of the material on the road may be secured by means
of these tests. It is believed that this simplified system of testing will
show the original consistency and workability of the material, the speed
of drying (rate volatile matter is lost) and will give an indication of the
consistency of the material which will ultimately make up the finished
surface.
Analyses of typical road oils, tested according to the methods hereto
fore generally used and including the proposed simplified distillation test,
are given in Table V II. The Furol viscosities in seconds of the materials
at the designated temperatures may be approximately considered as four
times the specific viscosity Engler values given.
ROAD TARS
Road tars produced from gas-house, coke-oven, water-gas or similar
tars are being used in practically the same kind of bituminous road con
struction as asphaltic products, except hot mix, fine and coarse graded
bituminous concrete, and sheet asphalt.
Tars for cold application are designated under the following grades* :
Specific viscosity Engler at 40° C. being the measure of the consistency
5 to 8, 8 to 13, 13 to 18, 18 to 25, 25 to 35, 35 to 45. The 5 to 8 grade
is only used for priming purposes where the surface to be primed is ex-
*Mr. Geo. Martin, Consulting Engineer, General Tarvia Dept., The Barrett Company, com
ments, by way of clarification on specific gravity and grades of material as follows:
(1) It might cause some difficulty if a statement were made that the specific gravity is not
an important part of the specifications. Wre agree that it is not an important part from the
standpoint of the use of the material on the road hut it is an important factor as an identifica
tion of the way in which the material is made up.
(2) You state that Mr. Lewis did not discuss any of the tar materials having a specific
viscosity at 40 deg. C. of more than 45. This of course was due probably to the fact that the
Bureau of Public Roads specification does not cover materials of this sort. However, a great
many of the states have used materials in the range of specific viscosity at 40 deg. C. of 45 to 90.
These materials are used quite largely in the construction of road-mix or re-tread surfaces and
tars of this sort are an important factor in highway construction work. In this connection there
is a movement to change the temperature at which the specific viscosity of these materials are
e'êciêd and to set the specific viscosity at 50 deg. C. with a range running from 16 to 36
divided into two parts — one 16-22 and another 26-36. This is being done because there is
some doubt of the accuracy of the 40 deg. C. test on these stiffer materials and it also saves
considerable time in the laboratory.
ceedingly dense. The 8 to 13 grade is more extensively employed for

priming applications ; and in some rare cases, the 13 to 18 grade has given
excellent results as a primer on sand clay surfaces. The more viscous
materials or the heavier grades are better adapted for surface treatments.
Unless the weather is so cold that the grade 35 to 45 is rendered too
viscous to distribute properly over the road surface, even this material
can be distributed without heating.
Refined tar for hot application has a consistency of 60-150 seconds
as measured by the float test at 32° C. This material can be used in the
surface treatment of bituminous macadam, and gravel roads with or with
out a primer coat to form a wearing mat or carpet. It has been success
fully used as binder in plant-mix pavements of the coarse open graded
type.
Two grades of tar for repair work have been produced by fluxing
refined gas-house, coke-oven, or water-gas tars with suitable tar dis
tillates. The two grades most commonly used are 35 to 60 and 60 to 80
as measured by the specific viscosity Engler at 40° C. These materials
have been successfully used to repair surface breaks, holes, and depres
sions In bituminous macadam and surface treated roads, either by direct
surface application followed by cover stone or by pre-mixing with stone
and sand. L'nder favorable temperature conditions the heavier grade may
not require heating.
The heavier, more viscous tars are prepared from suitable water-gas
tars or from suitable gas-house and coke-oven tars. There are several
grades, the measure of consistency of these materials being the float test
at 50° C. The usual grades are 100 to 160, 130 to 190. 160 to 220. These
products are employed mainly in the construction of bituminous macadam
and the consistency specified is governed by climatic conditions and traffic.
Tar Specifications. — The important characteristics of these tars,

which determine their suitability for various constructions, are the same
for all. grades and are as follows:
1. Consistency:
Viscosity for the cold surface treatment tars and repair tars.
Float tests at 32° C. for the hot surface treatment tars.
Float test at 50° C. for the construction tars.
2. Bitumen content :
Material soluble in carbon disulphide.

3. Amount of residue or pitch together with the volatile and inter
mediate constituents.
4. The character of the residue as determined by the softening point
test.
the source of the tar,
The specific gravity, while helpful in identifying
if the refined product is not a blend, is not especially important. The
density of most fluid asphaltic products and a few semisolid asphaltic
products is generally under 1,000; while all tar products, whether fluid
or semisolid, used in road construction have densities over 1,000. The

higher the free carbon content the higher the density ; straight run water
gas tars have lower specific gravity values than straight run coke oven
tars. Straight gas house tars have the highest densities and show the high
est per cent of free carbon. A small amount of water is not considered
detrimental in the tars not usually heated, and a maximum of two per cent
is usually permitted by specifications.
The viscosity of tars is determined by the Engler viscosimeter. The
Saybolt Furol viscosimeter has not, as yet, been adopted for the control
of tar products. The tars are more susceptible to change in consistency
due to temperature change than asphalt or road oils.
TABLE VIII
Specific Viscosity', Engler, of Fluid Tar and Road Oil
at 3 Temperatures
Material 25° C. 50° C. 100" C.
Tar 195.3 19.4 2.31
'
Road Oil 111.8 18.6 2.59
The two materials have practically identical viscosities at 50° C, but

at 25° C. the tar is considerably more viscous and at 100° C, slightly
more fluid than the road oil.
Float Test. — The float test is only used to determine consistency
of asphaltic materials when the sample is too soft for the penetration
test, or too viscous for the viscosity test. The surface of a tar prepared
for the penetration test deforms under the weight of the needle, result
ing in an inaccurate penetration value. The penetration test is, therefore,
used only on very hard tar pitches not commonly used in road work. The
float test is especially adapted to the control of tars because the presence
of a large amount of inert material, known as free carbon, does not seri
ously affect the accuracy of the determination.
There are still some specifications for tars in which the consistency
is controlled by the softening point determination. The cube in water
melting point method has been, until recently, quite generally used by the
tar industry to measure the consistency of the original material and the
residue obtained from the distillation test. The heavier grades of tars used
in penetration macadam construction are designated, generally, by a float
test at 50° C. and, in some specifications, by the softening point by the
ring and ball, or the cube in water methods.
Bitumen Content. — The solubility in carbon disulphide is prob
ably of more importance in the testing of tars than for asphalt products.
In tars, there is a large amount of inert organic matter held in suspension,
which is of no value as binder. This material, which is insoluble in carbon
disulphide, is often called free carbon; but the fact that a considerable
portion of this substance is soluble in other organic solvents, notably py
ridine, indicates that free carbon constitutes only a portion of the organic
TABLE IX
Relationship Existing Between Float Tests at 50° C. and
Softening Points by Both Methods
Float Test 50° C. Softening Point
Per Cent Cube in Water Ring and Ball
Seconds Free Carbon Deg. C. Deg. C.
1. 270 18.20 49.7 40.0
2. 232 17.20 47.0 36.0
3. 198 22.60 44.5 35.0
4. 180 13.26 42.5 33.7
5. 159 11.84 41.0 32.7
6. 140 2.40 40.5 29.0
7. 122 3.90 39.5 28.0
8. 111 13.90 37.0 26.7
9. 100 3.60 34.5 22.5
10. 93 2.22 34.0 21.5
matter insoluble in carbon disulphide. This material is present in smaller

amounts in water-gas tar, and in greater amounts in gas-house tar. Due
to its high percentage of free carbon, gas-house tar alone is seldom used
in road tars. On distilling and on drying on the road, the free carbon
concentrates in the residue, reducing the adhesiveness of the pitch and
producing brittleness. It is claimed that in certain types of tar aggregates,
the free carbon in the tar acts as a filler in the same manner as limestone
dust or portland cement and serves to increase the mechanical strength
of the bituminous mixture. In the more fluid grades of road tar, the speci
fications make no distinction between water-gas tar or blends of water-
gas tar with coke-oven and gas-house tar, allowing a maximum of 10 per
cent free carbon for cold surface treatment and 15 per cent free carbon
for hot surface treatment. In specifying heavy construction tars and re
pair tars, the engineer may specify water-gas tar or a refined coke-oven
or gas-house tar, the former having not more than 5 per cent free-carbon
and the latter from 5 to 20 per cent free carbon. While many chemists
and highwav engineers have attempted to set certain limits for allowable
amount of free carbon in various grades of tars ; there is still considerable
difference of opinion as to what amount will prove excessive for satis
factory road behavior.
Distillation. — The distillation test is generally made according to
the standard A. S. T. M. method, which provides for the following
fractions :
0—170° C.
170—235° C.
235—270° C.
270—300° C.
The distillation results are reported on a weight basis. The total
amount of distillate to 300° C. is greatest in the cold surface treatment
materials and least in the heavy construction tars.
For cold application materials, the amount of distillate should be well
X
TABLE
Analyses of Typical Road Tars
Carbon Disulphide
Solubility Distillation by Weight
Float Test
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Material ca &ccn c/:W

I* rn
Cold surface treatment tar
Water-gas tar 1.095 15.5 99.04 0.93 0.03 0.23 8.63 16.73 10.45 64.01 35
Cold surface treatment tar
Low carbon content (a)... 1.131 12.2 95.03 3.90 0.07 2.21 7.38 11.00 7.90 71.60 43
Hot surface treatment tar
O
Water-gas tar 1.145 138.5 58.5 98.00 1.73 0.27 0.0 1.20 8.84 9.79 79.40 52
Hot surface treatment tar
Refined tar 1.208 189 62.0 88.73 11.27 0.0 0.0 0.67 7.18 5.64 86.20 49
Si to
Tar for repair work
Water-gas tar 1.128 66.2 98.22 1.64 0.14 0.82 7.18 6.59 8.78 76.46 41
Tar for repair work
Refined tar 1.168 53.0 85.40 13.56 0.04 1.72 12.07 4.54 4.21 77.31 57
Tar for consturction
Water-gas tar 1.156 (.77 141 34 95.74 2.99 0.27 0.0 0.0 2.60 5.98 91.72 48
Tar for construction
High carbon tar 1.242 1.167 157 32 80.54 19.33 0.13 0.0 0.41 3.64 5.30 90.50 57
(a) Material contained 2.1 per cent water. Distillation and solibility on water free basis.
distributed in all the fractions and the resulting pitch residue should not
have too high a softening point. These materials being used in mat and
carpet forming treatments should not become brittle by too rapid drying
or by developing too hard a pitch residue, yet sufficient cementiousness
should develop to hold the cover stone.
Hot surface treatment materials, since they have sufficient binding
value at time of application, should not have a high percentage of dis
tillates in the lower fractions and the residue should not have a high soft
ening point.
Cold patch or repair tars are normally pitches cut back with fairly
volatile distillate. The lower fractions should show a considerable pro
portion of the solvent distillate, and, since these products are usually used
in prepared mixes, a harder pitch residue may be desirable.
In the construction tars, the amount of distillate in the first two frac
tions should not be great. This material has sufficient body to adequately
bind the mineral aggregate and since the bulk of the material coating the
stones is not in direct contact with light and sun, the softening point of
the pitch residue need not be as low as in the surface treatment tars.
Many tar specifications provide a maximum limit for per cent of dis
tillate up to 170° C, and a maximum softening point for the residue from
distillation. In case of tars being used as primes, minimum values cov
ering these two requirements might prove advantageous in those cases
where the time of drying of the primer on the road should be hastened.
Analyses of typical road tars are given in Table X.
BITUMINOUS EMULSIONS
The earliest use of bituminous emulsions in this country was as dust
palliatives. Fluid petroleums were emulsified, and the emulsion further
diluted with a considerable volume of water. This procedure was gen
erally accomplished in the tank of the old type water cart and the road
way sprinkled to allay the dust. The macadam roads of many park sys
tems were treated in this maimer.
For many years asphaltic emulsions have been used in maintenance
work for the repairing of breaks and holes in surface treated roads and
bituminous macadam roads. More recently these products have been em
ployed in the cold surface treatment of various types and in the construc
tion of roads of the penetration macadam type. Some construction by the
mixed-in-place method has also been done. The advantages claimed for
asphaltic emulsions are the elimination of heating costs on the job to
render material sufficiently fluid for the required purpose, and the lower
cost resulting from the use of water with emulsirier for thinning the
asphalt instead of expensive volatile solvents.
In the process of manufacturing emulsions, asphalts are agitated in
water at high temperatures mechanically, or by steam in the presence of an
emulsifying agent, such as soap, clay or other emulsifiers. In some cases,
caustic alkali and a fatty acid are added directly to the asphalt and hot
water to produce the soap, which in turn forms a film on the surface of
the minute particles of bitumen. The function of this soap film is to in
sulate the particles of bitumen by counteracting the molecular forces
which tend to reunite the dispersed particles causing coagulation. The
more minute the oil particles, the more permanent the emulsion; and as
phalt emulsions, at the present time, remain in a state of complete emul-
sification for longer periods, and are able to withstand lower temperatures
than the earlier emulsions on the market.
Characteristics. — The important characteristics of an asphaltic
emulsion, which can be determined by laboratory tests are :
1. Permanency
2. Homogeneity
3. Viscosity
4. The rate of break
5. Water
6. Amount and character of asphalt
1 he permanency of an asphaltic emulsion cannot be accurately meas
ured, but some comparative data can be secured which will form some
guide as to storing properties of a given grade. After allowing a definite
quantity of emulsion to stand in closed container, a determination of the
asphalt content of the upper layer (one-tenth of total volume) and of
the lower layer of equal volume, will indicate whether or not the material
is undergoing change.
The homogeneity may be determined by passing a predetermined quan
tity of emulsion over a wire screen and weighing the residue held by the
screen. There should be no appreciable residue remaining on the screen.
The rate of break is an important factor in the selection of an emulsion
for a particular purpose. Surface treatments and penetration macadam
require a material which will rapidly lose its water and quickly develop
the adhesive properties possessed by the asphaltic material present in
emulsion. Emulsions suitable for repair work must have a retarded break,
so that the material can be mixed with mineral aggregates, handled and
placed in the road before the emulsion is broken. The ideal break for
road mix construction will depend to a great extent on the character and
fineness of the material aggregates present in the road surfaces.
Rate of Break Tests. — There are three methods which have been
considered for determining the rate of break. The filter paper test, which
records the time in seconds necessary for the water present in the emulsion
to travel from a ring of the poured emulsion to an outer concentric circle
drawn on the filter paper. The test is not easily checked because of the
non-uniform texture of the filter paper and the varying humidity of the
laboratory ; and is unsuitable for the heavier grades of emulsions.
The McKesson basket test has possibilities, but the surface quality and
size of stone used could not readily be made standard for the entire coun
try. Stone is coated with bituminous emulsion and after a stated period
the emulsion which has not broken is washed off. The asphalt from that
portion of the emulsion broken is determined by drying and weighing the

stone.
The calcium chloride test, developed by Mr. Meyers of the New York
State Highway laboratory depends on the fact that a solution of 35 c.c.
of .02 normal calcium chloride will cause about 100 per cent coagulation
of the asphalt in an emulsion which has no soap emulsifying agent pres
ent. As the amount of soap emulsifying1 agent is increased, the coagulat
ing power of the same quantity of .02 normal calcium chloride is reduced.
It is maintained by those thoroughly familiar with emulsions that the
rate of break is controlled to a great extent by the amount of emulsifying
agent present in the emulsion. The more emulsifier present the slower
the break. Whether or not this calcium chloride test will give comparable
results, when an emulsifier other than soap is used, is problematical.
The viscosity is of importance when the material is to be applied by
distributor, or when penetration of void space is desired. A free flowing
material is necessary for penetration and surface treatment construction.
A low viscosity is not as essential for use in mixes and' repair work.
The fluidity of an emulsion
is,
to certain extent, dependent on the
water content of the emulsion. The amount a
of water in those emulsions
used in cold patch work less and the asphalt content more than in those
is
products applied directly to the road. always advisable to make a

It
is
determination of the amount of water in the product, since the amount
is
it
and quality of the emulsified asphalt, as pure bitumen, that determines
the value of the emulsion for a particular purpose.
After dehydrating and determining the water, the residual asphalt
is
subjected to the usual tests for asphaltic material. The recovered asphalt
TABLE XI
Tests on Asphaltic Emulsions
Surface
Treatment and
Penetration Repair
Material Used for Macadam Work
1.001 1.021 1.025
1.54 3.70 173.9
.05 .02 .06
85 125 600
Calcium chloride break, percentage of
94.2 14.0 6.6
46.0 37.0 29.0
54.0 63.0 71.0
Tests on asphaltic residue:
1.003 1.029 1.036
191 139 138
.
38.4 46.6 47.6

110+ 110+ 62
Soluble in carbon disulphide (per cent) . . . 98.91 99.27 98.29
0.73 0.17 0.38
0.36 0.54 1.33
should possess characteristics substantially the same as those usually found

in materials used in the unemulsified state in similar kinds of construction.
The asphalts in emulsions, however, are usually of the softer grades.
Typical tests on asphaltic emulsion are given in Table XI.
BITUMINOUS AGGREGATES
The testing of bituminous aggregates and bituminous rocks involves
the determination of the bitumen content by some form of extraction.
The mechanical analysis or grading of the mineral aggregate is also made.
Often the density of a cut out section from the finished roadway is de
sired, in order to know if the pavement has received maximum compres
sion under the roller. If the densities of the constituents of the mix have
not already been determined, it is necessary to run these tests. These
values are necessary to determine first, the maximum possible density and
in turn, the per cent of voids existing in the sample from the roadway.
If the bituminous binder is unknown, it is often desirable to run tests
on the residue obtained by distillating off the solvent used in extraction,
and removing the last traces of solvent by evaporation at elevated tem
perature. W here tars, high in free carbon, or native asphalt, high in min
eral matter, have been used in the paving mixture, the recoverd bitumen
does not truly represent the original amount of asphalt or tar used in the
mix, but does represent the amount of actual bituminous binder.
A number of tests have been devised to measure the relative stability
of various bituminous mixtures. It has not been definitely proven that
any of these stability determinations accurately indicate the relative road
behavior of the many different types of bituminous surfacings which are
being used in roads today. For the coarser graded and the more open
graded mixes, at least, no satisfactory method of determining their re
sistance to displacement has been developed. The researches of Hubbard
and Field, Skidmore and Abson, Emmons and Anderton, Milburn and
Ulman and other investigators on bituminous mixtures should prove in
teresting and instructive to both the testing and highway engineer.
The laboratory control of bituminous road materials is by no means
as thorough and complete as the bituminous chemist desires that it should
be. A satisfactory means of measuring the adhesiveness or cementing
value of various asphaltic and tar binders must be found. The behavior
of bituminous materials with mineral aggregates of different surface tex
tures and physical properties should be carefully investigated. The effect
of moisture and weathering is more pronounced with some fluid bitumens
than with others, and the discovery of the underlying cause will do much
for the continued success of the low-cost roads in which these fluid mate
rials play such a prominent part. All these problems are a challenge, both
to the chemist and engineer, and their solution will require close coopera
tion between the field forces and the laboratory.
RATIONALIZATION AND SIMPLIFICATION OF TEST

REQUIREMENTS FOR LIQUID ASPHALTIC
MATERIALS
Throughout the period in which the authors labored on this book
the liquid asphaltic products simplification program sessions were being
held. Therefore it seems advisable at this time to present the following
abstract,* from the official publication of the U. S. Bureau of Public
Roads, of a report on the test requirements work. Some of the specifica
tions given in previous chapters are drawn up according to the accepted
practice prior to these simplification efforts. Our readers are requested
to recognize this fact and interpret specification tests given previously in
connection with the simplification work where the two may come together.
It is expected that considerable time may elapse before this test' simpli
fication program can bear the fruit of standardized liquid asphaltic prod
ucts.
Function of Tests. — The purpose of test requirements in specifica
tions is to insure that materials furnished to meet the specifications will
be suitable for the use for which they are intended. The value of test
requirements is measured by the extent to which they fulfill this purpose.
Test requirements may be of two types — first, those which describe the
properties or characteristics of a product which it is essential that it pos
sess if it is to be suitable for a given purpose and, second, those of a
restrictive nature which define characteristics which may or may not be in
herent in a suitable product, and the presence or absence of which has no
measurable influence on satisfactory performance.
It is evident that, so far as possible, tests of the first type only should
be used in specifications. However, the selection of such tests is not al
ways a simple matter because of the lack of sufficient data, and the situ
ation is frequently complicated by the difficulty of eliminating tests of
the second class. The latter serve no useful purpose and such prestige as
they may enjoy is undeserved, but before they can be discarded it is com
monly necessary to overcome the inertia due to years of unquestioned
acceptance.
Unfortunately, many of the common test requirements for road mate
rials are of the second class. Often of obscure origin and possibly devel
oped originally for a purpose foreign to their present use, they retain
their place in specifications, sometimes for lack of adequate substitutes
and sometimes because of established precedent. This is particularly true
of the specifications for that class of road materials known as liquid
asphaltic products, of which enormous quantities are now used in the con
struction and maintenance of low-cost roads. Many of the tests which
are used at present in specifications for these materials have been handed
down from specifications for bituminous materials of an entirely different
•Original paper by E. F. Kelley, Chief of the Division of Tests, U. S. Bureau of Public

Roads and Prevost Hubbard, Chemical Engineer, The Asphalt Institute.
class, often semisolid in character, which were never intended to be used

for the same purposes as those to which liquid asphaltic products com
monly are put in highway work to-day.
In any attempt to rationalize specifications each individual test must
be carefully scrutinized to ascertain its actual value. What does the prop
erty defined by the test signify in connection with the use to which the
material is to be put and how can this property be adequately controlled
by use of the test? If satisfactory answers to these two questions can
not be formulated, the test has no place in a specification. Many of the
tests now in common use will fail when subjected to this scrutiny.
In addition to the need for selecting the tests for liquid bituminous
materials on a rational basis, there has been an equally urgent need to
simplify the test requirements in current use.
States Grouped. — For convenience in carrying on a cooperative
test simplification program the states were divided into five groups or
regions, the division being made largely on the basis of the territory served
by the principal groups of producers. The states in each region are as
follows :
Region No. i. — Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts,

Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York.
Region No. 2. — New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland. Ohio,
West Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida.
Region No. — Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
jf.
Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma..

Region No. — Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas,
4.
Louisiana, Texas.
Region No. — North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Wyoming,
5.
Colorado, New Mexico, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Nevada, Washington, Ore

gon, California.
Simplified Scheme of Analysis Adopted. — The simplified scheme

of analysis which has been followed in the cooperative work embodies two
tests which are considered to be of major importance. These are the
viscosity test and the distillation test. The viscosity test made with the
is
Saybolt-Furol viscosimeter at one of three selected temperatures, depend

ing upon the character of the material and its intended use. The distillation
test included in the scheme of analysis to take the place of tests for
is
determination of asphalt content and loss by volatilization at different

temperatures. The residue from the distillation test subjected to tests
is
for consistency and solubility in carbon disulphide, replacing similar tests

frequently made on original materials or on residues from the volatiliza
tion and asphalt content tests.
In tabulating the data obtained in the cooperative tests, the materials
were classified as to type on the basis of these two important tests.
The materials were first divided into three classes, depending upon
the consistency of the residue from the distillation test, as follows:

1. Liquid residue (float test less than 25 seconds at 122° F.)
2. Float residue (float test more than 25 seconds at 122° F. and pene
tration more than 300 to 77° F.).
3. Penetration residue (penetration less than 300 at 77° F.).
Each of these classes was further subdivided on the basis of viscosity,
as follows :
A. Viscosity,
Furol, determined at 77° F.
B. Viscosity, Furol, determined at 122° F.
C. Viscosity, Furol, determined at 210° F.
The nine types of material which result from this classification are
shown in the following table :
1 Viscosity. Furol, at —
Character of Residue 77°F. 122° F. 210° F.
1. Liquid 1-A 1-B 1-C
2. Float 2-A 2-B 2-C
3. Penetration 3-A 3-B 3-C
It is evident that materials of

types 1-A, 1-B, and 1-C are of the non-
hardening or extremely slowly hardening variety and, irrespective of their
original viscosities, could not be expected to develop an asphalt cement
in place in a road surface. Materials of types 2-A, 2-B, and 2-C yield a
distillation residue too soft for a penetration test, but sufficiently viscous
for a float test and therefore would be classed as slowly hardening prod
ucts whose consistency might increase materially after application, but
which could not be expected to develop an asphalt cement in place. Mate
rials of types 3-A, 3-B, and 3-C, yielding a distillation residue sufficiently
hard for a penetration test, would be classed as products which will even
tually develop an asphalt cement in place, the rapidity of hardening being
indicated by the results of the distillation test.
A study of the tabulated data, which included also state specification
requirements for the various materials, showed clearly that many specifi
cations in common use do not make the important distinctions of the above
classification. In a number of cases several materials of entirely different
type were found to meet all the requirements of a given specification. For
instance, it was found that certain materials of types 1-A, 2-A, and 3-A
were submitted to meet the requirements of a specification for a certain
material designated as 45 per cent asphaltic oil. The essential requirement
of this specification was that the material should contain between 45 and 55
per cent of residue of 100 penetration. The three distinct types met this
specification except that the material of type 3-A had an asphalt content
slightly above the maximum specified. The specification failed so far in
denning important characteristics, that materials which developed liquid
residues, float residues, and possibly penetration residues in the distillation
test could all comply with its requirements.
RECOMMENDED SIMPLIFIED SCHEME OF ANALYSIS FOR USE IN

SPECIFICATIONS FOR LIQUID ASPHALTIC ROAD MATERIALS
1. Flash point:
a. Cleveland open cup for materials having a flash point of 175° F. or
more. A. S. T. M. standard method D 92-24.
b. Tagliabue open cup1 for materials having a flash point of less than
175° F. Method approved by the Bureau of Explosives, 30 Vesey
Street, New York City, and by the Interstate Commerce Commission
(Regulations for Transportation of Explosives, etc., par. 227).
2. Consistency :
A. Viscosity, Furol, A. S. T. M. standard method D 88-30.
a. At 77° F. for dust layers, primers, and all products which are applied
without warming.
b. At 122° F. for all products, including cut-backs, which are warmed
slightly before application.
c. At 210° F. for all highly viscous products which must be heated
to approximately 200° F. or above before application and which
have a viscosity of less than 300 seconds at this temperature.
B. Float test at 122° F. F. on materials having a viscosity, Furol, of more
than 300 seconds at 210° F. A. S. T. M. standard method D 139-27.
3. Distillation — for all products :
Total distillate, by volume, at the following temperatures : 437° F.,
600° F.( 680° F.
A. S. T. M. standard method D 20-30 with the following modifica
tions :
Sample distilled shall be 200 cubic centimeters, the wieght of this volume
to be calculated from the specific gravity at 60° F.
Bulb of thermometer shall be immersed to a point one-fourth inch above
bottom of flask.
Condensershall be water cooled.
Distillate shall be collected in 100-cubic-centimeter graduated glass
cylinders and the amount of distillate shall be reported in percentages by
volume of water-free material.
Distillation shall be stopped at 680° F. and the amount of distillate
read to the nearest cubic centimeter after the condenser has been allowed
to drain thoroughly into the receiver. The total residue shall then be
poured immediately into an 8-ounce tin and allowed to air cool without
covering to a temperature below its fuming point suitable for pouring.
It shall then be stirred and poured into receptacles for additional tests.
Temperatures observed in the distillation test shall be corrected for the
effect of the altitude of the laboratory in which the test is made. (See
A. S. T. M. standard method D 86-30.)
4. Tests on residue from distillation :
a. Float test at 122° F. on all residues having a float of more than 25 sec
onds at this temperature and having a penetration of more than 300
at 77° F. (100 grams, 5 seconds.) A. S. T. M. standard method D
139-27.
b. Penetration at 77° F. on all residues of less than 300 penetration (100
grams, 5 seconds). A. S. T. M. standard method D 5-25.
c. Ductility at 77° F. on all residues of less than 200 penetration at 77° F.
(100 grams, 5 seconds. A. S. T. M. tentative method D 113-26T.
d. Solubility in carbon disulphide — all residues. A. S. T. M. standard
method D 4-27.
* Method of test for flash point with Tagliabue open cup: The Tagliabue open cup flash tester
States in region No. 3 defined cut-backs as follows : Cut-back asphalt

is a liquid asphaltic product which, when distilled to 680° F., yields a
resdue of less than 300 penetration at 77° F.
Essential Properties.— Without regard to the individual tests

which may be used for the purpose, it seems important to specify certain
fundamental properties of liquid asphaltic products, depending upon their
method of use and the purpose which they are expected to serve. Of
these, the most important appear to be:
1. Original consistency.
2. Ultimate consistency as representing the material developed after
application.
3. Relative rapidity of the change, if any, from original consistency.
4. Amount and character of active bitumen remaining after appli
cation.
Original Consistency. — The determination of consistency of the orig
inal material is essential and, in the case of liquid asphaltic products, it is
commonly ascertained by a test for viscosity. Some form of viscosity test
almost invariably has been incorporated in specifications for materials of
this character. The method chosen for determining viscosity of highway
materials usually has involved the use either of the Engler viscosimeter
or of the Saybolt-Furol viscosimeter.
The Saybolt-Furol instrument is recommended in preference to the
Engler for the reason that considerably shorter time is required for the
test. The availability of apparatus with multiple tubes and an accurate,
automatic temperature control are added advantages of the Saybolt-Furol
test.
The viscosity, or resistance to flow, of all liquid bituminous materials
may be decreased by raising their temperatures, but the decrease in vis
cosity per unit rise in temperature often varies greatly for different prod
ucts. Therefore, a given viscosity value at an elevated temperature, such
as 212° F., by no means indicates the viscosity or consistency of the
product at a more normal temperature.
Consequently, it is desirable when possible to ascertain the consist
ency of bituminous road materials at what may be considered a normal
temperature. Since 77° F. has been accepted generally as an average nor
mal temperature, it is desirable to make the viscosity test at this tempera
ture when it is possible to do so satisfactorily. However, many of the
liquid asphaltic products are so highly viscous that a satisfactory deter
mination at 77° F. can not be made. In such cases it is necessary to make
the test at some elevated temperature, and this preferably should be
within the range to which the material may be subjected in service subse
quent to its application. A temperature of 140° F. represents the approxi
mate maximum of this range. Many materials which are too viscous to
be tested at 77° F. may be tested accurately at 122° F., and this test tem
perature, which is within the service range, has come into quite general
use for such products. In the proposed simplified scheme of analysis,

therefore, 77° F. and 122° F. were put forward as being satisfactory
temperatures for the great bulk of products now in use.
Some products so nearly approach the semisolid state in original con
sistency at normal temperatures that satisfactory viscosity tests can not
be made on them even at a temperature of 140° F. or considerably
higher. For such products the temperature of 210° F. has been adopted.
As a result of further consideration of the matter and subsequent analysis
of the cooperative test data, it now appears that it might be advantageous
to eliminate determinations of viscosity at this high temperature and sub
stitute the float test at 122° F. as a measure of consistency of those prod
ucts which can not be tested for viscosity at 122° F.
It seems highly desirable to control the consistency of all materials by
tests at temperatures within the range of those encountered in service
subsequent to application. At the present time the float test appears to be
the only acceptable test which is satisfactory for such determinations when
the material is too viscous for a viscosity test and too soft for a penetra
tion test within this range of temperature. While it can not be translated
accurately into terms of viscosity or penetration for all types and grades
of asphaltic material, nevertheless it gives an idea of approximate con
sistency which is far more significant than a viscosity test at 210° F.
As has been stated previously, the viscosity at 210° F. or 212° F. does
not indicate consistency at normal temperature, and from the standpoint
of the application of a material no record of viscosity at such an elevated
temperature appears necessary. For all practical purposes, therefore, it is
believed that the float test at 122° F. will be satisfactory as a measure of
consistency of the class of materials which are too viscous for a viscosity
test at 122° F. and too soft for a penetration test at 77° F.
Ultimate Consistency as Representing Material Developed After Ap
plication. — In certain types of highway construction and treatment, liquid
asphaltic materials are used in preference to the semi-solid varieties to
facilitate their application to or manipulation with the non-bituminous con
stituents of the roadway surface. If it were practicable to use a much
more viscous product, such a product frequently would be used preferen
tially to produce without delay the results which it planned to secure ulti
mately. In other words, while not invariably so, it is frequently desirable
that the viscosity or consistency of the original material should become
greater after it has been applied. Therefore, it is desirable to ascertain
and properly describe in specifications the approximate degree to which
the original material will harden or increase in viscosity after use. Various
tests have been used with this general purpose in mind, but comparatively
few actually give the desired information for reasons which will be dis
cussed later. Before the simplified scheme of analysis was proposed, these
tests were carefully considered from all standpoints and it was concluded
that the distillation test, with the thermometer bulb in the liquid rather
than in the vapor phase, came nearer to giving the desired information
than any other single test.
A distillation test carried to an end temperature of 680° F. has been
used for some years by a number of the state highway departments in the
testing of cut-back asphalts. The definition of a cut-back, which consists
of an asphalt cement fluxed to fluid consistency with a volatile distillate,
has been given. Suh products, when exposed in relatively thin films, are
known to revert to the approximate consistency or penetration of the
original asphalt cement through loss by volatilization of the solvent. In
order to remove the solvent rapidly by distillation it is necessary to carry
the distillation to 680° F. In the case of cut-back asphalts, therefore, in
order to determine the approximate consistency which the original mate
rial may be expected to attain, after application, the material is distilled
to 680° F. and the penetration of the residue remaining after distillation
is taken as an indication of the increase in consistency which may be ex
pected to occur under conditions of use.
Since cut-back products tend to harden through the loss of volatile con
stituents which are removed as distillates in the distillation test, it seems
reasonable to believe that the test is as applicable to the liquid asphaltic
products of other types, and that a determination of consistency of the
residue obtained from distillation will serve as a reasonably accurate meas
ure of the degree of hardening which any such product may be expected
to undergo after application.
The penetration test at 77° F. is a satisfactory measure of consistency
where it can be used, but many of the liquid asphaltic products which have
proved adequate for certain purposes will not yield a distillation residue
sufficiently hard to be subjected to the penetration test. For such resi
dues, therefore, the float test at 122° F. has been included in the simpli
fied scheme of analysis. This permits the rating of consistency of residues
as liquid if the float test is less than 25 seconds; by float test if this ex
ceeds 25 seconds and the penetration is more than 300; and by the pene
tration test if the penetration is less than 300.
Rate of Change in Consistency. — In many types of construction the
rate of change in consistency after use is important and it is desirable to
have a knowledge of the probable rapidity with which this change will
take place and also to have a means for its approximate control. Here
again the distillation test proves superior to other tests which have been
used, since it permits the determination of the percentage of volatile mate
rials which distill off at temperatures intermediate between the initial boil
ing point and the final test temperature of 680° F. The value of the dis
tillation test in this connection has already been demonstrated in its appli
cation to cut-back asphalts. By the proper selection of temperatures and
corresponding percentages of distillate the rate of change in consistency
can be controlled within reasonable and practicable limits. Probably not
more than three temperatures at properly spaced intervals will be required
INTERPRETATION Of TESTS 411
to give the necessary information. In the simplified scheme of analysis

the temperatures which have been proposed are 437° F., 600° F., and the
end temperature of 680° F. These temperatures should be sufficient for
road oils and slowly hardening cut-backs, but for quickly hardening cut
backs an additional lower temperature, possibly 374° F., may be required.
Amount and Character of Active Bitumen Remaining After Applica
tion. — In addition to obtaining the change in consistency of a material by
measuring the consistency of the residue from the distillation test and
ascertaining the relative rapidity of the hardening process, the distillation
test also makes it possible, by recording the volume of residue, to deter
mine the amount or percentage of the final product in terms of the original
material.
Other characteristics of the residual bitumen, in addition to its amount
and consistency, are of interest. Thus, its freedom from admixture with
foreign substances can be readily obtained by the test for solubility in
carbon disulphide, which has been included in the proposed scheme of
analysis. It is suggested that the test for solubility in carbon tetrachloride
may be even more useful since it is indicative of all the information fur
nished by the carbon disulphide test and, at the same time, it may assist
in differentiating between materials produced by straight distillation or
mild cracking and those produced by severe cracking processes, which
may have characteristics approaching those of tar.
For residues which would be classed as asphalt cements and which
are sufficiently hard to have a penetration of less than 200 at 77° F. it
was considered desirable to include, in the scheme of analysis, a test for
ductility of the residue at 77° F.
Flash Point Test Essential As Safety Measure. — In addition to

what are believed to be essential tests, one other test may legitimately be
included in the simplified scheme of analysis, namely, the flash-point test.
Certain classes of asphaltic road materials containing a very volatile
distillate may flash at relatively low temperatures. The regulations of the
Interstate Commerce Commission governing the rail shipments of such
materials require that the flash point be determined with the Tagliabue
open cup and that materials which flash at a temperature of 80° F. or
less be identified by a special label. Accordingly, the use of the Tagliabue
open cup has been specified in the simplified scheme of analysis for mate
rials of low flash point and the method of test approved by the Bureau of
Explosives has been adopted.
In addition to a flash point test to determine compliance with shipping
regulations, it is desirable, from the standpoint of safety, to limit the
minimum flash point of materials which are to be heated before applica
tion. For materials flashing at 175° F. or higher the test with the Cleve
land open cup (A. S. T. M. standard method D 92-24) has been adopted.
Since this method restricts the test to a minimum temperature of 175° F.,
this temperature has been made the upper limit for flash point determi
nations with the Tagliabue instrument.
Tests of Questionable Value. — We have discussed the tests in
cluded in the simplified scheme which are believed to be essential for de
fining desirable properties of liquid asphaltic products for highway use.
A critical examination of other tests which are commonly employed in the
specifications for such products is in order. In the 1932 series of regional
conferences quite general agreement was reached by the representatives
of the state highway departments regarding the advisability of eliminating
such tests as specific viscosity (Engler), specific gravity, fixed carbon,
paraffin scale, the float test on original material at other than 122° F.,
and therefore further discussion of these tests is unnecessary.
Tests for Asphalt Content or Residue of a Given Penetration. — Prob
ably no single test has become more firmly established in specifications for
liquid asphaltic products than that for the determination of percentage of
residue of a given penetration, commonly known as the asphalt content
of the product. A general feeling seems to prevail on the part of highway
chemists and engineers not only that the amount of such residue indicates
the degree of asphaltic character possessed by the material, but also that
in some way the actual percentage of asphalt content measures the service
ability of such products for highway purposes. While no direct claim is
made that if a product develops a given percentage of asphalt content by
this test, it will develop such asphalt in place after use, the feeling pre
vails that in some way or other such is the case, and so the liquid asphaltic
products frequently are graded on the basis of their so-called asphalt
content.
The test is made by maintaining a weighed sample exposed to the air
in an open receptacle at a temperature of 480° to 500° F. for whatever
period of time is required to reduce it to the specified penetration, usu
ally either 100 to 80 penetration at 77° F. No experimental data have
ever been made available to show that the residtie so obtained is even ap
proximately reproduced when the material is subjected to service condi
tions, while there are excellent reasons which indicate that such can not
be the case except, perhaps, for cut-back asphalts. However, the test is
not generally applied to cut-backs, since the distillation test has come to be
recognized as giving much more accurate information relative to the prob
able behavior of such materials after application.
The reasons why the asphalt content test does not give information as
to the character of material developed after application are as follows:
1. It is a well-known fact that asphaltic materials, when subjected to
the temperatures at which this test is conducted, are, as a rule, highly sus
ceptible to oxidation, and that oxidation over the period of time required
for the test produces chemical changes which are not produced at the nor
mal temperatures encountered under ordinary service conditions. These
chemical reactions result in an artificial hardening of the product, so that
a residue which does not represent an actual residual constituent of the

original material is manufactured by the test itself.
2. Even if the residue of given penetration actually existed in the
original material, no service conditions would be sufficiently severe to de
velop this residue in place except possibly in a thin film on the highway
surface. Thus, many liquid residual petroleums, from which a given per
centage of asphalt of a given penetration may be obtained from distillation
processes as conducted in a refinery, will never develop this asphalt as
such under service conditions because the oils which hold the actual asphalt
in solution are nonvolatile at ordinary atmospheric temperatures and never
leave the asphalt residue under conditions of use.
In view of these facts, the question at once arises as to what purpose
an asphalt residue serves, even when present, if it is never allowed to
develop as an asphalt cement. Certainly it cannot develop high binding
value because no liquid asphaltic product which does not harden can be
shown to possess high binding properties any more than can any perma
nently liquid glue. Hardening is necessaary to develop binding properties
and it is therefore of far greater importance to determine the probable
change in consistency or hardening of the material after use than it is to
determine the amount of material of a given hardness which can be ob
tained only by artificial means which are not duplicated by conditions of
service.
It has already been pointed out that the distillation test is capable of
indicating the probable degree of hardening that the material may be ex
pected to reach after application to or incorporation with the mineral ag
gregate. However, quite a few engineers and chemists, who have come to
depend upon the asphalt content test, feel that the distillation test does not
RELATIVE COMPOSITION OF CRUDE PETROLEUMS. RESIDUALS «. CUT-BACKS
kl*NT
»IIT
METNOV
HO.I
\ rmitHce
BtfTlLLATK
Fig. i. — Chart Showing Relative Composition of Bituminous

Petroleum Products
always give them the information which is desired because of the

fact that many liquid asphaltic products, which will yield a relatively high
asphalt content, often show little loss by distillation to 680° F. and yield a
distillation residue which is still fluid. It has been pointed out that if,
upon distillation, a liquid residue remains, the product can not be expected
to develop as asphalt cement after application. So long as the asphalt
cement which may exist is held permanently in solution, it appears to be
quite immaterial what the exact percentage of such asphalt cement may be.
It would seem, therefore, that the asphalt content test might well be
abandoned altogether for use in specifications, together with such tests
on the resulting residue as are sometimes specified. In this connection,
particular reference is made to requirements for ductility of residue of a
given penetration since the physical properties of the residue will vary,
depending upon the temperature at which the residue is produced and the
length of time it is exposed to the oxidizing action of air at that tem
perature.
Volatilization Loss at J.?5° F. and 2120 F . and Tests on Residues. —
Determination of loss by volatilization at 325° F. and consistency of the
resulting residue are tests which originally were devised for asphalt ce
ments and fluxes in connection with their use in hot asphalt paving mix
tures. In the preparation of such mixtures the asphaltic constituents are
customarily maintained at a temperature of approximately 325° F. over
rather long periods of time and the mineral constituents of the mixture
are also heated to approximately this temperature. Therefore, it is quite
logical to make the tests on these products in connection with such use
for the purpose of determining loss by volatilization and the degree of
hardening that may be expected to occur during manipulation.
As the use of the liquid asphaltic products was developed for low-
cost road construction, it became rather customary to utilize the volatili
zation test at 325° F. in specifying such products, merely because it had
been used extensively in connection with materials for hot-laid asphalt
pavements. Apparently no thought was given to the fact that many of
these liquid products were never heated to the temperature at which the
test was run and were, in most cases, applied to or incorporated with un
healed mineral aggregate. In reality, therefore, there is little excuse for
applying this test to liquid asphaltic products except when it is intended
that they shall be used as permanent fluxes for harder asphalts.
It is true that, in the case of products which may be expected to in
crease in consistency or harden after use, appreciable quantities of volatile
constituents are driven off during the test and that a determination of the
consistency of residue will indicate some degree of hardening. However,
the test is run at the maximum temperature for such a long period of time
that it does not in any way reproduce service conditions. At best, no
indication of rapidity of hardening is given by the test results, such as is
very definitely shown in the distillation test by the percentage of distillate
I
obtained at various temperatures between the initial boiling point and the
end-point of distillation. This fact has been recognized by some testing
engineers who accordingly have utilized a volatilization test at 212° F.
in addition to the test at 325° F. The relative difference in loss and in
consistency of residues from the tests at these two temperatures tend to
establish some relation between the rate of hardening of different products,
but here again the information is not nearly as complete or reliable as that
given by the distillation test. Therefore, it appears that all of the tests
for loss by volatilization and tests on the consistency of the residues so
produced could well be abandoned in favor of the distillation test which,
at least for cut-backs, has demonstrated its direct relation to the behavior
of the material after application.
Bitumen Insoluble in Naphtha. — In spite of the very considerable
amount of study which has been devoted to the subject, the chemical com
position of asphalts is but little understood. Their predominating con
stituent is bitumen, which is completely soluble in carbon disulphide. By
treating an asphalt with a naphtha of low boiling point it is possible to
precipitate a portion of the bitumen in the form of a dark brown or black
powder which may be separated by filtration. These insoluble constituents
have been called asphaltenes. Asphaltenes are complicated mixtures of
hydrocarbons, the exact function of which, in an asphalt, is not thor
oughly understood. All asphalts contain such constituents, but the per
centage varies greatly with the character of the naphtha, such as its gravity
and range of boiling points.
When asphalts from only a few individual sources were commercially
available for highway work and when asphaltenes in these particular as
phalts were found to lie within fairly narrow quantitative limits, it became
APPROXIMATE BOILING POINT RANGE Of VARIOUS DISTILLATE PRODUCTS
Oleum rAMACNMCir
o> I JO 404 S00 MO
t » I « » » ■t »
WSOUtal "1,
vx«l«r n
\ LIOMTOlOTtLlATCJ
•cr oil
HCftOtCNf .or, •»% ;
Hl.vr f^t Oil
LUOOlCA'lWi O'l
\
Fig. 2. — Chart Showing Boiling Point Ranges of Various

Petroleum Distillate Products
customary to include in specifications the test for bitumen insoluble in

naphtha. The determination itself served as no direct insurance of quality
of the product but rather as a descriptive test.
Later, as asphalts were developed from numerous other sources, it
became apparent that the percentage of asphaltenes which they contained
varied within wide limits but that such variation had no direct traceable
relationship to the relative behavior or serviceablity of these products.
Moreover, it was learned that the percentage of asphaltenes in an asphalt
obtained from a given source could be increased materially by subjecting
the material to oxidation by the blowing process. Since no definite rela
tionship between desirable properties of an asphalt and its asphaltene con
tent could be established, the test was gradually eliminated from specifica
tions for asphalt cements although, for no apparent good reason, it is still
retained to a limited extent in certain specifications.
Its application to liquid asphaltic products, however, has become quite
general in certain sections of the country due to an opinion that in some
way the percentage of asphaltenes' indicates the asphaltic character of the
product. It is true that those petroleum products which contain but little
asphalt in solution show a very low percentage of asphaltenes, but, be
cause of the tremendous variation in percentage of asphaltenes in satis
factory asphalts from different sources, it is apparent that wide variations
will occur in liquid products which contain appreciable quantities of these
asphalts in solution. The percentage present in a given product therefore
can hardly be expected to indicate the suitability of the product for a given
use.
Many of the state highway departments have agreed to the elimination
of this test from specifications, and it is hoped that unanimous agreement
upon elimination will ultimately be reached. At best, the test is exceed
ingly inaccurate and subject to wide variations in the results obtained by
different operators. This is due not only to the difficulty in standardization
of the naphtha solvent but also to the fact that the solvent is constantly
changing in composition through partial volatilization during the filtra
tion process and the further fact that there is no clear end point for sep
aration of soluble from insoluble material. The filtrate shows discoloration
even after prolonged washing of the precipitated asphaltenes on the filter
bed. Probably no other test which has been applied to asphaltic products
can be less easily checked by different operators than the test for bitumen
insoluble in naphtha, and this fact alone should be sufficient for its elim
ination from specifications.
Test Requirements for Original Components of Blended or Cut-back
Products. — In specifications for blended products such as cut-back asphalts
some state highway departments, in addition to the requirements for the
finished product, include also detailed requirements both for the original
asphalt cement and the original distillate to be used in the manufacture of
the product. Such practice is believed to be unnecessary, since it is doubt
ful if it constitutes a better guaranty of quality than do properly drawn

specifications for the finished product only. It may also be uneconomical
since it tends to hamper the manufacturer and may eliminate desirable
competition.
If specifications for a cut-back product cover its original consistency,
the consistency and character of its residue from the distillation test, and
the rapidity with which it may be expected to develop this residue after ap
plication, it is immaterial just how it has been manufactured. Practically
the same finished product often may be produced from a variety of in
dividual constituents and this fact is clearly recognized in specifications
for other materials, as for example. Portland cement, in which no at
tempt is made to specify the exact nature of the original argillaceous and
calcareous constituents from which it is manufactured.
In the petroleum industry the production of distillates is of major im
portance and the manufacture of cut-back asphalts constitutes a very small
part of the business. In the production of these distillates, crude oils from
a great many sources are refined by a variety of processes and probably
no two refineries employ exactly the same refining processes on the same
crude oils. Moreover, their markets for distillate products vary consid
erably, so that all do not produce the same standard distillates. Before
many of these distillates are placed on the market they are subjected to
expensive treatments to improve their color and odor, which characteristics
are immaterial from the standpoint of use in the manufacture of cut-back
asphalts. Unfinished distillates, therefore, are often the most economical
to use in such highway materials, and it would often be impractical to
rearrange refinery practice to produce a special specification distillate for
the relatively limited use it would have for such products.
THREE BASIC TESTS FOR CUT-BACK ASPHALTS
t. viscosirr
t. 010TIU.ATION OCFTH llllll
pcNtTiiATf* otatovi
Tiwc or rum orr KM CtMT OlSTIklATC OTP 100 MAU LOAO
IN SCCOND* AT OST*P. ANO OM*r. 0 OCCONDS
tt*p ila*r.oo Mo«r. TT* VAMOCNHCIT
Fig. 3.
— Chart Showing Fundamental Tests to Determine
Suitability of Product for Use
Paving asphalts, on the other hand, have become well standardized

products manufactured in a definite number of grades ranging from very
hard to very soft. In general, the only difference between these grades
is the extent to which the original crude petroleum, from which they are
obtained, has been distilled. In other words, the harder varieties may be
produced from the softer ones by distilling off a small amount of oil from
the latter. It follows therefore that the softer grades may be produced
from the harder by fluxing the latter with a high-boiling distillate oil sim
ilar to that which was removed in reducing them from the softer con
sistency to their original degree of hardness.
Many unfinished refinery distillates available for producing cut-back
asphalts contain a small amount of high-boiling oils similar to those which
would be removed in converting a soft asphalt to one of harder consist
ency. When present in a cut-back asphalt this portion of the original
refinery distillate remains in the residue from the distillation test and,
therefore, serves as a permanent flux for the asphalt cement used in the
preparation of the cut-back. The asphalt cement recovered from the dis
therefore, of softer consistency than the asphalt originally
is,
tillation test
used.
Specifications for the finished product require that the residue from
the distillation test shall be within certain limits of consistency which are
considered essential from the standpoint of behavior after use. Provided
this requirement met, apparent that, so far as the consumer con
is
is
is
it
cerned, immaterial whether the original cut-back made with rela

is
is
it
a
tively soft asphalt fluxed with distillate which will be completely removed
a
by the distillation test, or with a relatively hard asphalt fluxed with dis
a
tillate containing high-boiling fraction which not removed by the dis-
is
a
COMPAP.ATIVE DISTILLATION OF TYPICAL CUT-BACK ASPHALTS
PRIMtR
vi*. itl*-M*» VIL Ut*-M** via. WO»-4W
Fig. — Characteristics of a Few Selected Types and Grades

4.
of Cut-Backs
tillation test but which permanently reduces the hard asphalt to the con
sistency specified for the residue. These relations, which are of great im
portance to the manufacturer, are clearly illustrated in the diagram of
Figure 5. This shows how dissimilar asphalts and distillates may be com
bined to produce finished cut-back products of identical character and
demonstrates why the consumer should not attempt to control the charac
teristics of the original components of a cut-back or blended product.
Fig. 5.
— Diagram Showing How Cut-Backs of Identical Character May
Be Formed from Dissimilar Asphalts and Distillates
Conclusion. — When one considers the conflicting interests and the

varied opinions which exist ; the general acceptance of the many tests
which have been in long-continutd and unquestioned use; and the some
what violent challenge to current practice which is contained in the pro
posed simplified scheme of analysis, the degree of approval which has
been given it after only a year of study, and the degree to which tests
outside its scope have been eliminated, may be considered to be truly re
markable. This accomplishment would not have been possible without the
wholehearted cooperation which has been given by the manufacturers and
the state highway departments. That all have contributed so generously
to the work is evidence of the keen appreciation that drastic changes in
present practice are to be desired.
Much remains to be accomplished before the desired degree of sim
plification and standardization of a common scheme of analysis can be
effected, and beyond this there is the further need of agreement regarding
specification test limits which will establish a series of standard grades
of material for the various types of construction. The progress which
has been made gives promise of ultimate success in securing the needed
improvements in existing practice.
CHAPTER IX
EQUIPMENT AND MACHINERY

XPERIENCE has shown that low-cost roads of acceptable quality
and quantity are possible when constructed and maintained by mod
ern equipment.
The use of unsuitable methods, obsolete or poor equipment results in
raising costs and lowering quality of work.
Equipment for low-cost roads is fairly well standardized for a ma
jority of operations such as blading and dragging, scarifying and re
shaping, and distributing bitumens. Methods and equipment for prepar
ing, mixing, placing and finishing bituminous mixtures show some variety.
Smooth-riding, non-skid surfaces are usual with the modern low-cost
road which has been built and is maintained by equipment now available.
This chapter describes the purposes and types of modern equipment
used in constructing and maintaining the six principal types of low-cost
road surfaces.
Mechanical details, performance and similar information may be ob
tained from the manufacturers of the various types of equipment.
Grading operations and equipment used to do grading work at low-
cost have been discussed in Chapter III. A separate book by the authors
•entitled "Road Grading" treats of grading operations in considerable
•detail.
The six principal types of low-cost surfaces are :
Oiled roads.
Untreated surfaces.
Bituminous surface treatments.
Bituminous road-mix surface courses.
Bituminous plant-mix surface courses.
Bituminous (penetration) macadam surface course.
EQUIPMENT FOR OILED ROADS

The oiled earth road consists of applications of asphaltic
successive
road oil to the ordinary earth or soil road. Its purpose is to prevent dust
and provide an all weather road which does not become muddy and rutted
in rainy weather.
If the road to be oiled is particularly unstable, its condition can be
greatly improved by the addition of granular materials, such as sand,
stone screenings or fine gravel. These are hauled in by trucks, spread by
blade graders and worked into the surface by traffic before oiling.
420
EQUIPMENT AND MACHINERY 421
Construction maintenance operations as well as the equipment

and
used for them are quite similar.
By some engineers the entire procedure
is classed as maintenance.
The principal operations and the equipment used for them are:
1. Bring the road surface to the proper crown and cross-section by
tractor and grader.
2. Maintain the surface in good condition under traffic by graders
and drags until ready for oiling.
3. Remove to the side of road the dust and loose earth by means of
graders.
4. Apply oil to the read surface by distributor or tank truck equipped
with distributor pipes.
5. Cover the oil, if it does not soak in readily, with earth from the
roadside. This is done by blading with power graders.
6. Compacting is done by traffic.
7. As soon as traffic breaks through or displaces this first application
of oil, scarify and pulverize the oiled surface with scarifier, or heavy disc
harrow designed for the purpose.
8. Spread with maintainer, grader or drag.
9. Re-oil the evenly spread mixture and use traffic for compacting
it in place.
These operations of scarifying, pulverizing, spreading and re-oiling
are continued at yearly intervals or as required until a regular and com
pacted surface can be maintained under traffic.
Fig. i. — Bituminous Distributors Arc Primary Earth Road Oiling Units

If
necessary to bring in cover material before the first oiling, it should
be spread in windrows along each shoulder by graders before oiling is
commenced.
If the road has been previously oiled a little, scarify, and blade the old
caked surface to the side of the road in windrows. It is then bladed back
to cover the newly applied oil instead of scarifying and pulverizing the
old surface in place as described in operations 8 and 9.
Good results under maintenance are obtained by dragging, or, if the
surface is well staled, by patching.
Very rough and potted surfaces must be lightly scarified and bladed
into shape.
EQUIPMENT FOR UNTREATED SURFACES

Untreated surfaces are those which consist of mineral aggregates held
together by the binding, compacting or interlocking qualities of the ma
terials themselves or by the addition of mineral binder such as clay. Their
construction commonly includes the following operations and equipment:
1. Preparing aggregates to specification in fixed or portable crush
ing and screening plants. However, sand-clays, many sand-gravels, clay-
gravels, and some other materials are loaded directly from pits by power
shovels, or various kinds of scrapers or by loading devices. For such ma
terials crushing and screening plants are usually unnecessary.
2. Hauling to road usually by trucks. Wagon graders are used at
times in the case of sand-clay, while teams are used for short hauls in
some localities.
3. Dumping and spreading by blade graders, power maintainers,
stone spreaders, chip spreaders, and special tail gates on trucks.
4. Mixing on the road by harrows of disc type, spring-tooth or spike-
tooth, and by blade graders.
5. Compacting of some surfaces is commonly done by traffic, but the
sheep's-foot roller has been successfully used to a limited extent.
The 10-ton 3 -wheel power roller is extensively used for compacting
macadams and stone bases.
6. Smoothing is accomplished by patrol graders, drags, power main
tainers, and truck scrapers.
Portable crushing plants used for preparing aggregates are desirable
which are of light weight and have large capacity.
Dumping and spreading devices are effective in improving quality of
work and reducing costs — but high first cost on some types prevent their
purchase.
Early compaction by rollers is necessary in the roller bound types of
surfacing and desirable in the traffic bound types. Compacting devices
or rollers, low in first cost and operating costs, and capable of compact
ing surfaces quickly and effectively, are important.
Smoothing with heavy blade graders or heavy long base drags is de
sirable when surfaces are rough and corrugated and heavy cutting nec
essary.
Smoothing is commonly done with patrol grader and drag when light
cutting is needed and with truck scraper, grader, or motor maintainer when
a light surface mulch is to be maintained on road surface.
Untreated surfaces require frequent or daily maintenance, depending
on volume of traffic. Maintenance operations for untreated surfaces and
the equipment commonly used are:
1. Scarifying and reshaping because of high crowns, large protrud

ing stone or because of corrugations. Scarifying is accomplished by
scarifiers attached to graders, rollers, or tractors. Reshaping by blade
grader is common practice. Light, portable equipment for separating out
oversize aggregate as well as for crushing it is in demand.
2. Blading and dragging. Light road machines, patrol graders, spring
blades to trucks and drags are used for daily and routine main
attached
tenance especially in dry weather. Heavier equipment is used when the
road is moist and when irregularities in the surface can not be removed by
the lighter equipment.
3. Patching of untreated surfaces is resorted to during dry weather
and is usually done by hand tools.
4. Addition of new materials is the most expensive maintenance
item. It is usually performed by the same methods and with materials
Fig. 2. — Maintaining Gravel Road with Long Base Multi-blade Drag

Type Maintainer
similar to those used in constructing the original surface. An exception

is the addition of a fine surface mulch of gravel to well-compacted
macadam; this mulch is later maintained by light dragging.
EQUIPMENT FOR NON-BITUMINOUS SURFACE

TREATMENTS
The purpose of with calcium chloride or lignin binder
these treatments
is to lay dust and reduce the loss of aggregates.
Calcium chloride is commonly applied to the road surface in flake or
powder form. Lignin binder is a liquid concentrate which when mixed
with equal parts of water is sprinkled on a road surface.
Construction of non-bituminous surface treatments is much the same
as maintenance of untreated surfaces on which a loose mulch of aggre
gate is spread, except that calcium chloride is applied to reduce dust and
loss of aggregate — lignin binders are used to a less extent.
Calcium chloride in its flake or powder form is applied from lime
spreaders, chip spreaders, and specially designed machines, four of which
are on the market.
Lignin binders are applied in solution with water from sprinkling
trucks or wagons.
Bags of chloride are commonly hauled in trucks to which spreaders
are attached. Additional supplies are brought up by other trucks and the
spreader is then attached to them.
Fast-moving scrapers such as truck scrapers, or power patrol graders
or drags, are satisfactory for evenly spreading the loose surface mulch of
fine aggregate or chloride-treated gravel roads.
Except for the machinery used for distributing the calcium chloride
or lignin binder which has already been described, the maintenance opera
tions and equipment to perform them on this type of surfacing are the
same as for untreated surfaces. These treatments reduce dust, loss of
surfacing material and frequency of maintenance operations as compared
with untreated surfaces.
EQUIPMENT FOR BITUMINOUS SURFACE TREATMENTS

Bituminous surface treatments as commonly designated are two or
three applications of bitumen which are covered by sand, small gravel,
stone or slag. These successive applications of bitumen and cover make
a thin bituminous mat from yi to 1 inch in thickness which is well bonded
to the base ; when more than one inch thick these dragged or mixed sur
faces are designated as road mix. The recent and successful innovation
of dragging surface treatments during construction make them approach
the road mix type in texture, appearance, thickness, and smooth riding
qualities.
Construction of dual bituminous surface treatments on well-compacted
and previously untreated bases include the operations of:
1. Sweeping and cleaning base course by use of rotary brooms and

blowers attached to tractors or trucks.
2. Applying prime coat of bitumen by power distributors. Prime
coats are omitted if the base has been previously treated.
3. Applying light cover of chips or gravel by hand or from truck, if
traffic is to use the road during construction.
4. Distributing second application of bitumen.
5. Spreading cover aggregate by means of chip spreaders attached to
truck or tractor, or directly from truck.
6. Dragging the cover material when cold bitumens are used or
brooming them when the bitumen is applied hot. Light, long base drags,
such as the broom drag, are unusually effective for smoothing the sur
faces and coating aggregates with bitumen. The employment of long
base drags for getting a smooth surface is very effective.
7. Compacting the surface by rolling with self-propelled rollers.
Either light or heavy rollers are used, as may be convenient.
The combined rotary broom and blower attached to a small tractor
is an efficient unit for cleaning surfaces prior to treatment.
Bucket conveyors, belt conveyors, and hoppers attached to sides of
cars are good to reduce cost of unloading aggregates as compared with
unloading by hand.
Mechanical equipment for spreading aggregates
economical be
is
cause less aggregate is wasted as compared with spreading by hand from
small stock piles ; a more even distribution results and the work more
quickly done.
Improvements in some types of these machines are needed to prevent
their wheels from picking up aggregates.
Fig. 3.
— Rotary Broom for Cleaning Surface Preparatory to Prime
Coat Application
Portable heating units of reasonable size, with boilers which require

little water, are good for heating bituminous materials.
Distributors arc desirable which can start and stop the application of
bituminous materials cleanly, without causing bituminous streaks on the
road surface. Otherwise distributors are giving excellent service.
There is need for further developments of standard long-base drags
which will combine at low cost the desirable features of many of the
home-made drags and hones now in use. Much experimental work is now
being done by manufacturers on this point.
Lighter types of rollers up to 8-ton are desirable for compacting the
surface, as they are more mobile and do not crush cover aggregates as
frequently as the heavier 10-ton rollers.
Rolling, although not absolutely necessary, is advisable, as it embeds
the chips or other cover material into the road surface.
Fig. — One Type of Chip Spreader for Surface Treating
The most important piece of equipment is the drag. By its use smooth
riding surfaces are obtained, a greatly reduced amount of aggregate is
whipped off the surface by traffic, the surface has a uniform texture and
appearance, and a quicker-setting treatment results, which meets with
favor by the public
EQUIPMENT FOR BITUMINOUS ROAD-MIXES

The term "road-mix" designates the surface obtained by mechanical
mixing of aggregates and bitumen directly on the road itself. Mixed-in-
place is another term widely used and equally descriptive.
Road mixes are commonly from 1 to 4 inches in thickness and are
•t to be confused with plant-mixes, dragged surface treatments, or

netration macadam.
There are three distinct types of road mix which are identified by the
aracteristics of their aggregates. These types are the fine aggregate
pe, the graded-aggregate type, and the coarse-aggregate type.
Work on the tine aggregate type has been confined to limited areas or
as been of an experimental nature. Experimental work is still in prog-
ess, and they offer a potential field for needed development.
Attention is invited to experimental road work on sand in South
Carolina, Florida, North Carolina, California. Nevada, Minnesota, and
"o extensive usage in Long Island, New York.
Equipment used for constructing the fine-aggregate road mixes is
uite similar to that used for the graded-aggregate type.
For the coarse (or macadam) aggregate mixtures equipment is some-
lat different.
F*9- 5-
— One of Many Successful Aggregate Spreading Devices
The graded-aggregate type is constructed in several of the Western

:ates by mixing successive applications of bitumen with the scarified
Cgregates of the road surface. It is there also known as oil processed or
lrface mix. New aggregates are also added if necessary to improve
ie gradation.
The principal operations when suitable aggregates are in place in the
*\ xid itself are

1.
:
Scarifying or loosening existing surface. If all of the aggregates

.re newly placed for the new surface, then scarifying is unnecessary.
2. Harrowing, mixing, and spreading untreated aggregates.
3. Applying bitumen.
.428 LOW COST ROADS AND BRIDGES
4. Mixing by harrowing.
5. Mixing by blading.
6. Shaping and smoothing.
7. Compacting.
Equipment for the foregoing operations includes :
Motor graders with scarifier for loosening road surface.
Disc and spike harrows for mixing aggregates with bituminous
material.
Tractors for pulling harrows and graders.
Graders for shaping and smoothing.
Road hones for smoothing the surface.
Distributors for applying bitumen.
Rollers are used for compaction, but in some cases traffic does the com
pacting, while in others rollers and traffic are depended on for compaction.
A list of equipment for road-mix jobs of the graded-aggregate type
as used in a western state follows :
Four 15-horsepower motor graders (8-foot blade), crawler type, with
scraper attachments, for processing.
Two offset disc harrows (9-foot width) for mixing after applying
bitumen.
Two 15-horsepower crawler-type tractors for pulling disc harrows.
One 6-foot rubber-tired grader, used in finishing.
One 10-horsepower rubber-tired tractor for pulling 6-foot grader.
One 25-horsepower steam boiler for heating bitumen in tank cars.
One 1,000-gallon bituminous distributor.
One 1^2-ton service truck.
One light automobile for foreman.
Some suggestions as to utility of equipment for a road mix and pos
sibilities of improving this most important type of low-cost surface are :
That methods or equipment are needed for quickly determining the
gradation of aggregates on the road and methods or apparatus arranged
for adjusting the rate of application of bitumen to correctly meet the
changes in gradation of aggregates.
That methods and equipment be developed for more quickly drying
aggregates at low cost.
That consideration be given to development of equipment or methods
which will more thoroughly mix bitumen and aggregates on the road in
less time and with fewer passes of mixing apparatus than is now possible.
That equipment or methods be developed to overcome the unfavorable
effects of moisture and cool weather on the mixing processes. Their effects
now retard progress and increase cost.
That rolling with self-propelled rollers weighing 5 to 8 tons is desir
able for obtaining early compaction of surface, especially on roads where
traffic is light and not well distributed and at edges of surfacing.
That dragging and blading after the road is opened to traffic will as
sist in obtaining improved riding qualities.
That a light seal coat of bitumen applied from distributors and aggre
gate spread by long base broom drags protects the surface and still fur
ther improves riding qualities.
That there is a need for developing methods, equipment, and materials
particularly adapted to constructing road-mix types which consist of lint
aggregates passing the j4-inch screen.
The coarsc-agyrcgate type of bituminous road mix is commonly known
as "retread," and is constructed on well-compacted foundations or bases
by the following operations and equipment:
1. Preparing foundation by scarifying with suitable scarifier attach
ments, reshaping with blade graders, and compacting with rollers. Re
cently developed road hones and cutting discs are also used for trueing up
the subgrade. Another method of preparation is to build up the base
with bitumen and aggregates, which are either premixed in a mixer 01
mixed in place on the road. This is often done when the crown is quite
a bit higher than the edges.
2. Applying prime coat by pressure distributor if the surface has
not been previously treated with bitumen.
3. Spreading aggregates through the back end of a dump truck or
through the box type of stone spreader. Blade graders are reported as
good for finely spreading aggregates to required depth.
4. Applying first mixing coat of bituminous material from pressure
distributors operating on pneumatic tires.
5. Mixing by motor-driven blade graders, blade graders drawn by
truck or tractor, or by motor-driven maintainers. Spring-tooth and spe
cial spike-tooth harrows are said to give excellent results.
Fig. 6. — A Recently Developed Spike Toolh Road Mixing Unit

6. Applying second mixing coat of bituminous material from dis

tributor.
7. Mixing and spreading by graders, discs, maintainers, or harrows.
8. Rolling with heavy roller, although lighter and smaller rollers
have been used with good results.
9. Filling surface voids with cover-size aggregate by brooms.
10. Rolling.
11. Applying seal coat of bituminous material.
12. Covering with chips from chip spreaders and dragging with
maintainers or long-base drags.
13. Rolling to finished surface.
Machines used for mixing must be strong enough to handle the aggre
gate, should have a long wheel base, and the tractive power plant should
be capable of moving the apparatus smoothly and evenly.
For large jobs the best combination seems to be a maintainer having
several mixing blades set in a long frame and pulled by a tractor of am
ple power.
Motor graders have been successfully used for mixing this type but
require more trips over the road and more care in their operation to
obtain best results.
A heavy grader pulled by a strong tractor will do very good work in
the hands of a skillful operator. Graders hauled by trucks or tractors
have also been used, although truck hauling is generally not so satisfactory
since the grader can not be operated to capacity and more trips over the
road are needed. While it is not necessary to move all of the stone or
other aggregate across the road to perform the mixing operation, a con
siderable portion of it must be so moved.
Drags when used for mixing operations are not as efficient as main
tainers or graders. In some localities the cover on the seal coat is dragged
with good results by using a sled drag before rolling. This dragging is
an additional precaution to insure an even distribution and coating of the
cover and a smooth road surface.
The use of the agricultural spike-tooth harrow for road mixing is not
generally recommended. This tool tends to bring the large stone to the
top of the mix and produces a very open top. A spring-tooth harrow is
said to be much superior to this spike-tooth type. Disc harrows are used
with good results.
Rolling is an essential operation, and the ordinary 3-wheel, 10-ton
macadam roller gives excellent results. Other types and sizes of rollers
are also entirely satisfactory. Thin road mixes less than 1J/2 inches thick,
of coarse aggregates, have been built without a roller, but better results
will be obtained by rolling rather than by depending entirely upon traffic
for compaction.
Multiple-blade drags and maintainers of various types for mixing which
have appeared on the market in recent years are generally satisfactory.
Developments in mixing devices are still probable, but present equipment

will do excellent work and produce smooth riding, durable surfaces.
A multi-pin type mixer which is usually used with a hone, or smoother,
is based upon a different principle than the ordinary road-mix operation.
After the hone trues the old surface to a uniform cross section, aggre
gate is placed thereon in a predetermined quantity by means of tail gate
or towed rock spreaders. A pressure distributor then shoots the bitumen
in a predetermined quantity. This, as may be seen, sets up a fixed ratio
of bitumen to aggregate and is uniformly maintained because the rock
spreaders distribute a uniform quantity of aggregate and the distributors
spray uniform quantities of bitumen. The multi-pin mixer then is towed
through or over the aggregate. The mixing action is complete without
displacing the aggregate or causing segregation.
EQUIPMENT FOR BITUMINOUS PLANT MIXES

Plant mix as used here means the utilizationof fixed or portable plants
to prepare low-cost surfacing mixtures of bitumen and aggregates. The
aggregates for plant mixtures are commonly those of the graded type
already described, but they may be of the coarser sizes or finer sizes.
The object of plant mixing is to insure closer control of proportions
and uniformity of mix than is possible by mixing in place on the road
surface. As a result, any plant mixing produces more fully coated aggre
gates than road mixing, but requirements in specifications should not be
so severe as to discourage contractors and manufacturers from developing
plant mixes at low cost.
Plant mixes for low-cost roads are commonly of the bituminous cold-
lay types ; that is, mixtures which are laid at atmospheric temperatures.
Hot-lay types are usually mixed in pug mills which are either portable or
stationary.
There are three principal methods and types of equipment for plant
mixing :
J. The fixed or portable mixers such as the ordinary pug mill and
the concrete mixer.
II. The mobile, bituminous pavers which proceed along the road
mixing and placing the surfacing materials.
III. The fixed or portable immersion machines. They consist of
vats or tanks into which the road aggregates are dipped or dumped to
coat them with bitumen.
I — Fixed or Portable Mixers

The principal operations and equipment for constructing road surfaces
with fixed or portable mixers include:
1. Proportioning of aggregates and bitumen, usually by weight in
bins, or hoppers equipped with scales. Some plants have additional equip
ment for drying aggregates.
2. Mixing or coating aggregates with bitumen in pug mills, or drum

mixers.
3. Hauling and dumping. Trucks are commonly used for hauling
plant mixtures from plant to road. Spreader boxes are used to a limited
extent. A recently developed unit attaches on the rear of a truck and
spreads and tamps the material into place on the road in ten-foot widths.
It is power operated. After spreading, the surface is smooth and ready
for rolling.
4. Spreading and shaping. Power-driven blade graders are commonly
used to spread and shape cold-lay mixtures which have been placed in
windrows. They are sometimes augmented or replaced by heavy drags
or by hand spreading.
5. Compacting. Power rollers are commonly used for compaction.
Finishing machines are satisfactory for striking off and for light compac
tion, but power rollers should follow them for best results.
II — Mobile Bituminous Pavers

Bituminous pavers, or as they are also named, bituminous road-mixers,
introduce a new method of handling bituminous mixtures. As the ma
chine proceeds along the road it mixes aggregates and bitumen and de
posits the mixture on the road surface. The principal operations and
equipment for constructing road surfaces with bituminous pavers are:
Fig. y. — Portable Type of Plant Mixer
1.Placing aggregates on the subgrade in windrows. Hauling of new

aggregates to subgrade and dumping them in windrows is done by truck,
but shaping into windrows of aggregates from existing road surface is
done by patrol or blade graders. Some contractors have devised boxes
for making windrows of uniform quantity per foot.
2. Picking up, proportioning, mixing and dumping are all done by
the bituminous paver.
Mechanical pick-up loaders work directly into the windrows. The
EQUIPMENT AND MACHINERY •433
aggregates are automatically proportioned in the paver and the correct

amount of bitumen added. Mixing is done by a pug mill, continuous
mixer or other device. When thoroughly coated with bitumen the aggre
gates are dumped through a hopper or spreader to the subgrade.
3. Spreading and shaping. In one type of machine the mixing unit
is followed by a spreader-finisher. This unit spreads the mixture by
means of two screw conveyors. A machine tamper and screed follow the
conveyors.
An outstanding feature of the spreader-finisher is the very ingenious
subgrade equalizing device which consists of long shoes on lever-arms
carried from the main frame of the finisher in both directions therefrom.
The effect of this leveling device is, that in passing over a hump of, say,
two inches in height in the subgrade, the total over-all rise will be reduced
to one inch at the maximum, and will be spread out over a distance of 12
feet in both directions from the center of the hump, thus transforming
decided irregularities in subgrade into imperceptible rises in the finished
surface. This device, together with the steel plates attached thereto, en
tirely eliminate side forms and at the same time develop an exceedingly
uniform, true edge to the finished pavement.
In another type the mixed material is dumped on a dump board and
then spread by hand shovels. When dumped in windrows the bituminous
mixes can be very satisfactorily spread by patrol graders. Simple screeds
Fig. 8. — Bituminous Paver Showing Discharge and Placing of Bituminous Mixture

of various types, either power driven or hand operated, are said to be

satisfactory.
4.Compacting. Final compaction is accomplished by any standard
type of power driven roller. Initial compaction may be done by a tamper,
a screed or a power roller. But final compaction by a power roller is
highly desirable.
Ill — Immersion Machines

The method of coating aggregates by immersing them into a vat of
emulsified bitumen or warm fluid materials is new. The low cost comes
from the cheap process of coating the stone or other aggregate and the
mechanical means used for spreading and leveling the coated materials.
There are at least two immersion machines on the market.
Fig. 9.
— One Type of Machine for Coating Aggregate with Bitumen by Immersion
The principal operations

are quite similar as to purpose although differ
ing in mechanical method :
One of these is the Pre-Cote machine. The aggregate is dumped in

the hopper of the machine, from which it falls into a vat containing tar
or asphalt emulsion. Warmed liquid bituminous materials may also be
used. The Pre-Cote portable emulsifier, however, is usually used with
the coating machine. Here it is coated with the emulsified bitumen and
picked up by a bucket conveyor. The buckets contain several small holes
which allow the excess bitumen to drain from the aggregate. The spread
of the bucket conveyor can also be regulated in order to allow the bitumen
to properly drain from the aggregate. From the bucket conveyor the
stone is discharged into a chute from which it loads the waiting truck.
The mix is hauled out to the road where it is dumped and spread by
means of road graders. The surface is then dragged and rolled, and after
setting up is seal coated, chipped and again rolled.
In the other machine known as Saturmix this process consists of sup
plying the aggregate to an immersion tank containing an emulsion or a
warmed liquid bituminous product, in which tank is suspended a perfo
rated basket so arranged as to be removed slowly, permitting drainage of
the excess binding material. The perforated basket delivers the coated
aggregate to a storage bin, from which point it is delivered to trucks in
a reasonably dry, but thoroughly coated, condition.
The remainder of the construction operations and equipment used for
them are the same as for the other road or plant-mixed finishing proc
esses.
Remarks ox Equipment for Bituminous Plant Mixes

Large concrete mixers have been utilized to mix cold application bitu
mens which are ordinarily used for road-mix construction. Where this
procedure is followed the mixer is set up as a stationary unit, where sev
eral sizes of aggregate are available in bins and can be weighed and
dumped directly into the mixer. The quantity of bitumen is also meas
ured for each batch and fed into the mixer.
The mixer is so set up that each batch is discharged into a waiting
truck and hauled to the job, where it is spread from the tail gate of the
truck, and, smoothed up by a road machine.
As stated above, a machine has been recently developed to spread the
mixture to a width of 10 feet and the desired depth directly from the tail
gate of a truck.
After the base course has been rolled and thoroughly compacted, the
top course is spread in the center of the road, directly from the tail gate
of trucks, to the width of the truck. A road machine is then used to
spread the top course material uniformly over the surface of the road.
A retread mixer is then used to smooth up the surface of the road, after
which it is rolled. From a week to 10 days later, the surface is seal
coated with an application of bitumen and chips, after which it is dragged
and rolled.
The Cedar Rapids mixing machine is designed to pick up the loose
aggregate on the road which has been worked into a windrow. A bucket
conveyor lifts the aggregate from the surface of the road, dumping it
into a weighing pan. When the desired weight is reached it automatically
dumps the aggregate into a pug mill type mixer, at the same time releas
ing a trip which opens valve on automatic pump, which pumps the desired
amount of bitumen through nozzles, into the mixing box. The aggregate
and bitumen is thoroughly mixed, working from the front to the rear end
of the mixing box, from which it is discharged to the road surface, leav
ing the mix in a windrow, as the machine is continually moving forward
at a slow speed. This machine mixes fairly satisfactorily non-uniform
grades of aggregate, and seems to be particularly adapted for the use

of fine aggregate mixes, where it is wished to utilize the aggregate in the
road for the mix.
The Barber-Green bituminous paver is designed to pick up the ma
terial on the surface of the road, mix same, discharge, spread, dump and
compact the mix.
This equipment was designed to fit the job throughout a wide range
of variability as to materials, subgrades, weather conditions, etc. It com
prises three separate units, separately powered and with crawler traction,
which may be operated separately or in tandem. The first unit consists
of a loader, the second unit a mixer, and the third unit a spreader-finisher.
The loader-mixer works together, usually as a unit.
Fig. 10. — Recently Developed Unit for Spreading and Finishing Plant Mixtures
The mixing unit may be operated either on the subgrade, picking up

the aggregate material directly from a windrow on the subgrade, or as a
central plant at the source of aggregate such as pit, quarry or railroad
siding. When operating on the subgrade, the spiral feed of the pick-up
loader works directly into the windrow, discharging by bucket elevators
into an overhead storage bin from which the aggregate passes through a
ralibrated gate onto a constant, positive feed apron conveyor equipped
with a revolution meter. The aggregate material discharges from the
apron conveyor through a baffle chamber into a twin pug mill mixer.
As the material drops through the baffle chamber, two groups of high-
pressure nozzles apply the bitumen (either hot or cold) in a continuous
spray. The quantity of bitumen is controlled by valves and measured by
a flow-meter, and the flow of aggregates and bitumen are synchronized
and remain in constant ratio.
When operating as a central plant, the mixture would be hauled to

the work in trucks, dumped directly into the spreader-finisher or upon the
subgrade immediately in front of it.
The National Equipment Company at this writing is said to be coming
out with a new bituminous mixer consisting of a hopper constructed
directly over the weighing box, from which the aggregate is discharged
on a belt conveyor, which in turn feeds it into a revolving drum, which
mixes and works the material from the front to rear end, discharging
the mix at such an elevation that it may be loaded into trucks. This ma
chine is constructed more from the standpoint of a stationary plant and
probably when developed may eliminate the necessity of expensive pre-
mix plants.
All of the mixing machines designed to eliminate the mixing of aggre
gate on the road surface are undergoing constant improvement, in regard
to simplification, so that we have on the market well designed machines
requiring a minimum amount of lost time in operation, and low upkeep.
The standard pug mill mixers for making cold and hot mixes are well
standardized and turn out an excellent grade of mixed material, so we
will not go into any discussion of this type of plant. Minnesota has pre
pared special specifications for using knockdown portable plants of this
type with liquid bituminous products.
EQUIPMENT FOR BITUMINOUS PENETRATION

MACADAM
The bituminous macadam pavement consists of crushed stone, and
less frequently slag or gravel, and bituminous material incorporated to
gether by penetration methods. Ordinarily, this surface course is pene
trated to a depth of 2 to 3 inches with either tar or asphalt. The base
course consists of crushed stone with or without bituminous binder, hand-
placed stone, old macadam or old gravel surfaces. A blanket course of
fine, granular material is also sometimes used under the foundation course
or under the base course. It was developed to produce a road surfacing
which would not ravel under automobile traffic and which would be dust-
less. When properly designed and carfeully constructed, it is an excellent
pavement, well fitted for the needs of present-day traffic.
Hand methods for spreading stone and brooming surface are being
replaced by mechanical equipment. This has resulted in much better riding
qualities and a reduction in construction and maintenance costs.
The principal operations and equipment used for constructing a modem
smooth riding bituminous macadam are :
1. Cleaning the surface of the base course.
2. Spreading the coarse stone from trucks with special tail boards,
or by stone spreaders, which are commonly of the box type, hauled by
a truck. Hand spreading costs more, wastes stone and results in an

irregular surface.
3. After spreading, any uneven or non-uniform condition is corrected
by harrowing with a heavy spike-toothed harrow. The surface regularity
is tested by long straight edges, 10 feet or more in length.
4. Rolling with a three-wheel power roller. The roller should weigh
not less than 10 tons and should apply a pressure on the rear wheels of
not less than 350 pounds per inch width of tread.
5. Testing the surface again for irregularities. Any found are cor
rected by hand methods.
6. Applying bitumen from a pressure distributor, which is self-pro
pelled and equipped with dual pneumatic tires.
Applying the intermediate or keystone while the bitumen is still
7.
hot. The keystone is evenly applied by chip spreading equipment, such
as revolving cylinder types, the centrifugal types, and the gravity
the
types, attached at the tail-board of trucks or by adjusting the tail-board
of trucks to act as a spreader. Keystone may also be spread by blade
graders or drags to insure uniformity and smoothness.
8. Rolling
is continued with the 10-ton or heavier three-wheel power
rollers. A
broom drag is frequently attached to the roller to keep the
keystone uniformly spread.
9. Shooting the second application of bitumen from the power dis
tributor.
If hot bitumen is used, it is at once covered by chips from mechanical
spreaders, broomed in place and rolled.
If a cold bitumen is used, then the chips or other aggregate are spread
as before; but the bitumen and chips are then dragged by means of a
maintainer or approved type of long base drag.
Dragging is continued until the chips are thoroughly mixed with the
bitumen and uniformly distributed over the surface. Rolling completes
the entire operation.
The use of cold bitumen and the dragging are especially recommended
if a smooth, true riding surface is desired which has the appearance of a
plant-mixed surface.
Maintenance equipment includes surface treating with distributors,
chip spreaders, brooms and drags. Deep holes and depressions are filled
with premixtures laid at atmospheric temperatures and hand tamped.
Larger areas are rolled with light or heavy power rollers.
The modern bituminous macadam requires little maintenance and no
special equipment other than described. Old macadams may require
scarifying and reshaping, or honing with heavy steel drags, or resurfacing
with a coarse aggregate type of road-mix.
EQUIPMENT FOR MAINTAINING BITUMINOUS

SURFACES
Nearly all types of low-cost bituminous surfaces are maintained by
similar methods so that the following discussion of operations and equip
ment applies with little change to each type.
Scarifying and reshaping is more common on the graded and fine
aggregate types than on the coarse aggregate types. No unusual equip
ment has been developed and scarifying is done by light or heavy duty
equipment as required by the degree of compaction and depth of surface.
Remixing is done by harrows and spreading by graders.
Patching of shallow holes and small areas is done by skin patching
and consists of cleaning the area with brooms, followed by alternate ap
plications of bitumen and aggregate.
Fig. ii. — Broom Dragging Chips with Long Base Unit Provide Excellent and
Smooth Riding Surfaces
Large holes are patched with pre-mixtures of bitumen and aggregate.

These are mixed in any available roadside plant or at commercial plants;
they are also mixed by hand tools. Almost any type of plant seems to
be more satisfactory than hand mixing when a considerable mileage must
be maintained under normal traffic of 500 or more vehicles per day.
Retreatments or seal coats are usual as maintenance operations. They
consist of applying bitumen from power distributors and the application
of aggregates preferably from chip spreaders. Minimum delay and incon
veniences to traffic is particularly important in retreatment and seal coat
operations.
440 LOW COST ROADS ASD BRIDGES
MAINTENANCE EQUIPMENT
The American Road Builders' Association in cooperation with the
American Association of State Highway Officials recently made a survey
of the needs for and availability of maintenance equipment.
A majority of the states furnished detailed reports on the following
subjects :
(a) Clearing, brushing, weed and grass cutting.
(b) Earth surface types.
(c) Gravel surface types.
(d) Surface treated types.
(e) Pavement surface types.
(f) Bridge maintenance.
(g) General.
The reports were summarized and are here presented in question,
answer, and remarks form :
A. — Clearing — Brushing — Weed and Grass Cutting
1. — Q. What equipment and methods are being used in clearing
right-of-way ?
A. Axes, bush hooks, stump pullers (drums on tractors or
tractors with cables), drag lines, shovels, road rippers be
hind tractors, dynamite and drag lines, truck cranes, and
mowing machines are reported as accomplishing this work
satisfactorily.
R. Clearing and grubbing tools are well developed. New
Mexico reports great success in mesquite bushes with a
drag-line crane and drag bucket.
2. — Q. What equipment, methods, and needs for new equipment
are there for ditching and clearing ditches?
A. Blade graders, elevating graders, power shovels, cranes
with clam-shell buckets, drag lines, and hand tools are the
ordinary means of performing work.
R. Ditch cleaning equipment using standard grading units is
satisfactory. However, there has been some difficulty ex
perienced in disposing of the material deposited on shoul
ders from blade and elevating graders.
3. — Q. What equipment is needed for the cleaning or thawing
out of culverts?
A. Portable steam boilers with hose, calcium-chloride, long-
handle hoes, collapsible devices with extension handles,
and blow torches on long handles are all reported as
satisfactory in thawing and cleaning culverts.
R. This item is not of serious concern and special equipment
is not justified.
4. — Q. What efficient equipment is used in brushing?
A. Hand tools, such as axes, bush hooks, and bush scythes,
throwers, chemical sprays and heavy mowing ma

flame
chines, both hand and tractor drawn, are used with vary
ing amounts of success.
R. Piling and burning brush seems in most cases, to be the
most satisfactory method of disposing of brush. Hand
tools are in common use. Burning with flame throwers
is not very satisfactory. Nevada reports the use of a
burning automobile tire drawn across the weeds by hand.
5. — Q. What labor and time-saving equipment and methods are
used in the cutting and disposing of weeds and grass on
rights-of-way ?
A. Hand scythes, motor drawn hones and mowers, flame
throwers, and chemical sprays have been used for these
purposes.
R. Mowing machines are favored for weed and grass cut
ting on rights-of-way, but considerable complaint is regis
tered against standard mowers because they are too light
and fragile for this type of work, and do not have adapt
ability or sufficient range of operation. Chemical sprays
have been used without comment.
— Earth Surface Types

1. — Q. What special equipped graders or appliances are used in
shaping roads?
A. Tractor drawn and motorized graders are reported in suc
cessful use.
R. Present standard equipment seems to be satisfying present
needs in shaping earth roads.
2. — Q. What special equipment or appliance is being used in cut
ting clown shoulders and disposing of the surplus ma
terial ?
A. Tractor drawn and motorized graders, scarifiers with
graders, shovel, clam-shell, and elevating graders have
been used in cutting down shoulders. Hand-loading trucks,
fresnos, wheelers, and drag scrapers are reported as being
used in disposing of the surplus material.
R. Standard equipment in various combinations seems to
serve present needs very satisfactorily.
3. — Q. What mixing or blading equipment and methods are used
in preparing earth surface mixtures?
A. Tractor drawn and motorized graders, light gang-plows,
spring-tooth harrows, spike-tooth harrows, and disc har
rows are used for mixing and sled or sled drags are used
for final leveling.
R. Mixing and blading with standard equipment is reported
satisfactory, and there is little demand for changes or new

devices for this operation.
C. — Gravel Surface Types

1. — Q.What available or needed equipment is there for spread
ing limited amounts of material for a floating cover?
A. Dump trucks with chained tail-boards, dump trucks with
deflector plates, spinner chip spreaders with revolving
discs, longitudinal drum chip spreaders, graders, or patrol
graders spreading from windows or openings in the
blades, and hand methods are the means in present use.
R. The present methods and equipments are reported satis
factory. Hand spreading is allowed only on very small
jobs in most states.
2. —Q. What is the present status and need for standardization
of punching of grader and floating blades ?
A. There is a need for the further and complete standardiza
tion of the punching of grader blades. Reports show that
thirty-three states, nearly 70 percent of the total, use the
A. A. S. H. O. standard. One state uses its own stand
ard, and 13 use the manufacturer's standards.
3. — Q.What is availalbe and what are the needs for portable
crushing units to be operated along the roadway for dis
posal of oversize excess surface material?
A. There were both commercial and home-made portable
crushers reported, but many states prefer to waste the
oversize material.
R. There are several portable crusher units commercially
available.
4. — Q.What equipment is used in removing excess size ma
terial if not performed as suggested above?
A. Spring-tooth rakes behind graders, removal by hand, and
burying in trenches along the roadway are the means and
methods reported for disposing of oversize material.
R. Some states use this material in the construction of blind
drains and consider the crushing of it on the roadway un
economical and unsatisfactory.
5. — Q. What dust prevention equipment, methods or appliances
for handling materials are used?
A. Lime spreaders and grain drills are used for distributing
calcium-chloride, and standard distributors are used for
oil.
R. There were no reports on special dust prevention designs
or devices, and present methods seem to be satisfactory.
6. — Q. What equipment is there available, and what needed in
the removal and reclaiming of metal scrap and waste from

road surfaces?
A. Home-made electro lifting magnet outfits were reported in
Nevada and New Mexico in successful and economic
operation.
R. Cost of operation is reported as $3.50 per hour, and a
path six feet wide is covered. Truck-mounted units of
one and three magnets were used, energized by generators
of 5 KVA and smaller capacities.
7. — Q. What plant, stockpile, or car loaders and unloaders, con
veying or other methods, and equipment are used to
minimize costs?
A. Belt conveyors are used on stock piles and neck cranes
with clam buckets are reported in use for miscellaneous
loading and unloading work. Bucket loaders are popular,
but much work of this type is still being done by hand on
small jobs.
R. Belt conveyors from track pits are favored for stock
piling, while truck cranes with clams and bucket are pre
ferred for loading wagons or trucks.
-Surface Treated Types

1. — Q. What aggregate spreader equipment is in use?
A. Chip spreaders of nearly all types are reported fair. Hand

spreading is reported unsatisfactory.
R. Complaints were made with reference to the high cost of
the better equipment and to the choking-up of some of the
commercial chip spreaders.
2. — Q.What surface cleaning appliances or units are in use?
A. Hand brooms and rotary power brooms, with and without
blowers or vacuum manifolds for dust removal are re
ported in use and satisfactory.
R. There are available rotary brooms with blowers to be
propelled by tractors.
3. — Q. What methods and equipment are used in distributing
bituminous surface materials?
A. Present makes and types of distributors are satisfactory.
Large sizes are reported to be more economical in this
operation.
4. — Q. What methods and equipment are used in cutting or hon
ing down waves in treated surfaces?
A. Most states seem to prefer to fill in the Tow places rather
than to cut off the high ones. However, those reporting
such activity use scarifiers and blade graders or heavy road
hones.
R. New Mexico uses a home-made rotary drum cutter and

Nevada uses a Killifer disc.
5. — Q. What is available and what are the needs for properly de
signed mixers for bituminous materials?
A. Most states report the use of tilting-drum concrete mixers
for small oil mixes. There are some small asphalt plants
available.
R. Small portable asphalt plants are in demand, notwith
standing the fact that concrete mixers are serving satis
factorily at present.
6. — Q. What aggregate handling and distributing equipment is
being used at the source of supply and on the roadway?
A. Belt conveyors, bucket conveyors, and truck cranes with
clains, either to trucks or to gravity bins are serving well.
R. Belt conveyors and truck cranes with clams are most
popular for this type of work.
-Pavement Surface Types
1. — Q. What available equipment is there and what needs are
there for improvements in center line marking devices?
A. There are many successful commercial machines, but their
lack of high speeds is a detriment to their efficiency.
R. There is a demand for a higher speed machine, and, also
for a rapid drying and more durable and luminous center
line paint.
2. — Q. What crack filling and cleaning equipment is being used?
A. Hooks, brooms and compressed air jets are being used for
cleaning cracks, and hand pots for bitumen and hand
shovels for blotter are in favor. There are commercial
outfits for crack filling on handy trucks with heaters for
sand and bitumen so that the pouring and blotting may
be done in one operation.
R. Compressed air is considered best for cleaning, and small
compressors on light trucks or trailers are favored.
3. — O. What equipment and methods are used in re-elevating mis
placed slabs to their proper positions?
A. Jacks and blocks, timbers, bars, and hydraulic methods are
reported. Some prefer to build up the slabs with bitumi
nous materials rather than to raise them to place. Break
ing up the old slab, filling in and constructing a new slab
is another method.
R. Jacks and levers were not satisfactory and are being re
placed by a hydraulic method, which utilizes a machine
known as the Mud Pump.
4. —Q. What methods and equipment are used for heating old
surfaces for the purpose of obtaining a bond in resurfac
ing.
A. Reports show that heating of old surfaces is not done to

a greatextent, however, there are several commercial
heaters on the market.
R. Kerosene paint is preferred as a binder coat without the
heating of the old surface.
5. — Q. What available hand equipment or tool appliances are used
in pavement breaking?
A. Pneumatic paving breakers are most satisfactory and are
in wide use. Hand sledges, jacks, and cranes with skull
crackers are also popular.
R. Adobe dynamite shots are used where location will permit.
6. — Q. W hat means of transportation or transit mixed units are
used between the central plant and the road in patching
work ?
A. Transit mixed units are reported too expensive and spe
cialized for maintenance work. Ordinary mixing on the
job is favored in most states for patching.
R. Connecticut uses transit mix for large jobs when a cen
tral plant is available. Several states report the purchase
of custom concrete, and a central mixing plant is advo
cated for heavy maintenance within a short radius.
7. — Q. What barricade designs are used and are they standards?
A. Distant signals, striped (empty) steel barrels, one-by-six-
inch boards painted a black and white stripe on wooden
horses, and flagmen are the ordinary means of barricading
patching work.
R. Distance signals are necessary and advisable. The U. S.
standard signs are widely approved and favored.
-Bridge Maintenance
1. — Q. What truck units, built up locally, carrying general or
special repair equipment for use on bridge repair work
are in use?
A. Truck cranes with pile driver leads work well for small
pile bridges. Camp cars built on rubber-tired trailers are
convenient for isolated work.
R. The reported equipment shows little unusual or new de
velopments, and present commercial equipment seems to
be all that is required for bridge maintenance.
2. —Q. What painting equipment and appliances are being used?
A. Painting of bridges is being satisfactorily done with com
pressed air spray and by hand brushes.
R. Present methods seem to be well standardized.
3. — Q. What riveting, cleaning, chipping, cutting, and other pneu
matic equipment is in use?
A. Riveting is done almost entirely by air hammers. Clean
ing is being accomplished by the use of wire hand brushes

and sand blast, and chipping is usually done by air ham
mer or by hand methods. The oxyacetaline flame is popu
lar for cutting.
G. — General
1. — Q.What equipment is used or needed for guard rail painting?
• A. Hand brushes and pneumatic paint sprays are being used.
R. Sprays are not satisfactory in most cases. Their wastage
is reported as high.
2. — Q. What are some needs for central or division garage equip
ment for maintaining maintenance equipment?
A. Both central and divisional garages are reported essen
tial ; the central garage for heavy repairs and general over
haul jobs, and the divisional garage for minor and emer
gency work. The usual garage and machine shop equip
ment is satisfactory. A
tire vulcanizer is recommended.
R. Garage equipment is highly developed and commercially
available.
3. —Q. What equipment is considered necessary in field garages
for equipment maintenance?
A. Usual field garages are for light repairs only, and for this
purpose wrenches, chain hoists, and an air compressor are
all that are needed other than the usual kit of shop tools.
R. There is no justification for elaborate equipment.
4. — Q. What special truck units, built up locally, carrying general
or special repair equipment for "all purpose work" are in
use?
A. There were no special machine shop units reported.
R. The usual light truck with tool box and accessories is
serving very satisfactorily, and there seems to be no de
mand fon an elaborately equipped truck.
DEVELOPMENTS AND TRENDS IN EQUIPMENT

The development of equipment for mixing and placing bituminous
plant mixes offers an excellent opportunity for user and producer to mu
tually assist each other.
Plant mixes are usually superior in quality to road mixes. There has
recently been developed equipment which will lay plant mix at cost about
equal to that of road mixes.
Mixing plants are desirable for mixing all sizes of aggregate, but they
are particularly needed for mixing the graded-aggregate type and fine-
aggregate type. For the coarse-aggregate type they do not appear to be
as necessary.
Initial compaction of the finer aggregate types may be successfully
done by track-type tractors, power rollers obtain final compaction.

Plant-mixing methods appear to be more suitable for contract work
than road-mixing methods because they are more easily and accurately
controlled and are less affected by weather conditions.
Data are conflicting as to whether plant mixing is more expensive than
road mixing, especially when new aggregates are to be used instead of
those already in the road.
Methods for spreading and finishing plant mix should be such as to
produce riding qualities equal to those resulting from road-mix methods.
Plant mixing makes possible the use of higher viscosity bitumens,
which will result in more stable surfaces than those mixed on the road
with bitumens of relatively low viscosity.
The development of mixing plants and plant mixes is attracting more
than usual interest on the part of highway engineers, bitumen producers,
equipment manufacturers, and a few contractors.
Equipment for untreated surfaces is generally satisfactory with few
recent developments and little demand for them. One exception is the
need for or use of special rollers for obtaining dense and quick compaction
of untreated surfaces.
Blading and dragging equipment produce easy riding surfaces.
For the road mix types equipment is needed which will more quickly
and uniformly coat the aggregates with bitumen, will be effective for
depths of materials greater than 2yi inches loose measure, and will not
push the mixtures outside the width proposed for finished surface.
For cleaning surfaces prior to treatment with bitumen the rotary
broom and blower are excellent.
A suggested improvement for bituminous distributors and one which
should be incorporated in and required by specifications is that they start
and stop the application of bitumen more cleanly and that a high rate of
discharge is desirable for the thicker types of surfacing.
The use of rollers for compacting is generally desirable, and is growing
to include all bituminous surfaces.
Initial compaction by tractor is advantageous when a bituminous mix
ture lacks sufficient stability to carry standard type rollers.
Chip and aggregate spreaders are favorably received.
Some of the more recent developments in equipment are little known
outside of one or two states; the method of pre-coating aggregates by
immersion bitumen in a vat is an example.
Developments in methods and equipment are desirable, but they should
not result in changing low-cost surfaces to high-cost surfaces because of
exacting requirements and expensive refinements.
For cement-bound macadam present concrete making and handling
equipment is employed. If this type of surface grows in popularity,
there may develop a need for cheaper mortar-mixing equipment.
CHAPTER X
MAINTENANCE
IMPORTANCE AND PURPOSE OF MAINTENANCE
of highways has the dual purpose of conserv
ing the public investment in roadway improvement and of insur
MAINTENANCEing the safety, comfort and economy of vehicle operation.
It is the major activity of the majority of counties and most states.
A highway is necessarily subjected to disintegrating agencies of vari
ous kinds. Weather alone will cause a road surface to deteriorate even
if little or no traffic uses the road, if the road is not properly maintained.
Temperature changes, water, and freezing and thawing all have their
effect on unprotected road surfaces. In addition, traffic crushes with its
weight and tears and abrades with its fast-moving wheels. Constant
maintenance is necessary to counteract these forces and to replace and
repair their effects. Not only are these forces destructive of themselves,
but their effect is cumulative.
Delay in construction projects may or may not be a serious matter.
The use of the structure is lost, to be sure, but it can be built at a later
date. Not so with maintenance operations. They must be done when
needed. Delay means more cost and much delay may mean a complete
rebuilding job instead of an inexpensive minor repair.
Adequate maintenance gives direct return to the road user by keeping
the road surface in proper condition. It costs much less to operate a
motor vehicle over a smooth, well maintained road than over a rough,
pitted, uneven highway surface. This saving is in addition to that pro
duced by keeping the original investment intact.
Funds for maintenance must always be provided to protect our in
vestment in highways and to keep our highway facilities up to their pres
ent level. Road conditions become either better or worse. Adequate
maintenance may make them better, inadequate maintenance is sure to
make them rapidly worse.
There should be a clear distinction between maintenance money and
other highway funds. Maintenance funds are a kind of insurance to
preserve the integrity of existing highway investments. The omission
of a piece of new construction may be inconvenient, but the omission of
necessary maintenance operations may result in a very great direct money
loss.*
Money spent for upkeep gives quicker returns on the investment than
any other expenditure made for road work. Accordingly, money properly
•The preceding material was taken from Roads and Streets.
449
and economically spent for maintenance meets with instant and popular
approval from the traveling public.
It is of vital importance to every state and county that an efficiently
organized department for the preservation of their roads be in continual
operation. Not only does the convenience of the traveling public demand
the upkeep and repair of the various projects comprising the road system,
but from an economic standpoint the vast funds expended in road con
struction represent a capital investment whose physical properties must
be continually repaired to reduce depreciation to a minimum.
Any saving in taxes which might come from reducing a road budget
would be small compared with the extra cost of transportation which
must result from poor maintenance.
Estimated
INVESTMENT IN ROADS AND STREETS
1931
Roads:
Federal (Parks, forests, etc.)
176,000 miles at $3,000 $ 528,000,000
State (graded)
35,000 miles at $5,000 . 175,000,000
State (surfaced)
228,200 miles at $25,000 5,705,000,000
County and local (graded)
2,278,000 miles at $500 1,139,000,000
County and local (surfaced)
483,100 miles at $10,000 4,831,000,000
Right of Way (securing easements)
3,200,000 miles at $100 320,000,000
Total Roads, 3,200,300 miles $12,678,000,000

Streets :
60,000 miles at $5,000 $ 300,000,000
140,000 miles at $30,000 4,200,000,000
Total Streets, 200,000 miles $ 4,500,000,000

Motor Vehicles. 26,700,000 at $700 $18,690,000,000
Garages, at $100 per vehicle 2,670,000,000
Filling Stations (about 200,000) 1,400,000,000
Total vehicles, garages and filling stations. .$22,760,000,000
Grand total $39,938,000,000

The above table was taken from "Roads and Streets"
MAINTENANCE 451
Well-maintained roads cheapen travel; they lessen the time spent be

tween the start of a trip and its goal. And these savings do not benefit
car-owners alone. They benefit all who travel by highway or who have
a stake in the rapid and efficient transportation of commodities over the
roads.
It costs from 26 to 34 per cent less to operate an automobile on a
fully improved and maintained highway as compared with one in bad
condition.
The major obligation of the authorities responsible for highways
today is the adoption and enforcement of measures which will prolong
the useful life of the existing highways to the utmost possible degree.
MAINTENANCE ADMINISTRATION
Since maintenance must be effective and at the same time economical,
it is clear that our entire highway system, whether of high type or low
type must require supervision by experts capable of combining efficiency
and economy.
Adequate provision for maintenance is perhaps the most important
single measure that may be taken to insure economy in highway adminis
tration.
A considerable part of the total motor vehicle revenue should always
be made available for state, county and local maintenance costs.
Motor vehicle funds not required for maintenance projects should be
made available for essential new construction and reconstructing or wid
ening of existing roads.
An effective, efficient, and loyal organization is necessary for eco
nomical management of maintenance work.
Nearly every state and a relatively smaller number of counties have
excellent organizations. That of the state of California has been selected
I STATE HIGHWAY ENGINEER |
ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT
MAINTENANCE ENGINEER
| HEADQUARTERS OFFICE | DISTRICT OFFICES
i:\OR H' ARUOKICUI.TL'HIST I' |' DISTRICT ENGINEER j

'
HASyTMAINT
OFFICE -i
DISTRICT MAINTENANCE ENGINEER
| DRAFTSMAN | | CLEHKS~|
| ASST. TO DI8T. MATNT. EXQ-R |
PERMIT INSPECTOR | MAIM' SUI'TS. y\ TIMEKEEPER

I DIST. ACCOUNTANT I' j MAINT. FOREMEN |
'
I I .
I CLERKS-] | eTEN0.1~| | LEADING MEN |
LAUORF.RS
Fig. i.—Organisation Chart for Maintenance Work in California

for illustration because definite and concise information is available from

its Manual of Instructions on Maintenance.
This excellent handbook of instructions was prepared by C. H. Pur-
cell State Highway Engineer, and T. H. Dennis, Maintenance Engineer.
ORGANIZATION
Headquarters Office. — The maintenance department comprises
that branch of the service which has assigned to it the upkeep and restora
tion of roads and bridges, and the construction and upkeep of maintenance
stations. The administration is under the direction of the maintenance
engineer at headquarters office, who is the representative of the state
highway engineer in all matters pertaining thereto. Administrative de
tails are handled through an assistant and small office force and field
supervision through general assistants who give their entire time to this
work.
District Offices. — The state is divided into ten districts, each in
charge of a district engineer. The maintenance engineer deals directly
with the district engineers, who are responsible for the work in their
respective territories. The district engineer is assisted in maintenance
matters by a district maintenance engineer, who in turn is assisted by
maintenance superintendents, as requirements demand. The highways are
divided into territories of approximately 100 to 150 miles under the
direction of a maintenance superintendent. This territory is in turn divid
ed into maintenance sections, the length varied to fit local conditions but
averaging thirty miles. There is a foreman or leading man in charge of
each section and of the crew employed thereon.
Arboriculturist. — The arboriculturist, under direction of the main

tenance engineer, has general supervision over the selection and culture
of roadside tree plantings, of beautification work and methods applicable
to the eradication of noxious weeds.
District Maintenance Engineer. — The district maintenance engi
neer is the assistant of the district engineer in matters pertaining to main
tenance, and has direct supervision over district maintenance employees.
He should make frequent, unhurried trips throughout the district to
inspect methods used and results attained by each superintendent and
foreman. He should encourage personal initiative to the end that the
best practice obtains in the combination of labor, equipment and ma
terials. He should diligently study the present needs and probable future
development of each section of highway and should see that the minor
improvements made from time to time are of standard construction so
as to insure their inclusion in the final cross section of the highway. He
should keep himself fully informed of his organization's contact with the
public to the end that it may reflect credit upon the district management.
He should make allotments to the various superintendents or foremen
MAINTENANCE 453
from funds, and see that they are economically and efficiently
the district
expended. It is his duty to see that all state laws and all rules, regulations
and requirements of his and other governmental agencies are respected.
Maintenance Superintendent. — The maintenance superintendent
is field assistant to the district maintenance engineer in charge of a
territory within the district . He should plan and direct the efforts of the
foremen within his territory, standardize their methods and equipment
according to accepted practice, and be responsible to the district main
tenance engineer for the results obtained.
Maintenance Foreman. — The maintenance foreman is the key

stone of the organization. He is removed from constant supervision of
his superiors and must often act on his own initiative. Through his work
the public forms its impression of the highway organization, and whether
it is favorable or otherwise depends upon his personal conduct and
efficiency in management of his forces and equipment. He and his men
should at all times be courteous and helpful to the public. He must
know his section intimately and guard it from destruction or encroach
ment. During rains, he should go over his road and note for future cor
rection all places where drainage may be faulty or structures inadequate.
He should inspect all bridges at frequent intervals, both foundations and
superstructure, and report weaknesses which should be known to his
superiors.
Leading Man. — The designation leading man is given men as
signed temporarily to oversee a particular part of the work as "straw
boss."
Permit Inspector. — Under supervision of the district engineer or
district maintenance engineer, the permit inspector should investigate appli
cations, and prepare permits for encroachments within the right of way
lines. In handling these requests he must keep in mind the future de
velopment of the highway, and see that encroachments granted under per
mit conform to the standard development section thus eliminating inter
ference with future reconstruction or maintenance. This position is
needed only in districts where the permit work is so heavy as to inter
fere with the performance of their work by district employees defined
above.
SURFACE MAINTENANCE METHODS

Maintenance work is commonly done by the owner, that is, the state,
county or municipality, but contracts are not unusual, especially when the
work is extensive and can be definitely specified. The field work is usu
ally performed under the patrol system, or less frequently by the gang
system, or by both.
Patrol maintenance is effective for surfaces which require constant
attention, such as the frequent blading or dragging of untreated surfaces.
Gang maintenance is commonly employed where heavier work of consid

erable extent is necessary, such as scarifying and reshaping, the addition
of new materials or the retreatment of bituminous surfaces.
Just what the correct definition of highway maintenance may be is
still a moot and relatively unimportant question. Importance attaches to
it only when an attempt is made to compare records of maintenance kept
by one state or county, etc., with records kept by another jurisdiction.
It may be fairly stated that no two jurisdictions post similar items under
the maintenance account. In some instances it includes all work not done
by the construction contractors, in others it does not include betterments
and reconstruction. For the purpose of clarity in describing the methods
of maintenance it will here include repairs to the original roadway for
the purpose of keeping it in serviceable condition. For a general discus
sion and various definitions of maintenance the reader is referred to 1932
monthly issues of Roads and Streets. The principal items of work in
maintaining the traveled way are :
1. Scarifying and reshaping.
2. Blading and dragging.
3. Patching and filling cracks.
4. Addition of new materials, which are similar to those in the exist
ing surface.
One or several of these operations are commonly necessary on any
type of low cost road surface. In fact low cost surfaces can give ade
quate service only by perpetual and persistent maintenance. Because
this fact has become generally realized, noteworthy progress in main
tenance methods and quality of service has been made.
1.Scarifying and Reshaping. —When a roadway surface is so

irregular that traffic cannot use it in safety and comfort these two opera
tions may become necessary. The immediate conditions which require
these operations on untreated surfaces are high crowns, large areas
of pot holes, large protruding stone and corrugations.
Bituminous surface treatments and surface courses are scarified and
reshaped because of excessive pot holes, corrugations, shoving and ravel
ing. This does not apply to the hot mix and pavement type of surfacing.
Generally the depth of scarifying is only sufficient to correct or get to
the bottom of the irregularities. Deep scarifying to the subgrade is usually
avoided, care being taken to loosen no more of the existing compacted
surface than is necessary.
The surface is scarified or loosened by spikes, or discs, securely
fastened in a suitable frame. This frame in turn is attached to or pulled
by a power roller, tractor, or road machine.
Following the scarifying the loosened material is harrowed until the
lumps are broken to about the average size of the aggregate in the road.
The large lumps and over-size stone are removed.
MAINTENANCE 455
The surface is then bladed until the materials are uniformly mixed
and the surface has the desired crown and regularity of contour.
Final compaction is by a power roller or by traffic. The operation
of scarifying and reshaping usually precedes the addition of new material.
The work is done, if possible, during the season of the year when
traffic is light. Heavy rains on newly scarified sand-clay and earth roads
may make them impassable to traffic or the lack of rain may delay their
bonding. Less difficulty to traffic is experienced with stone and gravel
surfaces. The season of the year usually selected is soon after the frost
has left the ground and before heavy summer traffic begins, or before
freezing begins in the fall of the year and after the peak of the summer
traffic.
2. Blading and Dragging. — For Untreated Surfaces containing
aggregates which pass the lj^-inch screen one or the other of these
operations are required daily or at least three times each week in order
to retain a smooth riding surface. The purpose is to cut down the high
spots and fill up the low ones.
Maintenance of this character is most satisfactory when the untreated
roads or surfaces are treated with calcium chloride and have a thin
(about J^-inch) layer of loose stone or gravel on their surface. By
blading or dragging this loose material back and forth or along the
surface the formation of pot holes and corrugations is retarded.
Calcium chloride and lignin binders and even clay tend to reduce
corrugations in gravel roads. Fine or sandy gravels corrugate more
quickly than those containing a greater percentage of coarse particles.
Fig. 2. — Blading with Power Maintainer

Light road machines, one-man patrol graders, spring blades attached

to trucks and drags are used for the daily and routine maintenance.
Heavy road machines and planers are used at less frequent intervals
when required to remove irregularities upon which the lighter equip
ment is not effective.
The light routine work begins as soon as the surface is shaped up
in the spring, continues through the summer months and is stopped dur
ing the winter if the road is frozen.
During seasons of little or no rainfall an excess of loosened material
may be bladed to the outer edges of shoulders to be bladed back again
when weather conditions permit.
The blading and dragging operations are continued regardless of
weather conditions, except as stated during the time the road surface is
frozen. These untreated surfaces are put in the best possible condition
before going into the winter months, rainy seasons or dry season.
Water-bound macadams or other surfaces which are composed of
aggregates larger than two inches are usually well compacted. They may
be maintained by light blading and dragging if a thin layer of pea gravel
or fine stone is kept on the surface at all times.
The use of heavy road machines and planers on water-bound macadam
is rare. A few isolated cases have been reported.
In the Graded Aggregate Type of Road-Mix high spots are cut down
and low ones are filled by cutting with a heavy road machine which is fol
lowed by a drag or planer. This method is suitable for bituminous sur
faces which are more or less plastic and become soft during high atmos
pheric temperatures.
On Bituminous Macadam a treatment with a cutback or other cold
bitumen is used to soften the surface. This is followed the next day by
repeated draggings with a very heavy road plane. The material thus cut
fills the low spots or is spread evenly by drags along the shoulders. The
results are very satisfactory.
3. Patching. — Patching is a necessary but often a temporary
expedient.
For Untreated Surfaces or those with nonbituminous materials it be
comes necessary to fill pot holes which are not properly filled by ordinary
blading and dragging. In macadam the loose material is removed and the
edges cut square. The hole is then cleaned and filled with new aggre
gates containing sufficient binder. Water may be sprinkled on the patch or
mixed with the aggregates. Calcium chloride is used as a powder sprin
kled on the patch or mixed in solution.
Patching of untreated surfaces is done during the seasons of heavy
traffic, which are frequently the dry summer months, or when scarify
ing, reshaping and heavy blading are not advisable.
For Bituminous Surfaces patching is common practise and the results
somewhat more permanent than for untreated surfaces. It is for the pur
MAINTENANCE 457
pose of filling holes or correcting surface raveling and disintegration.

Large holes are cleaned out and their edges cut vertical. In the case
of bituminous surfaces the sides and bottom are painted with bitumen
and the hole filled with a pre-mixed bitumen and aggregate. In the case
of portland cement concrete a quick setting patching mixture is usually
placed in the hole. Shallow holes and raveling of bituminous surfaces
may be patched by separate applications of aggregate and a hot or cold
bitumen.
Patching is done throughout the year, except that the major work is
not commonly done during the winter months.
In the fall of the year cracks that may have developed in concrete
roads are cleaned out with a blower and filled with an asphaltic material.
Edges and shoulders are also built up for the winter.
4. Addition of New Materials. — This method of maintenance

must be used frequently for untreated surfaces. Treated surfaces or
surface courses which are bonded by bitumen or cement require very
much less new material.
For Untreated Surfaces the replacement of lost aggregates is the
most costly item in surface maintenance. This cost and the depletion of
supplies of local aggregates has forced the majority of highway builders
to use bituminous surface treatments.
The report of the Committee on Maintenance, Sixth Annual Meeting,
Highway Research Board, on observations in Indiana showed that the
amount of gravel lost was directly proportional to the amount of traffic.
Over a three year period on 236 miles of gravel road under observation,
the average loss was 257 cubic yards per mile, for an average daily
traffic of 892 vehicles. Some enlightening information is found in Public
Roads. Vol. 8, No. 7, where the following statements are made relative
to untreated gravel and fine crushed stone roads ; "Wyoming and Col
orado report an inch of material lost per year under traffic of 200 or 300
vehicles per day and even higher losses in districts where wind is un
usually severe. Wisconsin reports a loss of 1 to lJ/> inches per year for
traffic of 500 vehicles per day. and California and Oregon confirm Wis
consin figures."
A report of the Sub-Committee on Maintenance, American Associa
tion State Highway Officials. 1926, estimated the annual loss of surfac
ing gravel to be not less than 300 cubic yards per mile for 400 or more
vehicles per clay.
A report by Dr. C. M. Strahan on Semi-Gravel, Top-soil, and Sand-
Clay Road Materials (Highway Research Board, Seventh Annual Pro
ceedings, 1927) states under the subtitle "Loss of Slab Material under
Service," "An approximate general figure from the observed data may
be indicated, lying between ^4-inch and 1-inch per year under traffic count
of 400 to 600 vehicles per day."
In spite of the necessity of replacing lost material many roads must
still be maintained in this manner until funds and time are available for
surface treatments or until traffic volume justifies it.
New materials are those similar to that in the existing surface, as a
general rule. They are hauled to and there spread and shaped over the
old surface. The new material is usually mixed by blading and compacted
by traffic.
The most suitable season for this work appears to be when there is
sufficient moisture for blading and compaction, and when the new ma
terial can become bonded to that in the old surface.
Under traffic, gravel and other surfaces may become loosened, clay
is then added as a binder. It must be thinly and evenly applied and thor
oughly mixed with the gravel. Iron oxide and non-slaking binders are
preferred.
For Bituminous Surfaces scarifying and reshaping are followed by
retreatments of bitumen and aggregate for cover. Sometimes additional
aggregates are placed and rolled prior to retreatments.
Bituminous surfaces which show wear, appear dry and cracked, open
or "lean," are given a light retreatment of bitumen and a light cover.
Surfaces which appear too "rich" and become displaced by traffic are
sometimes improved by rolling stone chips or crushed gravel into the
surface.
There has been a general marked improvement in maintenance meth
ods during the past five years.
CALCIUM CHLORIDE FOR MAINTENANCE

It is believed that the value of calcium chloride for dust laying is due
to the remarkable affinity it has for water and its ability to retain moisture
absorbed. This fact is clearly set forth in a report presented before the
Highway Research Board by Dr. F. H. Eno, Ohio State University.
The object of a study during the summer of 1932 was to learn what
became of the calcium chloride; that is, how best to conserve it. Three
sources of possible dissipation were considered: (1) rainfall, (2) chem
ical reaction with soil (base exchange), and (3) maintenance manipula
tion.
(1) The loss of calcium chloride due to the washing out effect of
rains depends on the type of rains, the permeability of the soil for water
and the composition of the soil. The greatest loss from this account
would be when a heavy rain might occur immediately following appli
cation.
(2) The loss due to chemical reaction or base exchange is dependent
on the chemical composition and the degree of acidity of the soil system.
This loss is mainly due to the absorbing of the calcium chloride by the
soil with the liberation of an equal amount of another base which recom-
bines with chloride. This has been offered as an explanation as to why
subsequent treatments seem to offer more definite value, that is, some of
MAINTENANCE 459
the calcium chloride applied on the first treatment may have been dissi
pated by this base exchange, however, further application would not be
affected in this manner.
(3) However, the most important factor causing loss of calcium
chloride was the effect of continued daily maintenance. The investigation
shows definitely that better results will be obtained and more value de
rived from the use of calcium chloride if regular maintenance is carried
on only immediately after rains. Maintenance at other times tends to
loosen the surface and dissipate the calcium chloride. Since calcium
chloride is an indestructible material under ordinary conditions encoun
tered in highway work, its effectiveness can be destroyed only by its re
moval from the road. A more compact surface with a minimum of main
tenance insures the greatest service from the treatment.
Treating Gravel Roads. — The use of calcium chloride for treat
ment of gravel roads has oftentimes been with only the thought of alleviat
ing the dust nuisance and the engineer has not realized the many other
important factors resulting from its application. Investigators interested
in this problem now are studying the many beneficial effects the calcium
chloride creates towards improvements of the condition of the soil for
a satisfactory road surface, and they consider the alleviation of the dust
nuisance, which is in reality a most dangerous factor, as one of the added
benefits derived.
In addition to being a most excellent dust palliative, calcium chloride
acts as a binding agent and greatly reduces the loss of road metal. The
Bureau of Public Roads has made the statement that the annual wear on
gravel roads is equivalent to to inch of surfacing material, which, in
l/2
the case of an 18-foot surface, would be 150 to 300 cu. yd. per mile. The
Fig. — Spreading Calcium Chloride

3.
cost of using calcium chloride is approximately equal to the cost of the

extra replacement of gravel required where calcium chloride is not used;
however, the application of calcium chloride insures the alleviation of
dust, while a replacement of gravel offers no such assurance.
Application of Calcium Chloride. — Maintenance engineers regularly
using calcium chloride do not believe that it should be applied at any
specific rate, but rather depending upon the amount of traffic carried by
the road. The following table is typical practice under general conditions :
Per sq. yd.

100 to 200 vehicles per day 1 lb.
200 to 500 vehicles per day V/2 lb.
500 to 1,000 vehicles per day 2 lb.
1,000 and up vehicles per day. . 2y2 lb.
The best practice of applying calcium chloride is to make several ap

plications. For example, should the road require VA lb. per square yard,
it would be advisable to make one application of 1 lb. per square yard
and follow with a second application of ]A lb. at an interval of approxi
mately six weeks, depending upon the prevailing weather conditions.
Conditions* that demand heavier application of calcium chloride are
long dry spells, heavy traffic, low clay content, recent heavy resurfacing,
no shaded portions, heavy wearing cushion and dead material. Conditions
favorable for lighter application are frequent rains, light traffic, heavy
clay content and shade.
SNOW REMOVAL
Successin snow removal according to a recent committee of the
American Road Builders' Association depends upon :
Early attention.
Adequate equipment.
Qualified operators.
Complete control.
Constant application.
Greatest speed possible, with drift prevention and elimination of icy
and slippery conditions supplementing the actual removal.
Effective snow removal demands the use of more than one type of
equipment on the same road according to road and storm conditions en
countered.
The following improvements should be incorporated in equipment:
1. The working surface of the snow blade should be polished,
treated with rust resisting material, and coated with suitable wax
to eliminate friction.
2. All equipment should be fitted with cabs fully inclosed, tightly
built, properly ventilated, roomy and comfortable, and heated, if
possible, but not by use of exhaust heaters as built at present.
MAINTENANCE 461
3. Suitable provisions should be made on all snow removal equip

ment for the safe conveyance of exhaust fumes away from the
cab to eliminate the possibility of contaminating the air in the
cab by such fumes.
Equipment should be designed to afford the operators every consid
eration in comforts to obtain the most efficient service. It is important
to maintain the high morale of the operating forces under the most trying
conditions.
Traffic hazards should be reduced by :
1. Emphasizing locations of protruding wing and blade ends by
suitable markings, preferably flood lighted at night.
2. Marking the equipment to distinguish it as snow removal equip
ment by color, signs or other means.
3. All maintenance equipment should not be required to comply
with the regular traffic rules and regulations.
Organization of operating force and distribution and operation of
equipment should be in accord with the following general practice :
1. The operating personnel should be organized and controlled by
supervisors within suitable local areas, and the operators should
be selected from the permanent maintenance force assigned to
the particular area because of their familiarity with local road
conditions. Prior to the snow season the operators should erect
suitable markings which will remain visible above the snow and
indicate to them the location of headwalls and other obstructions.
2. Snow units should be assigned to definite sections of roadway ;
a reasonable number of replacement units of similar type should
be maintained for use in case of breakdowns; and these usual
units should be supplemented by reserve or emergency equipment
for severe conditions.
Suitable shelter for equipment and an adequate number of
field shops for repairs should be conveniently located. No recom
mendations as to mileage per unit is made because of the variable
conditions encountered. Only experience can dictate the equip
ment necessary for the circumstances to be anticipated in the
respective localities.
3. One-man power graders, although not directly classed as snow
removal equipment, may often be used to advantage as supple
mentary equipment when available.
4. Snow should be removed down to the road surface, if possible.
Snow removal programs should include, be accompanied or supple
mented by, measures to prevent icy or slippery conditions, promptly and
rapidly applied by mechanical or other means, to care particularly for
steep hills, curves, dangerous intersections and those highways that con
stitute village or town streets in heavy traffic areas.
For this purpose sand, slag or cinders with calcium chloride in 35
per cent solution has proven practical, the solution being prepared by
mixing 100 pounds of calcium chloride with 13 gallons of water to pro
duce 19 gallons of mixture, and applied in sufficient quantity to saturate
the piles of aggregate.
The formations of drifts can be controlledby the erection of snow
fence or other means to permit the usual snow removal equipment to
operate effectively.
The location, position of fence and the number of rows at proper
distance apart, must depend upon actual experience in meeting local con
ditions. In some locations, hedge or other shrubbery has been planted in
lieu of fence, the advantage being the added beauty.
Standardized systems should be established for keeping costs of snow
removal.
Comparable figures over a period of years would prove of greatest
use in improving the efficiency of the respective snow-removal areas in
successive years.
REMOVING SNOW IN CHAUTAUQUA COUNTY. NEW YORK

The following description by S. E. Fitch, County Superintendent of
Highways, will be helpful in studying actual working conditions.
Intense local snow storms may be general over the entire county but
more frequently they extend over only a part of it. One can tell little
about the weather in one part of the county by observing it in another.
Organization. — For this reason it has been necessary to organize

a more elaborate system of dispatching snow plowing equipment than
might be necessary elsewhere. The system we have worked out is as
follows :
We have stationed and hold ready for immediate service at strategic
points in various parts of the county trucks and snow plows, the drivers
of which can be reached at any time by telephone. We have arrange
ments with various all night garages, with bus companies and with town
officials whereby they will telephone our headquarters with reverse
charges whenever sufficient snow has fallen or drifted to require plowing.
In winter we keep a dispatcher on duty night and day who can call
up any or all drivers and start them plowing at any necessary hour. >
We have a county map some 24 inches square mounted on cork board
and showing all roads to be plowed and with mileage distances marked
thereon. Each truck with its plow bears a number painted on its cab ;
for each truckunit we have a large headed thumb-tack with a number
marked on it to correspond ; also an arrow showing which way the truck
is headed.
Orders are given to each truck driver to plow to a certain point and
then call back to headquarters and report conditions encountered and get
further orders. To prevent delay in these calls we have installed one out
MAINTENANCE 463
side telephone line with an unlisted number so that other business calls
or inquiries from travelers can not delay the calls. The number of this
phone is known only to the drivers.
In addition we keep a dispatcher's record book, in which each order
is tecorded, the driver's name, the hours on which he left and called in
the mileage made, the conditions he reported and the additional orders
given him. The thumb-tack is moved on the map in accordance with the
movements of the corresponding truck. When the relief dispatcher comes
on duty he has all the information at a glance. He knows when to send
out relief drivers. He can report to auto clubs, newspapers or others in
terested, accurate information as to traveling conditions in any part of
the county. Telephone bills of course run rather high but this is but a
minor matter compared to the advantages of sending the trucks where
they are needed and only where needed. In addition to drivers' reports
of conditions on the roads, in time of bad storms the general superin
tendent and an assistant take the field in fast automobiles, and make rapid
trips over entire district giving orders back to the dispatcher and phoning
in all possible information, so the dispatcher can determine the relative
conditions of different parts of county and send equipment accordingly.
Equipment. — The fact that in such difficult snow country as this

we have been able to keep some 300 miles of road open practically at all
times with only 10 plows and one rotary shows the efficiency of the sys
tem for this kind of territory.
We have tried one-way blade plows, and tractor plows, and solid tire
trucks with various kinds of plows. Solid tire trucks are only 50 per
cent efficient. We find for light snows of say 10 inches or under fast
trucks are best as they will throw the snow clear.
Most of our work is heavy at least in places and requires a 3'X-ton to
5-ton truck. So we have standardized them. All trucks should be mount
ed on dual pneumatic tires and carry a steel V shape plow, fitted with
wings of the type that have a universal joint at the inner end when
attached to the nose of the plow. Such a wing will automatically adjust
itself to any condition it encounters.
We have one rotary which can handle any condition it may encounter
except solid ice. It is mounted on dual pneumatic tires, can make 20
miles per hour when not plowing and will do very severe plowing at a
speed of 2 or 3 miles per hour.
This is an emergency unit and is used only as such and for widening
out when the trench begins to get narrow enough so that it is in danger
of filling up. Before we secured this unit we spent much money widen
ing out and pushing back the snow with trucks and with 10-ton tractors.
Now with the rotary we can always open the road and we do not push
back the snow further than to give ample room for travel.
All trucks have enclosed cabs and are heated.
Warning Signals — Police Control. — Snow plow trucks should

carry special warning lights and signals. We carry a large red sign
"Snow Plow" on top of cab. Spot lights are focused on it. Also extra
lights are carried high up on the truck. Our rotary carries an exhaust
whistle which in blustery weather may be kept going when the truck
is invisible from blowing snow. It also carries extra spot lights.
Some scheme must be worked out whereby local police have authority
to stop approaching vehicles in adjacent villages when advised that the
road is blocked.
Strange as it may seem many vehicles will not stop on mere advice
that the road is blocked but proceed until stalled. The plowing, thus, is
held up until the cars are moved. This problem is a real one and should
be given serious consideration.
MAINTENANCE BY CONTRACT
While no highway authorities do their maintenance work in its en
tirety under a contract there is a distinct trend toward the placing of
such items under contract as lend themselves readily to the contract form.
These items include the distribution of bituminous materials, the pur
chase of pre-mixed bituminous concrete, and in a number of cases, the
contracting of complete surface treatment programs.
By careful budgeting and scheduling of the work well in advance, a
great deal can be done toward increasing the number of items which it
is possible to place under contract, and the advantages to be derived from
such contract work not only include reduction in cost, but even more
important, make it possible for the major maintenance items to be com
pleted prior to heavy summer traffic. The greatest attention should be
given to that form of maintenance which will provide for the maximum
use of the road with a minimum interference to traffic. While the rural
systems have not yet employed this plan of contracting maintenance to
any large extent, many of the large cities have tried
it,
and have found

it
to be exceptionally satisfactory.
Difficulty in developing highway maintenance by contract has been
experienced in preparing plans and specifications, and in providing ade
quate supervision. Arguments used by opponets of this system have been
that contractors are neither organized nor equipped to do this type of
work. Contractors are not organized and not equipped to handle work
of this nature because they have not been given an opportunity to get
into this field.
The same supervision as well as the sampling and inspection of ma
terials should be provided as on construction work. Up to the present
time, however, long-established practice of doing this work by day labor,
as well as the detail required of engineers in preparing suitable specifica
tions for contract maintenance have made difficult to secure any great
it
amount of reliable data.

MAINTENANCE 465
Some of the reasons why maintenance by contract has not been com
pletely successful are:
1. Lack of interest on the part of the contractors in securing good
results.
2. Difficulty of control of materials and workmanship.
3. Frequent misunderstanding between contractors and engineers
arising out of different interpretations of the various provisions of the
contracts.
4. Failure to secure better results, at less cost.
Maintenance by Contract in Ohio. — The largest program of main

tenance by contract used in this country was in the state of Ohio. During
the season of 1929 and 1930 the Ohio State Highway Department
adopted a policy of contracting such maintenance operations as were
applicable to the contract method. A state or county should of course
encourage private enterprises wherever it appears possible to secure sat
isfactory results at an economic cost. During 1930 Ohio handled under
contract maintenance the following items : Bituminous surfacing, weed
mowing, bridge painting, pavement patching, filling of cracks and joints,
guard-rail erection, and traffic-bound surfaces.
Bituminous Surfacing. — Bituminous surface treatments of all types
were constructed under contract maintenance varying from a skin treat
ment to a 2j/2-inch road-mix bituminous covering. One thousand and
seventy-one miles of surface treatment on various types of surfaces and
1.000 miles of cold-bituminous applications to traffic-bound roads were
done by contract in Ohio in one year. Bituminous surface treatments, to
be successful, are dependent upon experienced forces. Contractors for
Bituminous Surface Treatment by Contracted Maintenance

this type of work must develop a large crew of experienced men. An

other advantage claimed is that the seasons at which best results can be
obtained in surface treating are short and the state or county may find
itself with insufficient equipment to complete the entire program within
these seasons. Depreciation and obsolescence increase on this type of
equipment at a rapid rate, so that few highway departments can afford
to own enough of this equipment to adequately care for all their needs
during the season.
Weed mowing. — During one year a contract for the mowing of weeds
was let on 5,000 miles of Ohio highways. Later this was increased to
9,362 miles. The highway department confined the contractors to their
local territory as far as possible, and discouraged the subletting of any
work. This resulted in the work being done by small local contractors and
farmers who were able to take care of it in such time as was not taken up
with their other duties. The contracting of this operation has proven
popular with the maintenance superintendents, because it relieved them
at the busiest part of the season. Weed mowing by contract was satisfac
tory both from an economic standpoint and from the standpoint of qual
ity of work done.
Bridge Painting. — During 1930, 141 bridges were painted by contract,
the work entirely satisfactory and the price lower than ever before.
Patching of Pavements. —The contract for the patching of pavements
called for 7,500 square yards. The method used was a combination of
state forces and the contract method. The work of cutting out the patch,
removal of old material, and finishing of surface was done by mainte
nance forces ; truck-mixed concrete was delivered on the job by contract.
This method proved successful at locations within economical hauling
distance of cities where truck-mixing equipment was available. This class
of maintenance was carried on with less difficulty than any other mainte
nance contract operation.
Cracks and Joints. — The filling of cracks and joints on concrete pave
ments by contract maintenance was tried out for the first time. In some
sections the work was done in excellent manner and with a minimum of
supervision, while in other sections considerable difficulty was incurred
in getting the work done satisfactorily.
Traffic-bound Roads.
— Approximately 3,500 miles of traffic-bound
roads were surfaced one year by the contract method. Contracting had
been used for a number of years on this class of work, and had shown
that contract haulers will bid this work at a price much less than could
be done by maintenance forces and equipment.
Job Inspection. — One of the most importantphases of contract main
tenance is that of supervision and inspection. To reduce this cost to its
minimum, the operations should be of such an extent as to justify the
presence of an inspector on the job continuously.
MAINTENANCE AS7
MAINTENANCE COSTS
The subject of maintenance costs must be studied impartially. It
must be approached without prejudice and with a breadth of knowledge
and judgment sufficient to comprehend the national situation.
Such a study as this was made and was reported by H. K. Bishop,
project chairman of the Maintenance Committee, Highway Research
Board and Construction and Maintenance Engineer, U. S. Bureau of
Public Roads. A generalized abstract of the report follows:
The value of maintenance costs within government units such as
counties and states, lies in the extent to which they may be employed for
five main purposes :
1. As guides for estimating probable future expenditures.
2. As gauges of efficiency.
3. As means for ascertaining the degree of economy in expenditure.
4. As records in the economic life of the surface.
5. As factors in problems of design of surface for construction or
reconstruction.
The principal value of such data among agencies charged with highway
maintenance lies in their being amenable to comparison on fair bases.
There are a number of factors entering into any attempt to compare
maintenance costs that are not generally realized, such as: quality of
maintenance, cost accounting, type of equipment used, traffic, width of
surface, climatic conditions, variations in labor and other cost items.
In considering the quality of maintenance we may take as an extreme
example reported costs of maintaining gravel roads. The cost per mile
per year as reported runs from two hundred dollars per mile to fifteen
hundred dollars per mile. The former is a Rocky Mountain state and
the latter is a state on the Atlantic Seaboard. The mountain territory
has about all it can do to keep the surface of the roadway in barely trav-
elable condition and the drainage clear. The eastern unit spends a great
deal on such work as the grassing of shoulders and embankments, road
side clearing, highway beautification, etc. The difference is in the quality
of maintenance attempted. Variation in costs due to this factor of qual
ity is found in all types of road. Between the extreme cases cited is a
range of varying costs influenced by quality.
Before cost data reports can become really comparable, more uni
formity in methods of cost accounting must be had. Items included in
maintenance costs by some jurisdictions are charged to different work
in others. For example, many governmental units charge to maintenance
items of cost that, properly, should be charged to additions and better
ments. Many fail to account for equipment rental, depreciation, etc., in
maintenance cost estimates. The same is true with respect to supervision
charges.
Some jurisdictions have a considerable mileage of roads that, when
first built, were provided with surfaces adequate for the traffic to which
they were then subjected, but which have since become worn out with
the traffic increase. Often they are unable, for financial reasons, to re
construct their roads with suitable surfaces. On the other hand, others
can rebuild their highways to meet traffic increase, thereby reducing their
maintenance costs. Therefore, traffic data, and the age and suitability of
surfaces to bear the traffic, are of paramount importance.
Maintenance costs are usually reported in terms of cost per mile per
annum. The width of the surface is a pertinent factor that should be
considered. The amount of work necessary to maintain say a 20-foot
road is usually greater than to maintain a 16-foot road — other things
being equal. The maintenance of shoulders of narrow roads costs more
than on wider surfaces, due to the tendency for vehicles to leave the
pavment more often.
Some sections, with large mileages of low type earth and gravel roads,
have an average annual precipitation so low that it is impracticable to
properly maintain smooth surfaces. Other sections with the same char
acter of surfacing have ten times the precipitation and are able to have
smooth riding highways of gravel and earth. Frost action and other det
rimental subgrade features, due to climatic conditions, vary considerably
among the states.
In comparing reported costs* in terms of dollars per mile per annum,
the variation in cost of labor, materials, etc., in different sections of the
country is often neglected.Some adjustment must be made for variables
of this nature to render cost data truly comparable.
These are a few of the elements involved in the problem of obtaining
any fair basis for maintenance cost comparison.
From the foregoing discussion it seems apparent that maintenance
costs are not comparable as among all sections. Any comparison to be of
value must be made between jurisdictions having similar conditions as to
quality, standards of maintenance, financial ability, climate, topography,
width of surface, traffic, etc.
Discussion by Mr. Bishop. — The gravel road was used in this
discussion to illustrate the fact that there are such wide variations in
cost. The committee has assembled a vast amount of cost data, including
Michigan's, and finds in analyzing them that the greatest trouble is that
the variable factors have not been taken into account, and therefore they
should not be compared. The conditions are so different, including the
methods of cost accounting. One state may include several items that the
other state leaves out. In one state the quality of maintenance is rated
very low and in the other state very high, and when we start to collect
some data we will say, of a concrete road, we find the cost ranges all
*For a discussion of an economic basis for comparison of unit costs, the reader is referred
to the chapter on "Economics and Planning." The unit of comparison mentioned here by Mr.
Bishop should be further broken down by dividing by traffic per foot of width and the comparison
made on the basis of a strip one foot wide. — Authors.
MAINTENANCE 469
the way from $150 per mile to $1,500 per mile. The differences are due
to certain causes, perhaps the age of the road, perhaps the quality of the
maintenance or a number of the other factors, and for that reason the
committee is attempting to reduce the data we have collected from the
states and weight it as to traffic, labor cost, quality of maintenance and
other factors, and bring it down to come common standard if possible.
We are attempting to set up certain headings like surfacing, drainage,
shoulders, service to traffic, etc., with arbitrary weights, so that when
an inspector goes over the roads in the various sections, he can rate the
quality under each one of these headings, get an average for each road,
an average for a number of roads, and an average for the section.
Illustration. — To illustrate further the points made by Mr. Bishop
consider costs of surface maintenance in Ohio as shown by Table I.
TABLE I
Surface Maintenance Costs
From Official Ohio State Highway Department Records
(Exclusive of Snow Removal)
Average Surface Maintenance Costs Per Mile Per Year
Miles Six
Maintained Yr.
Type 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 19.10 1930 Aver.
$154 $151 $168 $138 $158 $256 2,290 $176
32S 529 496 369 435 525 1,217 448
Brick, monolithic and
semi-monolithic . . . . 176 230 293 300 421 281 280 311
Bituminous concrete . . 608 371 714 354 405 870 221 571
190 351 470 524 438 485 167 474
210 860 433 679 191 370 49 456
Bituminous macadam. . 400 472 613 392 420 571 1,606 479
Waterbound macadam 470 558 954 593 546 804 1,420 658
Traffic-bound macadam 467 345 470 594 691 950 2,882 609
Traffic-bound macadam
surface treated . . . 1.190 1,362 1,190*
Average — All Types. ,!$448 $390 $515 $432 $488 $715 11,572 $508
*One year average.
Note that a 6 year average surface maintenance cost on a large mile

age of untreated traffic-bound macadam was $609 and that the surface
maintenance cost of a surface treated traffic-bound macadam was $1,190.
Actually, the surface treatment must have made a better road than the
untreated macadam and its maintenance cost should have been less. The
reason for this apparent inconsistency is plain. The surface treatment
probably cost about $1,000 per mile and should have been considered as
resurfacing or as a betterment rather than as maintenance.
If any of the other types in this Ohio list had been resurfaced, then
their "maintenance" cost also would have increased at least $1,000 per
mile for the first year.
To further illustrate the points made by Mr. Bishop, consider now
the surface maintenance cost in Utah as shown by Table II.
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MAINTENANCE 471
TABLE II
Surface Maintenance Costs
From Utah State Highway Department Reports
Average Surface Maintenance Costs Per Mile Per Year
Bituminous Asphalt Bituminous Unim-

Concrete Pavements on Concrete Macadam Oiled Gravel Graded proved
1928 $ 91.53 $125.97 $261.00 $584.12 $475.00 $238.10 $114.61 $23.81
1929 114.93 136.74 73.33 248.58 179.94 224.93 112.87 4355
2 Yr. A v.... $103.23 $131.35 $167.16 $416.35 $327.47 $231.51 $113.74 $33.88
Miles Main
tained, 1929 220.51 51.38 11.48 5.05 310.12 1,285.52
Here again we find apparent inconsistencies — such as the maintenance

cost of a graded road being less than for asphalt or concrete, and gravel
less than bituminous macadam.
The answer is that traffic is light on the graded and gravel roads and
that little money Is needed or expended to keep them in repair; whereas
the bituminous macadam and asphalt or concrete are heavily traveled or
poorly constructed or both. Maintenance on the lower type, very low
traffic surfaces is knowingly slighted.
Michigan more nearly approaches the true basis for comparison as
indicated in Table III
of average maintenance costs per vehicle mile per
year.
Service. — Of the three factors, service, traffic and costs, the one
of service is probably the most important to the public; whereas all three
deeply concern the road builder.
The cost of service is commonly reckoned in cost per vehicle-mile, or
ton-mile, and may be made to include two main classifications —one, the
cost of construction, maintenance and financing; two, the cost of vehicle
operations and the cost (or value) of time gained by having adequate
service, or lost by having inadequate service.
Road builders are giving increased thought to the quality of service
as evidenced by smoother riding surfaces, snow removal and generally
improved maintenance conditions.
The importance of traffic surveys for determining the volume and
weight of traffic is recognized by nearly all highway officials.
For a given locality it is possible to calculate within reasonable limits
the cost of furnishing adequate service for a given number of vehicles
whose weights are known and to estimate the probable life of a road
surface for such vehicles.
Adequate service is possible only with continuous maintenance. In
general terms it means that vehicles may pass between objectives in safety
and comfort and at reasonable rates of speeds.
CHAPTER XI
LOW COST BRIDGES AND- CULVERTS

complete economy low cost roads should be of low cost through
FOR out and economizing on bridges and culverts offers a fertile field
for real savings in first cost and also in net cost. Low cost roads
should be provided with low cost bridges unless expected traffic will reach
the volume carried on primary and trunk highway systems. Even then
a temporary or semi-temporary type of bridge may be adequate if funds
for initial construction are low.
The term "cost" as applied to highways and bridges is necessarily
relative. Perhaps an acceptable, though tentative definition of a low cost
bridge, in terms of first cost, is one which for a 20-foot roadway costs
less than $100 per lineal foot of bridge for long spans, and less than
$50.00 per foot for short spans.
This chapter presents a cross section of the experiences and observa
tions of many individual bridge engineers. Its contents reflect good pres
ent practice and trends in a field of design and construction about which
little has been written.
While not a manual on design, it illustrates and points to methods and
materials which have effected economies in actual practice.
The first duty of the bridge engineer is to investigate the site and to
select the most economical crossing consistent with certain standards of
quality as regards maintenance and operating conditions. It frequently
happens, however, that the particular location which combines the above
features to maximum advantage does not combine advantageously with
the improvement project viewed as a whole. Some sacrifice in the selec
tion of the bridge crossing is, therefore, necessary in order that it may
more completely fit into the general location scheme.
Location of Minor Structures. — For small structures, the location
of the bridge or culvert itself is generally of importance secondary to
that of the general alignment ; in other words, it hardly ever pays to shift
alignment to any marked extent as the accruing advantage is generally
not worth the expense. In certain cases, however, waterway conditions
even for minor structures may be greatly improved through a slight modi
fication in location.
Undesirable features may be eliminated by adopting a revised align
ment, often without introducing an added degree of curvature. This seems
the logical way out of a difficulty but for the fact that a new alignment
thrown into a hill some times involves more cutting and perhaps a more
restricted sight distance around a curve. These last, then, are considera
472
LOW COST BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 473
tions which must be balanced against undesirable waterway features. The

solution to a situation of this kind will obviously depend upon the exact
conditions disclosed by careful surveys and estimates along both lines.
Each individual problem must, of course, be treated individually -and
solved on its merits. No fixed rules can be laid down, but the following
points of merit and disadvantage may prove of assistance in studying
any individual location problem.
DESIRABLE FEATURES IN ALIGNMENT

Maximum lengths of unbroken tangents.
Maximum possible clear sight distance around hill points.
Balanced earthwork quantities (cut and fill).
Minimum amount of overhaul.
Location through material easily and cheaply handled.
Minimum amount of rise and fall in grade line.
Easy horizontal curvature.
UNDESIRABLE FEATURES IN ALIGNMENT

Location resulting in through cuts which are apt to drift full of snow in winter.
Location along sidehills of shifting or sliding material or along seepy or wet
sidehills.
Location over swampy or seepy material or over ground where natural drainage
is difficult or uncertain.
Location on sidehills having a north exposure. These are apt to be wet a
greater portion of the time than sidehill cuts having the benefit of south exposure
sunlight.
Adverse grade.
Sharp breaks in grade.
Blind curves or restricted sight distance.
Reverse curvature (on account of the difficulty of properly superelevating the
roadway).
"Broken backs" or two curves in the same direction with a short connecting
tangent.
DESIRABLE FEATURES IN CULVERT LOCATION

Adequate vertical clearance to eliminate possibility of culvert running under a
head at flood periods. Culverts may be subjected to a considerable head without
danger, but the likelihood of erosion at the lower end of barrel and also of damage
to the fill adjacent, is such as to render this construction poor practice.
Adequate vertical clearance for ice or drift. This in many cares requires a clear
ance several feet above extreme high water.
Adequate horizontal clearances to avoid accumulation of drift or debris during
freshets. Narrow openings on streams carrying gravel in suspension have been
known to become completely clogged during freshets, thus causing a washout of
the adjacent embankment.
UNDESIRABLE FEATURES IN CULVERT LOCATION

Skew crossings are not altogether objectionable but should be avoided where
possible.
Location over swampy or soft foundation material.
Location below a sharp bend or kink in the general stream alignment. This is
apt to cause erosion behind upstream wings or cutting of adjacent embankment.
Location at point of rapid fall where erosion of footings at downstream end of

structure is possible.
Location such as may tend to divert the stream from its natural course, during
freshets with consequent damage to property.
For convenience the chapter is divided into 6 sections as follows:

Section I. — Pipe and Box Culverts.
Section II. — Short Span Bridges.
Section III. — Truss Spans.
Section IV. — Suspension Bridges.
Section V. — Slope Protection and Crib Walls.
Section VI. — Trends and Cost Data.
SIZE OF WATERWAY
Regardless of the type of structure selected, the size of waterway
must be sufficient to pass flood waters ; the roadway must be of sufficient
width to safely carry traffic ; and structural strength must be sufficient
to hold up the loads. Several methods are used for determining sizes of
culverts, but only those generally accepted are here included.
Because rainfall and run-off conditions are so diverse, no specific
rules or formulas are applicable to all conditions ; they can only serve
as a check or guide and should be supplemented by more explicit informa
tion. Neither can general rules or formulas for determining volume and
rale of discharge take the place of reliable field data and actual elevations
of high water during floods; especially in locations with slopes which
permit free flowing run-off.
Drainage areas are valuable for checking the sizes of all culverts,
and many engineers have given and are giving careful consideration to
the sizes of waterways needed for known drainage areas.
Required Area of Waterway. — The area of waterway required
for culverts having free flowing discharge is usually assumed equal to
the area of a rectangle (long side horizontal) cutting square across the
stream when in flood ; this rectangle is bounded on its top by the water
surface at maximum height, on the bottom by the flow line or bottom
of stream at low water, and on the sides by the abutments of the structure.
Deductions are made for piers and other obstructions ; and clearance is
allowed for ice and drift which project above the water surface. Cross
ings of streams in flat land where floodwaters spread out in large pools
or ponds do not need openings as large as the full cross-section of the
stream at high water ; because water moving at low velocity does not
require as large an area of opening as water flowing at high velocity.
Structures small in size or low in height which cause water to back up
and discharge under head may be permissible and satisfactory if property
is not damaged by backwater or foundations eroded by high velocity.
Methods of Estimating Size of Opening. — Four methods are
enumerated herein.
LOW COST BRIDGES AXD CULVERTS 475
First Method: Determination of Waterway by Field Measurements

and Observation.
By this method the size of opening is determined from measuring the
actual cross-section of waterway in the field. The area thus determined
must be sufficient to carry the stream, including probable drift. Following
are minimum data which should be obtained for determining the area
of waterway by field measurements and observation ;
(a) Measurement at the culvert site, and normal to the current, of
the actual cross-section of stream channel ; at flood stage and at low stage.
(b) Area of catchment-basin in acres or square miles. The United
States Geological Survey topographic maps and similar maps are valu
able for this purpose. Watershed areas should be roughly measured in
field when maps are not available.
(c) Grade of existing channel above and below site of structure.
(d) Sketch map showing stream channel at high and low water
above and below crossing. This map should show all obstructions,
natural
barriers, dams, breakwaters and fences which may have an influence in
determining proper size of culvert or bridge.
High water marks at flood stage can frequently be obtained from the
inhabitants of a locality or as indicated by debris, drift, erosion, and
silt deposits. For streams of sufficient size to carry drift and in cold
' climates where ice forms, high water is generally evidenced by pieces
of drift lodged in trees, by marks on the bark of trees caused by drifting
ice, and by discoloration of trees from muddy water. In regions having
wide, flat flood plains or where the stream is choked by back-water or
where the rate of discharge is low, culverts of sufficient size to carry the
full cross-section of water at a low velocity are an unnecessary expense
and their area may be reduced with a corresponding increase in rate of
discharge. This reduced opening should not elevate the water on the up
stream side of the road so as to unduly flood property or increase the
velocity of discharge to the extent of endangering the structure by
erosion.
Second Method: Determination of Waterway by Tables.
By this method tabulated measurements of existing structures and
stream flow are used to estimate the sizes of openings.
Where the first method has been in use for some time and many
streams have been measu'red at existing structures, the records thus
obtained are arranged in tables. Such tables based on actual measure
ments of streams at flood stages are particularly valuable, for determining
the sizes of new structures which will have conditions similar to those
on which the information was collected.
As an example — Table I was suggested by the Kentucky State High
way Department to indicate sizes of culvert suitable for use under vary
ing topographical conditions.
TABLE I
Suggested Sizes of Standard Culverts for Drainage Areas
Kentucky Department of Public Roads
Culvert Moun- Roll- Minimum Head

Dimensions Area tainous Hilly ing Flat Room
Sq. Ft. Acres Acres Acres Acres
18 in. circular 1.77 1.0 2.0 4.5 9.0 Depends on kind.
2x1 J4 ft. square 3.00 2.0 4.0 7.4 18.0 1 ft. 6 in.
24 in circular.. 3.14 2.5 5.0 10.0 20.0 Depends on kind.
2x2 ft. square 4.00 3.0 6.0 10.8 27.0 1 ft. 6 in.
3x1^ ft. square 4.50 3.8 7.5 11.4 32.0 1 ft. 7 in.
3x2 ft. square 6.00 5.3 10.5 18.6 47.0 1 ft. 7 in.
2^x254 ft. square.... 6.25 5.5 11.0 19.3 50.0 1 ft. 6 in.
4x2 ft. square 8.00 8.0 16.0 27.3 70.0 1 ft. 7 in.
3x3 ft. square: 9.00 9.5 19.0 31.9 82.0 1 ft. 6 in.
4x3 ft. square 12.00 13.5 27.0 46.7 120.0 1 ft. 7 in.
5x2j4 ft. square 12.50 15.0 30.0 49.3 125.0 1 ft. 8 in.
5x3 ft. square 15.00 17.5 37.0 62.9 160.0 1 ft. 8 in.
6x254 ft. square 15.00 17.5 37.0 62.9 160.0 1 ft. 9 in.
4x4 ft. square 16.00 20.0 40.0 68.5 175.0 1 ft. 7 in.
5x4 ft. square 20.00 35.0 56.0 92.2 230.0 1 ft. 8 in.
6x4 ft. square 24.00 38.0 70.0 117.5 300.0 1 ft. 9 in.
Third Method: Determination of Waterway from Drainage Area by

Formula.
Several formulas have been devised for finding sizes of waterways.
Prof. A. N. Talbot's formula is the one most frequently used, especially
in the eastern part of the United States. Table II has been prepared
from Talbot's formula. The value of the variable C is usually assigned
by the designer to correspond with value of C as determined for similar
conditions and known drainage areas.
Fourth Method: Determination of Waterway Opening from Drain
age Area and Run-off Formula.
The determination of the size of waterway by this method requires
surveys of the drainage area and data regarding run-off and rainfall.
With this information, the volume of water flowing to the structure per
unit of time may be calculated by formula. A culvert with sufficient
opening is then selected which will carry the water without damage to
the structure or its foundations.
The Burkli-Ziegler formula, Q = ARc • is frequently referred

'"V^J
to for this purpose; and the McMath formula, Q = ARc • ^s a^so
used. In both formulas c is a coefficient which is assumed to have a value

that will give an adequate opening for the varying intensity of rainfall,
slope of watershed and other factors affecting the size of opening re
LOW COST BRIDGES AND CULVERTS ATI
TABLE II
Table of Areas of Waterways Calculated by Talbot's Formula
a = C *\/A' a = Area of waterway in square feet.

A = Drainage area in acres.
Areas of waterways in square feet for character of watershed

indicated in column heading.
Drainage area or Mountain- Rolling
Watershed area. ous Land Hilly Land Land Flat Land
Acres Sq. Miles C=1.00 C = .80 C = .60 C = .50 C—40 C — .30 C = .20
1 0.0015 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
2 .0031 1.7 1.4 1.0 .8 .7 .5 .3
4 .0062 2.8 22 1.7 1.4 1.1 .8 .6
6 .0094 3.8 3.0 2.3 1.9 1.5 1.1 &
8 .0125 4.8 3.8 2.9 2.4 1.9 1.4 1.0
10 .016 5.6 4.5 3.4 2.8 22 1.7 12
IS .023 7.6 6.1 4.6 3.8 3.0 2.3 1.5
20 .031 9.5 7.6 5.7 4.7 3.8 2.8 1.9
30 .047 12.8 10.2 7.7 6.4 5.1 3.8 2.6
40 .052 15.9 12.7 9.5 8 6.4 4.8 32
50 .094 22 17.6 13 11 8.8 6.6 4.4
80 .125 27 21.6 16 13 10.8 8.1 5.4
100 .156 32 25.6 19 16 12.8 9.6 6.4
ISO .23* 4.? 34.4 2(. 21 17.2 12.9 8.6
21,0 .312 53 42.4 32 27 21.2 15.9 10.6
250 .39 (.3 50 38 31 25 19 13
300 .47 72 58 43 35 29 22 14
4(X) .62 89 71 53 45 36 27 18
500 .78 105 85 64 53 42 32 21
C(I0 .94 121 97 73 61 48 36 24
NIK) 1.25 150 120 90 75 90 45 30
1.000 1.56 178 142 107 89 71 53 36
1,500 2.34 241 193 145 121 95 72 48
2.000 3.12 299 239 179 149 120 90 60
2.500 3.91 354 283 212 177 142 106 71
3.000 4.7 405 324 243 203 162 122 81
4.000 6.2 503 402 302 252 202 151 101
5.000 7.8 595 476 357 297 238 179 119
6,000 9.4 692 545 409 341 273 205 136
8,000 12.5 846 677 508 423 338 254 169
10.CKX) 15.6 1.000 S(X> 600 500 400 300 200
12,000 18.8 1,147 918 688 573 459 344 229
14.000 21.9 1.287 1.030 772 644 515 386 257
16.000 25.0 1.423 1,138 854 711 569 427 285
18.000 28.1 1.554 1,243 932 777 622 466 311
20,000 31.2 1.682 1.345 1.009 841 673 595 336
25.000 39.1 1.988 1.590 1,193 994 795 595 398
30.000 47 2,280 1,824 1,358 1.140 912 684 456
40,000 62 2.828 . 2,252 1.697 1.414 1.131 848 566
50.000 78 3.344 2,675 2,006 1.672 1.338 1,003 669
60.000 94 3,834 3.067 2.300 1,917 1,534 1,150 767
70.000 1(19 4,304 3.443 2.582 2,152 1.722 1.291 861
80,000 125 4,757 3,805 2.854 2,378 1.903 1,427 951
100.000 156 5.623 4,498 3,374 2,812 2,249 1.587 1.125
125,000 195 6,648 5,318 3,9«9 3.324 2,659 1,994 1,330
quired, about as follows: 0.20 for rural sections, 0.75 for paved streets.
0.31 for macadamized streets. R is the average rate of rainfall during
heaviest fall in cubic feet per second per acre.
5" is the general fall of the drainage area in feet per 1,000 feet.
Q is the cubic feet of water per second reaching the culvert.

A is the drainage area in acres.
Information concerning rainfall and daily stages of many large streams
may be obtained from the publications of the U. S. Weather Bureau.
Methods Used by Some Railroads. — The following recommenda
tions, taken from the proceedings of the American Railway Engineering
Association, illustrate methods used by several railroads for determining
sizes of waterways for culverts, and are conservative conclusions based
on many years of experience.
Central Railroad of New Jersey. — The required area of waterway is
determined by Talbot's formula. In the flat and wooded regions of south
ern New Jersey, C is taken as 0.33 and in the rocky regions of Pennsyl
vania, C is taken as 1.00. No culverts are designed to operate under head.
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railroad. — Talbot's formula is used
with C, having the following values:
Flat country C = 0.33
Hilly country C — .67
Mountainous country C = 1.00
Culverts are made 50 to 100 per cent larger than the formula requires.
Missouri Pacific Railway. — No formula is relied upon in arriving at
a proper size of opening but conclusions are checked in all possible ways.
Where a proper coefficient has been obtained for a certain locality, Tal
bot's formula can be used with good results. Where rainfall data can
be secured, McMath's or the Burkli-Ziegler formula can be used.
Pennsylvania Railroad. — According to this railroad, there can be no
short rule of general application for the requisite area of waterways of
bridges and culverts. It depends on the area of the watershed, the maxi
mum precipitation in a given time, the average slopes of the drainage
area, and the form of cross-section and superficial material of the channel.
The area of the watershed, can be determined from a good map of the
region ; the maximum precipitation varies widely in different sections and
can only be ascertained from records covering a series of years, which
are not always available; the slopes of the drainage area are matters of
topography and vary all the way from the steepest mountain sides to the
flattest prairie. Assuming that the above data are obtainable or can be
approximately estimated, the rate of run-off may be computed by the
Burkli-Ziegler formula to find the volume of water reaching the site of
the bridge or culvert in a given time. Then the required area to discharge
this volume as fast as it arrives is found by using the well-known Kut-
ter's formula.
'
LOW COST BRIDGES AND CULVERTS . 479
The foregoing is considered the only reliable method for treating this
problem scientifically. But in many instances some or all of the data will
not be obtainable and the only recourse will then be to ascertain as reliably
as possible the height of the greatest floods and use best judgment, guided
by past experience.
TABLE III
Acres Drained by Pipe Culverts of Various Diameters
Area of Acres Acres Acres
Diameter of Pipe Mountainous Rolling Level
Culvert in Opening Country County Country
Inches in Sq. Ft. C=l/3 C-l/5
12 .785 V4 3 6
15 1.227 1 6 11
18 1.767 2 9 18
21 2.405 3 14 28
24 3.142 5 20 39
30 4.909 8 36 71
36 7.068 14 59 116
42 9.621 20 89 175
48 12.566 29 126 250
54 16.000 40 174 345
60 19.635 53 229 453
66 23.760 68 295 584
72 28.274 86 373 737
78 33.183 107 461 912
84 38.484 130 562 1111
C from Talbot Formula.
The information in this section was abstracted from a paper by G. P.

Springer, Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, Purdue University,
before the 17th Annual Purdue Road School.
Adequate Waterway. — The cross drainage, culverts and bridges,
under a roadway, must be of sufficient cross-sectional area of opening
to deliver all water safely without danger of backing and ponding, thereby
causing the flow to be under a head ; a source of erosion, under-cutting
and washouts. Ample area is well worth the slight added expense involved
in providing the few square feet of additional opening.
Drainage Area. — The area which delivers water to the culvert or
bridge should be given critical study. How extensive is the area? What
are the slopes? Is the land level, rolling, hilly? Is the soil sandy, loam,
clay, gravel or rock? Are the levels and slopes cultivated; in meadow;
or in brush and timber? All these affect the quantity of water which must
be handled, the velocity of flow, the time of concentration, and thus the
size of the opening required.
The water to be considered comes from precipitation in the form of
rain, snow, sleet, hail, the greatest portion being supplied by rain. Rain
fall is measured in inches of depth over the drainage area. Rainfall
statistics for any given locality may be had from the United States
Weather Bureau. The drainage opening must be sufficient in size to pass
the run-off water as fast as it accumulates, therefore it is necessary to

know the intensity of rainfall, or the rate of precipitation. This is given
in the records in inches per hour. Storms vary in intensity. For country
studies it is sufficient to let the storms of 10 to 25 year occurrence govern
the design.
Not all the rainfall certain part
gets into the streams and rivers. A
is lost in seepage, percolation, evaporation, and in plant growth. The
factor of run-off varies with the slope, the soil, whether the ground is
under cultivation, woodland, or forest. For good results the run-off fac
tor may be taken as:
1 for steep and rocky ground with abrupt slopes.
% for hilly ground of moderate slopes.

y2 for uneven valleys, wide as compared to length.
Y3 for rolling agricultural land.

Ys for level lands not affected by severe floods.
Quantity Discharged. — The rainfall must be taken from the road
way, the ditches, and the drainage area; passed through the culvert or
bridge at a safe velocity to minimize erosion and wash. The ditches along
the roadway must carry the water from the roadway and a certain amount
from the adjacent fields. The quantity of water to be carried is estimated
from the rainfall, the run-off factor, the area, and the time of concentra
tion. This is reduced to cubic feet per second.
(1) To determine the quantity of water released from a drainage
area by one method,
Let A = drainage area

C= run-off factor (discussed above)
i = expectancy of rainfall in inches
/ = time of concentration
R = run-off in inches per hour
D = discharge in cubic feet per second
Then
120
/ + 15
R= Ci
D = RA (in terms of cubic feet per second).
(2) To determine the quantity of water that a roadside ditch, drain

age ditch, or river will carry
Let D = aV
Where
D = quantity of water in cubic feet second
a = area in square feet of cross-section of flowing water
V = average velocity of flow in feet per second
V is unknown but can be determined from

V = c y/~s
c is a constant which takes into consideration all the retard
ing factors to flow which exist in the channel or ditch.
r is the hydraulic radius, which is the cross-section area in
square feet of the flowing water divided by the wetted
perimeter of the channel.
j is the slope ratio or grade of the channel.
c for ordinary channels will vary from 55 to 127, but may be
determined from Kutter's equation
1.811 0.00281
41.6 4.
c =
The value given n for ordinary ditches being 0.02 to 0.025.

Emperical formulas are in extensive use. These are based on observa
tions covering a large number of culverts and bridges which have proven
satisfactory in carrying the run-off from watersheds and basins having
various general characteristics. These formulas are admitted to give only
approximate results, but this is. well known and understood by engineers,
and it is also known that conditions are such that computations for cul
vert sizes do not ordinarily or readily fit into mathematical precision.
Rainfall, slope, size, shape of basin, vegetation, condition of soil, many
other variables, form a great variety of combinations — an infinite num
ber — and these do not lend themselves to exact figures. Therefore an
emperical formula, having an ample factor of safety under general con
ditions, is the simplest and most practical to use for determination of
area. Several of these with accompanying tables have been discussed at
the beginning of this section.
Design Features. — The culvert if designed for the maximum rain

fall as shown by the records as having occurred once in 10 to 25 years,
will seldom run full, and will have a large enough opening to care for all
ordinary rainfalls with a very good factor of safety. An opening high
and narrow is not as efficient in removing water as one of equal area
but lower in height and wider.
The length of culvert needed will depend upon the shoulder width of
the roadway, the height of fill, the side slopes on the embankment, and
sometimes the skew angle of the crossing. Every culvert should be of
sufficient length so that there is no danger of filling with material washed
from the bank or out from the ditches. A short culvert is uneconomical,
has low efficiency and high maintenance. The length should be determined
from the cross-section sketch at the location and the profile of the creek
bed. For a square crossing, the length of the culvert may be found by
adding to the shoulder width of the roadway, two times the slope ratio of
the bank times the fill depth at the center line; when roads are designed
with 2 to 1 fill slopes.
The proper location of the culvert crossing is a very important fac
tor, for this affects the efficiency, cost of maintenance, length of service
and may contain the possibility of erosion and washout. Each culvert
is a study by itself.
The culvert or small bridge is a restricted channel, substituting for
the open stream or creek where this water course passes under the road
way. Not every stream is of stable character. Stream channels change,
shift from side to side of the valley. Scour and erosion occur, digging
in at this place, filling up at other places. A stable stream under existing
conditions may, due to change of conditions, become unstable. The cul
vert or bridge when located becomes a fixed point in the stream way.
Good judgment and careful thought should be applied to all locations, for
when once installed, this kind of facility cannot be moved or changed
without much expense and irritating interference with the public.
A crooked stream or changing course should be relocated and straight
ened. The cost of channel change may be offset by savings in cost of
construction of the culvert or bridge. Certainly the added insurance
against washout is well worth study and some added preliminary expense
for construction.
If the stream line is satisfactory, make the axis of the culvert coin
cide with that of the stream. The line of entrance for the water should
be as direct as possible, and likewise a direct exit is just as desirable. If
there is an abrupt change in direction at either end of the culvert, the flow
is retarded and a larger opening is required, and to it is added the hazard
of erosion and wash. If the stream crosses the road at an angle, the con
struction is to skew the culvert with the road rather than force the stream
to cross at right angles to the road line.
Use all reasonable precautions at the culvert ends to prevent the
stream from changing its course. A change of course may block the cul
vert, back up the water, or cause the roadway to wash out. If there are
any evidences of such tendencies use plenty of riprap at the danger spots.
Prevention is better than washouts and reconstruction.
Do not set the culvert too low. All new work exposes fresh earth
which erodes and washes early, and if the culvert is low, sedimentation
takes place, whereby the effective, area is reduced, possibly to the danger
limit.
Give the culvert the same general slope as the stream bed. If the
stream carries silt, there is danger that if the slope is made flat to prevent
erosion, sedimentation will take place. Placing the culvert on a steeper
slope to increase the velocity and thus use a smaller opening may result
in scour at the outlet end. The slope of the stream bed is the best guide
to use in determining the slope of a culvert. If
the slope must be steep,
then protect the outlet with paving or riprap.
The small bridge is a problem on all roads. It needs careful pre
liminary study, thoughtful choice as to type of design and kind of con
struction. Sometimes temporary expedients are tried ; safety is sacri
ficed by restricting the roadway in order to save on construction costs.
The area of waterway should be ample to carry the expected flow of the
storms of the 10 to 25 year occurrence. Foundations should be carefully
investigated ; for unsatisfactory load bearing materials piling must be used.
The bridge should be placed to get the free flow of the stream. If evi
dence shows that scour and erosion is to be expected, safety may be built
into the bridge by piling under the footings and riprap protection extend
ing from the wing walls on the upstream and on the downstream sides.
Scour occurs in different soils at different velocities:
In sand when the velocity is two to three feet per second.
In loam when the velocity is two to three and one half feet per second.
In gravel if firm, five to six feet per second.
Good hand placed and grouted riprap of stones more than one-half
cubic foot volume will not be moved unless the velocity of the water
exceeds twelve feet per second.
The bridge should be designed to fit the highway alignment, grade,
and location. A real effort should be made to adjust these so that the
finished job may be pleasing to the eye, not complicated, and not need
lessly expensive.
If necessary to obtain satisfactory waterway area, channel improve
ments are often made at the bridge, both under and adjacent to the site.
Many times the flow will be improved by relocating the stream either
above or below the bridge. Where such channel change is considered, the
bearing factor upon the improvement should be "will the benefit occurring
to the highway and the bridge warrant and justify the expenditure of
the sum of money required for this improvement." At times the channel
change material may be useful in building roadway fill. Keep in mind
the riparian rights of the property owners when making the study and
investigation, for their rights must be protected.
SECTION I
PIPE AND BOX CULVERTS
PIPE CULVERTS
Pipe culverts have many advantages over small bridges and where
suitable their use is desirable.
They are easily and quickly installed, their maintenance cost is low,
and future extensions are easily made. Pipe culverts are made of corru
gated galvanized metal, plain and reinforced concrete, cast iron, vitrified
clay or shale. Corrugated metal is known as flexible type and the others
are rigid or semi-rigid.
The minimum diameter used is 12 inches but not less than 15 inches
is recommended because smaller openings clog too quickly and are difficult
to clean. Pipe culverts of large diameter up to 7 feet and more instead of
box culverts of equal area are becoming popular as low cost structures. For
these large sizes the thickness of shell is increased to obtain adequate
strength to carry heavy live loads or high fills, and special construction
methods are necessary. Extra large pipe 10 feet in diameter and also
half section pipe are available from some manufacturers of corrugated
metal pipe.
Headwalls. — The inlet ends of pipes in general should be pro
tected by headwalls or catch basins to prevent separation of pipe at joints
and to prevent erosion of the fill. For the same reasons, outlet ends
usually need protection by headwalls, aprons, or curtain walls. Headwalls
may cost more than the additional pipe required to extend a culvert, so
that headwalls are sometimes omitted especially at the discharge ends of
metal pipe.
Headwalls are usually of concrete or cement rubble masonry ; and
in some localities stone riprap or creosoted timber has been used instead
to prevent erosion. Metal headwalls are available for metal pipe culverts,
and for low heights they give the desired protection to pipe and earth
filling at low cost.
Diameter, Thickness, and Weight of Culvert Pipe. — The follow
ing tables are representative of good practice and average requirements
for thickness of various pipes.
Weight is important in calculating freight rates, hauling charges and
ease of laying pipe in the field.
Pipe are manufactured and shipped in convenient lengths. The lighter
pipe of corrugated metal are shipped in longer lengths than the heavier
cast-iron, vitrified, and concrete pipe.
Standard specifications for culvert materials are contained in the gen
eral road specifications of state highway departments and may usually
be obtained upon request. They are recommended as guides in selecting
materials for the construction of local culverts.
The costs of pipe culverts reflect the prices of freight, hauling, and
placing, as well as the price of pipe at the factory. The following gen
eral averages of cost* are approximate, although based on a study of
many actual contract prices.
Estimated costs, in Table V, of galvanized corrugated metal culvert
pipes in place are exclusive of headwalls. The thickness of metal varies
considerably as may be seen by reference to the A. R. B. A., 1930 study ;
the pipe costs from $0.08 to $0.12 per pound in place.
* In January, 1931, costs on all classes of pipe had dropped from 10 to 25 per cent below
those prevailing in 1929 and 1930 as stated in these lists and the 1932 prices are still lower.
TABLE IV
Corrugated Metal Pipe
Minimum Gauge Wt. Per Lin. Ft.
Nominal Diameter, U. S. Std. Uncoated Finished Culvert,
Inches Metal Pounds
12 16 10.4
IS 16 12.9
18 16 15.7
24 14 25.5
30 14 32.0
36 12 53.2
Vitrified Pipe
Weight Per Foot
Diameter, Minimum Thickness, Exclusive of
Inches Inches Bell, Pounds
12 1 45
15 VA 75
18 VA 118
24 2 19!)
30 2% 298
Plain Cast Iron Pipe

Diameter, Minimum Thickness, Weight Per Foot,
Inches Inches Pounds
16 75
18 85
24 % 145
30 H I,HI)
36 a 250
Corrugated Cast Iron Pipe
Diameter, Minimum Thickness, Weight Per Foot,
Inches Inches Pounds
16 Ya 60
18 H 65
24 90
30 135
36 H 175
Reinforced Concrete Pipe

Wall Thickness Cross-Section
Poured Pipe or Reinforcement Wt. Per Ft.
Plain Concrete Number Area Per Foot Exclusive
Diameter, Machine Made Lines Sq. In. of Bell,
Inches Pipe, Inches Reinf. Circ. Longitude Pounds
15 2% 1 0.052 0.025 133
is 2y2 1 .074 .025 176
24 3 1 .101 .025 278
30 3y2 1 .120 .025 402
36 4 2 .074x2 .025x2 569
42 2 .087x2 .025x2 751
48 5 2 .101x2 .025x2 976
Reinforcement Maximum
Spacing 6 in. 8 in.
When reinforced concrete pipe is of approved machine-made construc

tion, wall thickness may be reduced to conform to the following: 15 in.
— 1% in.; 18 in.— 2 in.; 24 in.— 2\'., in.; 30 in— 3 in.; 36 in.— 3i/4 in.;
42 in.— 3% in. ; 48 in.^M/4 in. ; 54 in. — 4i/2 in. ; 60 in.— 5 in.
TABLE V
Estimated Cost Per Foot of Pipe in Place
Diameter in Cast Plain Reinforced
Inches Corrugated Iron Concrete Concrete
12 1.40 2.00 1.40 1.60
15 l.SS 2.50 1.60 1.70
18 170 4.50 1.80 1.80
24 2.80 6.50 3.20 4.00
30 3.70 8.50 4.30 5.50
36 4.90 11.50 6.00 8.00
4H 7.50 9.50 14.00
60 10.00
Construction Methods. — Pipe culverts are usually built of a single

line. When a larger area is necessary than can be provided, by one pipe
line, some engineers have commonly required another type of structure,
such as the open or closed box culvert.
Double or triple pipe lines were not favored a few years ago because
it was thought drift and debris would obstruct them.
Opinion has changed in recent years and double or triple lines of
pipe laid parallel as one culvert have been successfully used on secondary
roads and at considerable saving in cost compared with the more expen
sive small bridges. Extra precautions to prevent leaks at joints must be
taken or serious erosion will result. Such precautions include collars at
joints and good foundations. Curtain walls of concrete at intervals along
the pipe lines are particularly effective. Headwalls should never be
omitted at multiple line culverts.
All pipe, particularly concrete and vitrified, must be handled care
fully while unloading and cracked or broken pipe should be rejected in
accordance with specifications. Pipes should be properly located not only
as to line, but also as to elevation of inlet and outlet. Where possible
there should be at least a foot of fall in a thirty foot length of pipe. A
string line or taut wire should always be. used for laying pipe.
Care should be taken to see that ground on which pipes are laid has
sufficient bearing. In order to prevent concentration of weight on the
bells, in the case of bell and spigot type, holes must be dug for the bells.
Bearing on the entire length of the pipe will then result if back-filling is
done properly. Extreme care must be taken in placing pipe in rock fills
or on rock ledges and the pipe should be surrounded by a cushion of earth
to insure uniform bearing. At least one foot of earth covering should be
placed before traffic is allowed to pass over the pipe.
Where the foundation is soft and spongy or where the fill over a con
crete pipe exceeds 12 or 14 feet, concrete cradles or platforms or piling
may be necessary to prevent settlement of the pipe line.
Backfilling around pipes should be thoroughly tamped and should
preferably be of the same material as the subgrade, care being used not
to disturb joints. Stone backfilling is undesirable because it permits water
to flow through the trench and allows earth to settle in the fill, resulting
in surfacing settlements.
All joints in concrete and vitrified pipe should be tightly sealed with
mortar. Broken pipe repaired with concrete patches should not be used.
It is important to locate pipe culverts so that they will adequately
meet drainage requirements. Problems of location which require judg
ment based on experience are best solved locally by a competent engineer.
Some of these problems are: when to use a right angle crossing; when to
use a skew crossing; when and how far to carry ditch water in side
ditches before running it under road ; what is the proper spacing or inter
val between pipe culverts in rolling and mountainous country — particularly
TABLE VI
Rating Schedule for Corrugated Metal Pipe
Description* of Condi Description of Condi- Rating ing

tion of the Material tion of the Structural Descrip- Numeri
Stages of Deterioration Stages of Deterioration tive cal Rat-
Spelter intact — Perfect line, joints Excel- 90
Spangles visible and shape lent
Spelter dark — spangles Bands loosening — slight Very 80

obliterated sag good
Spelter gone — spot Bands loosened — some Fairly 70

rust flattening, not to ex- good
ceed 1/10 diameter
Slight pittingf — some Joints opening — flat- Good 60

loss base metal due to tened 1/10 diameter
rust or scour
Deeper pitting — 1/3 base Further opening of Good to 50
metal gone, either from joints, considerable fair
rust or heavy scour sag
Deep pits — very heavy Joints opened consider- Fair 40

rust ably. Flattened not to
exceed 1/5 diameter
Pits half through — can Joints bad — poor align- Fair to 30

dent metal ment. Flattened not to poor
exceed diameter
Metal very thin — Joints open and faulting so Poor 20
easily perforated that fill is coming in. Very
with hand tool heavy sag. Flattened more
than diameter
Scattered holes in Joints pulled entirely apart. Very 10
metal Pipe near failure poor
Invert material gone — Pipe has collapsed, or joints Technical 0
lace appearance opened so that fill has Failure
entirely blocked pipe
* "Description of Condition of the Material" describes that portion of the pipe in poorest
condition. Usually this is in the bottom or invert of the pipe.
t Paved inverts as used by some manufacturers serve to prevent rust and scour.
on side-hill locations; when to place pipe culverts through villages which

have no storm-sewer system and when an open ditch will suffice ; how and
when to place culverts parallel to highway in carrying water under inter
secting roads and when to use open ditches.
Rating the Service of Pipe Culverts. — The basis of field work for
rating pipe culverts is that of assigning numerical values to definite,
recognizable stages of progressive deterioration, both material and struc
tural. These numerical values, together with the ages of the pipe on
structures at the time of rating, afford a means for making comparisons
of relative performance or durability.
In Tables VI, VII, and VIII
are shown abbreviated descriptions of
the recognizable stages of deterioration of corrugated metal pipe, vitri-
TABLE VII
Rating Schedule for Vitrified Clay Pipe
Description of Condi Description of Condi Descrip Numeri
tion of the Material tion of the Structural tive cal Rat
Stages of Deterioration Stages of Deterioration Rating ing
Siliceous coating, intact, Straight alignment — tight Excel 90
no checking joints. No cracked sections lent
Slight checking Line wavy — joints rough — Very 80

no cracked sections good
Advanced surface Line very wavy — joints Fairly 70

checks. Erosion of beginning to open — 1 good
glaze along flow to 3 sections showing
line fine load cracks
Deep surface checking — Joints open — slight faulting. Good 60

Glaze completely gone on More than 3 cracked sec
flow line tions,or cracks beginning
to open
Advanced checking. Sur Joints open — heavy faulting. Good to 50
face glaze beginning to Sections cracked top, fair
come loose bottom, and sides
Further erosion. Spall- Fill trickling in at joints. Fair 40

ing of glaze general Noticeable flattening of
cracked sections.
Flow line eroded half Very poor alignment. Fair to 30
through Very heavy flattening poor
Invert deeply attacked by Fill washing in at Poor 20

erosion. Serious disintegra joints. Pieces fall
tion throughout pipe ing out
General advanced spalling Fill coming in. Sections Very 10

and disintegration to point collapsing poor
of collapse or holes eroded
in invert
Sections crumbling. Invert Sections flattened, enough Technical 0

completely gone to endanger the road Failure
fied tile, and concretepipe, both material and structural. Examination of

thousands of culverts has revealed the fact that in corrugated metal pipe
deterioration of the material is more in evidence, while in vitrified tile
and concrete pipe, structural deterioration is predominant.
TABLE VIII
Rating Schedule for Concrete Pipe
Description of Condi Description of Condi Descrip Numeri
tion of the Material tion of the Structural tive cal Rat
Stages of Deterioration Stages of Deterioration Rating ine
No softening or weather Straight alignment. Tight Excel 90
ing. No honey-comb joints. No cracked sections lent
Slight softening or Line wavy. Joints rough. Very- 80

evidence of scour No cracked sections good
Some weathering and Line very wavy. Joints Fairly 70

spalling, slight ero beginning to open, 1 good
sion to 3 sections showing
fine load cracks
Further softening. Joints open, slight faulting. Good 60

Some erosive losses More than 3 cracked sections
or cracks beginning to open
Continued softening. Joints open. Heavy fault Good to 50
Appreciable erosive ing. Sections cracked top, fair
losses bottom and sides
Advanced disintegration, Fill trickling in at joints. Fair 40

erosion or softening Noticeable flattening of
cracked sections
Advanced sloughing of Very poor alignment, Fair to 30

concrete very heavy flattening poor
Extreme disintegration or Fill washing in at Poor 20
deep softening at flow line, joints. Pieces fall
sufficient to expose rein ing out
forcing
Material eroded or softened Fill coming in, sections Very 10
nearly through barrel collapsing poor
Disintegration through in Collapse due to loads, Technical 0

vert or elsewhere due to or sections flattened Failure
softening, erosion, or enough to endanger the
spalling road
Application of the Rating Schedule in the Field. — In any field

investigation of small drainage structures it is essential that the observers
be impartial and unbiased. It is also essential that they adhere to the
features listed below:
1. The inspection of a large number of culverts of each material under each
condition of service.
2. The inspection of all culverts under any given stretch of road, to avoid the
possibility of spot inspections.
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3. Constant reference to the rating schedule so that the numerical rating given
corresponds to the description of the condition of the culvert.
4. A written record of each culvert inspected.
A typical inspection report blank on an accompanying page shows
the type of data recorded for each culvert inspected.
BOX CULVERTS
Box culverts are used when the required area of opening is larger
than can be economically provided by pipe culverts, but where the need
of a bridge is not indicated. They are economical and effective, for single
spans of 4 ft. to 24 ft. Box culverts are frequently used in multiple,
that is, as one structure having two or more openings.
Materials and construction methods should be in accordance with
those recommended by the Bureau of Public Roads and the American
Association of State Highway Officials. These are procurable in Wash
ington, D. C.
Arch culverts of concrete or stone, once popular, are now little used
except under very high fills where there is ample distance from crown
of arch to subgrade and where the extra strength of an arch over that
of a slab is needed to carry the heavy fill. Metal arch culverts are a
recent development.
Materials and Design. — Box culverts are constructed of reinforced
concrete, stone and infrequently of timber or brick.
Arch culverts of stone or brick may be used with economy but local
conditions of cost must be unusually favorable to these materials.
Reinforced concrete is most commonly used but stone masonry walls
with reinforced concrete floor slabs may be more economical in isolated
locations, where local stone is available.
Treated timber culverts as low cost structures are found in some of
the western states-.
Untreated timber for temporary construction is used where timber
abounds on pioneer roads.
The cross-section of box culverts is rectangular. In length, culverts
are designed to be greater than the out to out width of roadway ; that is,
greater than width of roadway surfacing, plus width of both shoulders,
plus sufficient distance to meet the slope of the fill.
a
Wing walls are usually splayed at the intake end at angles of 30 or 45
degrees unless skewed. They may be straight or splayed at the discharge
end.
If
there is any likelihood of scour, culverts should have floors and cut
off walls. In very soft soil where a high velocity of water may occur,
timber sheet piling should be driven under the wing walls and across the
ends of the culvert. Timber sheeting should then be cut off below water
level and left in place.
Top slabs of reinforced concrete culverts are designed for a smaller
bending moment than simple spans by taking advantage of fixed ends

and continuity. Single spans are designed as having fixed ends, and multi
ple spans for continuity. Shearing stresses usually determine the slab
thickness.
Open box culverts ; that is, culverts without bottom floor are some
times built on very firm gravel, "hard pan" or rock, provided there is no
probability from scour.
Horizontal braces or struts are infrequently used to make a partly
open floor ; the open spaces between struts are sometimes paved with one-
man stone.
In general the solid concrete floor is most desirable. In concrete con
struction the interior walls or piers are relatively thin, but the end or
outer walls must have sufficient thickness to resist horizontal earth pres
sure.
Very long culverts, over 60 feet in length, are frequently separated
into sections 20 to 40 feet in length, by vertical construction joints. Longi
tudinal bending stresses and settlement stresses are thus reduced and
cracking from contraction eliminated.
Box culverts are simple and easy to build and for this reason they
are used instead of short-span bridges or long span culverts with abut
ments.
Because the spans are relatively short and the footings and the floor
have a relatively large area, unit foundation pressures are low. Founda
tions need not be deeper than probable scouring level even though the
soil may have a relatively low supporting value.
Service and Costs. — Excavation and foundation costs for box cul
verts are little, if any, more than for large pipe culverts of equal area.
Materials are greater in volume than required for pipe culvert, but less
than for short span bridges. More time is required to build box culverts
than pipe culverts and if of concrete more time must be allowed for cur
ing of the concrete.
Box culverts are recommended where pipes of sufficient area cannot
be used because of cost, construction difficulties or for other reasons.
When built with floors and cut off walls or on rock foundation they will
carry water at high velocity without scour to foundations. For this reason
they have a higher discharge capacity than small bridges of equal or
greater area which have no paved floor.
Since box culverts have no abutments they are cheaper than short
bridges when the height of fill requires the bridge to have high and ex
pensive abutments.
A distinct advantage of box culverts is that they can easily be length
ened or extended when a roadway must be widened.
Their principal disadvantage is that of limited economical span. Since
the economical maximum slab length is about 24 feet, spans of greater
length must be of beam or slab and girder type, which frequently are
more costly.
SECTION II
SHORT SPAN BRIDGES
The term ''Low Cost Bridge'' is strictly relative and involves the com
parison of several designs. From such a comparison of short span bridges
a decision must be reached as to which design is best suited for the
particular location in question when all factors are considered. This
discussion will deal only with short spans or multiple span bridges of the
trestle type whose clear span is less than 100 feet.
The introductory material on economics for this section and other
interspersed matter was abstracted from a report presented by Mr. Searcy
B. Slack, Bridge engineer. State Highway Department of Georgia, to the
1932 convention of the American Road Builder's Association.
Bridge Economics. — The, most economical bridge to the public is
that bridge on which the total cost is the least when first cost, maintenance,
renewal, insurance, cost to traffic, and all other charges incidental to the
structure are considered. Mr. C. B. McCulIough in his book "Economics
of Highway Bridge Types" has developed a formula for the total annual
cost. Stating this formula in words, the total annual cost is equal to the
first cost times rate of interest on the investment, plus average annual
maintenance cost, plus the renewal charge, plus insurance charge, plus
operating cost.
It is a well recognized fact that the same economic considerations can
not be used in designing a bridge in beautiful natural surroundings or in
a park, and in designing a bridge for a long swampy stream crossing
where the substructure will rarely ever be seen.
The first cost and rate of interest to be charged on the investment can
be closely estimated. The maintenance costs, renewal charges, and insur
ance charge are factors which vary widely with the different types of con
struction, and each of these items will be considered separately for the
different types of materials discussed.
Operating Cost. — The operating cost, or the cost to traffic to drive
over the structure, will be about the same on any well constructed, proper
ly surfaced bridge. The difference in the operating cost of a vehicle on a
bituminous mat or asphalt pl-ank over a creosoted timber floor as compared
with the operating cost of the same vehicle on a concrete slab is very
slight. On the other hand there would be an appreciable difference in the
vehicle operating cost on a rough timber floor as compared with a con
crete slab. The available data on this factor are very meager, but in com
paring well maintained, properly surfaced bridges, this item may be neg
lected without appreciable error. The term low cost bridge does not in
clude a bridge with a rough timber floor. The maintenance cost on a
rough timber floor is so high and the service so unsatisfactory, even
494 LOW COST ROADS AND BRIDGES ■
though the first cost may be low, it cannot properly be termed a low-
cost bridge.
Renewal Charge. — The amount of the annual renewal charge nec
essary; to replace the structure at the end of its service life is, of course,
dependent upon the estimate of the service life. More emphasis is gen
erally placed on renewal charges than this item justifies. Experience indi
cates that well constructed bridges of steel, concrete, or creosoted timber
all may be expected to last more than 30 to 35 years. Renewal charges
on any structure whose life is more than 30 to 35 years becomes a small
factor. Emphasis is sometimes placed upon so called permanent struc
tures, but some of our better built "permanent" bridges only a decade
old show evidence of deterioration and several have been abandoned be
cause they were inadequate for traffic at this time.
A charge for obsolescence of a sufficient amount to replace any struc
ture at the end of 35 to 40" years should be made. This charge should, of
course, be increased for structures whose expected economic life is less.
Maintenance Costs. — Maintenance costs vary with the different
tvpes of construction. Perhaps the best data available on maintenance
relate to structural steel. The principal item in the maintenance of steel
is the cost of cleaning and painting. There are a few other items such as-
replacing rivets which work loose, tightening nuts, replacing or adjust
ing expansion plates, but the cost of these items is very small and is
generally included under painting. The cost of painting varies, depending
upon the detail of the bridge and the exposure. Average figures should
not be used without consideration of the exposure.
The cost of maintenance painting on structural steel on representative
highway bridges in Georgia is shown in Table IX.
The maintenance on concrete structures consists of repairs to guard
rail, patching over reinforcing steel placed too near the surface, repairing
expansion joints and other minor items. The annual maintenance cost
per year has been estimated to be 0.5% of the first cost of the structure.
With great care in working out details of design, selection of materials
and construction, this repair work can be reduced, but such perfection in
construction is difficult indeed to obtain when a large number of struc
tures are considered.
The maintenance cost on creosoted timber structures varies widely-
with the different types of construction. The American Wood Preserver's
Association estimates the annual maintenance cost on creosoted timber
structures to be 1.5% of the first cost. This estimate is based largely on
information secured from railroad engineers, and it appears that good
maintenance information is meager especially on highway bridges. When
account is taken of replacing material which decays due to improper treat
ment, careless handling, cutting after treatment, and other factors, which,
while not properly chargeable to this material, are of common occurrence,
McCullough estimates this charge to be about 3%.
TABLE IX
Unit Costs for Maintenance Painting Steel Highway
Bridges —Georgia
No. Materials Labor Incidentals Total Remarks

1 .48 .72 .14 1.34 Cleaned wire brushes
1 coat red lead
1 coat aluminum
2 .46 1.04 .18 1.68 Cleaned wire brushes
1 coat red lead
1 coat aluminum
2540' extra pipe handrail
3 .43 .81 .16 1.40 Cleaned wire brushes
1 coat red lead
1 coat aluminum
Bottom partial
4 .39 1.41 .38 2.18 Cleaned sand blast
1 coat red lead
1 coat aluminum
5 .74 .63 .68 2.05 Cleaned sand blast
1 coat red lead
1 coataluminum
Bottom partial
6 .41 .85 .34 1.60 Cleaned sand blast
1 coat red lead
1 coataluminum
Bottom partial
1 coat red lead
1 coat aluminum
Bottom partial
1 coat red lead
1 coataluminum
Bottom partial
1 coat red lead
1 coat aluminum
Bottom partial
10 .33 1.21 .22 1.76 Cleaned wire brushes
1 coat red lead
1 coataluminum
Bottom partial
Insurance. — Under this item should be included only insurance

against fire. Insurance against tornadoes, floor disaster, or earthquakes
would be about equal on any type of construction, although the claim is
made that in case of flood disaster some of the timber material could be
salvaged, whereas this would probably not be the case with a concrete or
steel structure.
The American Wood Preservers' Association estimates one-fourth
of 1% per annum of the first cost to represent fire hazard. Insurance
rates generally quoted are from six-tenths to seven-tenths of 1%. Assum

ing that the insurance companies include profits and commissions in their
rates it would seem that a figure of four-tenths of 1% would be a fair
estimate of this charge.
Annual Cost Example. — To illustrate application of annual cost
a comparison will be made between a concrete trestle 238 feet in length,
consisting of seven 34 ft. deck girder spans with concrete rail, supported
by two column concrete bents, with a structure 240 ft. in length consisting
of a series of creosoted timber pile bents supporting steel beams carrying
a concrete floor and concrete rail. Open type end bents were used on both
structures and an item to cover the cost of placing rip rap to protect
the fills has been added to both estimates. The unit prices used are based
upon the 1931 bid prices on work of this kind in Georgia. Interest rates
are assumed at 5%.
Bridge No. i : Concrete trestle length 238 ft., width of roadway 24 ft.
First cost $14,277.70. Cost per lin. ft. $59.99.
Annual Charges :
Interest on investment $14,277.70 at 5% $713.89
Maintenance and retirement $14,277.70 at 1.5% 214.16
Total annual charges $928.05
Fig. I. — Concrete Trestle Supported on Two Column Bents
Bridge No. 2: Creosoted timber pile bents, steel joists, concrete floor
and rail. Length 240 ft., width of roadway 24 ft. First cost $8,810.50, cost
per lin. ft. $36.71.
Annual Charges :
Interest on investment $8,810.50 at 5% $440.53
Maintenance and retirement $8,810.50 at 4.1% 361.23
Insurance (fire) $8,810.50 at 0.5% 44.05
Total annual charges $845.81
The maintenance charge against No. 2 bridge is perhaps a little high,

as this structure has a concrete floor and rail and the steel joists are well
protected by the concrete floor slab. The insurance charge is also high, as
the rate of 0.5% applies to an all timber bridge.
The concrete bridge No. 1 has a decided advantage in appearance when
viewed from the side. The appearance from the roadway which is the
point of view of the great majority, is about the same. The appearance of
the two types of construction is illustrated by Figs. 1 and 2.
Fig. 3.— Combination Structure on Creosoted Timber Piles
SHORT SPANS OF CONCRETE

An inspection of a large number of concrete bridges leaves the im
pression that little thought has been given to simplification of form work
with a view to reducing cost. Concrete is a material which can readily be
worked into elaborate designs, and the tendency has apparently been to in
crease the cost of the work through addition of unnecessary details. Con
siderable saving can be made, without impairing the appearance of the
structures, by a careful study to simplify form work. This is particularly
true on concrete guardrails.
The volume of concrete required can be reduced in girder and slab
bridges by using continuous spans where foundation conditions warrant
this type of construction. Continuous spans have the further advantage
of reducing the number of expansion joints which must be maintained.
When full advantage is taken of continuity in a structure it is rather sur
prising how much resulting stresses are reduced.
The use of open end bents instead of solid abutments nearly always
shows a very material saving. This type of construction generally requires
a somewhat longer bridge to provide equal waterway than would be
required if the solid abutments were used. If the slopes and end roll
extending around the open end bents are well protected with rip rap and
grassed, experience indicates that this type of construction is, in some
localities, just as safe against flood damage as a well-constructed abut
ment, and there is little difference between the two types of construction.
To illustrate savings which can be made by this type of construction
Fig. 3-
— Bridge with Open End Bents. Note riprap placed to protect slope
on near side. Fill being made around end bent on far side.
comparative estimates will be given on two bridges. Number one bridge,

130 ft. long, consists of five 26 ft. concrete decks with 24 ft. roadway,
two 3 column open end bents, and four 2 column intermediate bents. The
cost of this structure at 1931 unit prices for this type of work is estimated
at $9,180.75. Number two bridge is 78 ft. long and consists of three 26
ft. concrete decks, 24 ft. roadway, two abutments (counterforted type),
and two 2 column intermediate bents. The cost of this structure would be
$12,061.25.
It will be noted that the length of the open type end bent bridge was
increased 26 ft. at each end to allow for the slopes extending through
the end bents so as to provide equal waterway in both bridges. The esti
mate for the open type end bent includes an item for protecting the slopes
with riprap. The saving on this bridge by the use of open type end bents
as compared with abutments would be $2,880.50, or about 24%.
Savings can also be made by the use of rigid framed structures under
conditions where this design is justified. Some beautiful bridges of this
design have been worked out in Westchester County, New York. These
designs are both pleasing in appearance and showed marked saving when
compared with the ordinary type of abutment and girder or slab bridges.
For those who are somewhat dubious about indeterminate structures,
or when foundation conditions are such that the use of fully continuous
girders is not advisable, cantilever type girders can be used to advantage.
The design gives a very pleasing appearance and is much more economical
than simple girder spans of equal length. A bridge of this design is shown
in Fig. 4.
Fig. — Concrete Cantilever Girder Bridge. Main span 73 ft. with side
4.
spans of 58 ft. each
The first cost of any concrete structure is the product of yardage and
unit cost, therefore the fundamental requirement for a reduction in this
cost is that the aforesaid factors he reduced. The possibility of a lessening
of the loading requirements cannot be expected, but several means to effect
lower costs can be employed, which are :
1. The use of simple types of concrete structures
2. Use of high strength concrete and commensurate stresses in
design
3. Rigid frame structures
4. Continuous slab spans.
1. Simple Types of Concrete Structures. — Simpler types of con
crete structures include the use of over-flow pavements, culverts, and the
more common types of shorter span bridges. In the central and western
states, political units with inadequate funds have sometimes made use of
concrete over-flow pavements at stream locations on highways with rela
tively light traffic where its stoppage during the infrequent periods of
high water is of slight importance. This type of construction affords sub
stantial reductions in cost over any other type of crossing.
Multiple concrete boxes, where permissible because of local stream
conditions, often afford substantial savings over longer span construction.
Generally where piles may be necessary on the longer span construction,
the multiple box type can be constructed with no special foundation prep
aration. Average estimates prepared by an east central state on a large
number of structures for six 10 by 10 foot multiple boxes in comparison
with comparable structures is of interest, as the relative economy of the
multiple concrete box is quite evident. The relative estimates follow :
Multiple 6—10 by 10 ft. concrete box 100.0%
Multiple 5—12 by 10 ft. concrete box 102.07c
1 at 60 ft. concrete deck girder 109.0%
3 at 20 ft. concrete slabs 1 14.0%
2 at 30 ft. concrete slabs 1 18.0%
1 at 60 ft. concrete through girder 133.0%
For the shorter spans, the most economical concrete substructure gen
erally is the concrete post or the pre-cast concrete pile bent, the use of
either type depending on the conditions of the site. The economy of these
types is due to the extensive saving in yardage over the formerly accepted
standards utilizing mass concrete.
Typical designs of these two types are shown in Figs. 5 and 6. It will
be noted in Fig. 6 that the abutment design shown includes a cantilevered
wing-wall. The approach fill is permitted to sweep around this wing wall
and through the opening under the cap at its natural angle of repose.
Proper slope protection to prevent scour is usually necessary with this
type.
SlOE Elcvation ■ Half Caoss Section
Sub - Structure
Note:- Reinforcement nor shown.

Fig. 5.
— Typical Concrete Pile and Post Bent Construction
Note — Above substructure is for 25 foot deck Girder, 24 foot roadway. Reinforcement not
shown.
The usual type of low-cost concrete super-structure is either a simple

slab for the shorter spans of 24 ft. and less, or a deck girder for the
longer spans, the relative economy depending on the characteristics of
the site. The through girder is seldom used today because of the impossi-
bility of future widening, which in present-day construction is an im

portant item.
The simplicity of the form work involved is also a factor which tends
/'i'kiasHc joirrf
J3-6'
IQ'-O"
1\
sffe
V
A5UTMENT
far
i1""]T
-
TTT
L:
■ K
Fig. 6. — Typical Concrete Tost Bent Construction
to reduce the unit cost of the concrete, and this item is carefully studied
by good designers.
The San Mateo bridge over San Francisco Bay is an excellent exam
ple of the pre-cast slab type of construction. The elimination of extensive
falsework, the centralization of concrete manufacture, and placement, and
the ease of transporting the finished slabs all combine for a reduction in
cost. A
method of construction similar to this can often be advantageously
utilized under favorable local conditions.
Recently pre-cast concrete bridge railings have been designed which
permit removal and replacement on future widening and also aid in more
rapid construction as they can be constructed in advance of the time for
their placement. It is believed these or similar types of construction have
considerable advantage, especially on bridges which may be widened in
the future, and their use should provide substantial savings.
Concrete floors on all types of bridges have been acknowledged the
best type of construction. Their advantage have been well brought out
by the U. S. Bureau of Public Roads and also by several state highway
departments.
2. High Strength and Quality Concrete and Commensurate Unit
Stresses in Design. — In attaining the utmost economy in concrete
structures, the quality of the concrete will be an important factor. The
leanest concrete having low strength and other reduced qualities is not
always the lowest in cost nor the most economical to use. Taken volume
for volume, of course, low quality concrete is less costly than high quality
concrete. However, with the use of high quality concrete and commen
surate unit stresses in design, the size of members can be reduced in
section with no lowering of the factor of safety until a definite saving in
ultimate cost will result.
The ultimate strength of properly made concrete is not reached in
28 days, but under ideal conditions the strength continues to increase for
an indefinite time. The increase after 28 days is relatively slow, but in
one sense it may be assumed to be an additional factor of safety, which
will, to a limited extent, offset some slight irregularity commonly incident
to manufacture.
By the application of known principles concrete of a definite strength
at a given age can be made. The recently adopted (1931) specification of
the American Association of State Highway Officials permits the use of
stresses based on the ultimate 28-day strength of the concrete being used
on a particular structure.
The following examples indicate a few of the savings that accrue
from the use of 3,000-pound compressive strength concrete and a com
mensurate unit stress of 1,200 pounds in compression instead of 650
pounds, which is all too commonly used :
Span lengths may be increased approximately 50 per cent.
The thickness of slabs may be reduced 33 per cent for the same span.
Of particular interest in pre-cast slab work, the weight of slabs will be re
duced so that a given capacity derrick can handle longer spans.
In addition greater workability, earlier removal of forms,

to these,
and shorter period of protection due to increased cement content may- each
6e assigned an economic value that will directly influence the cost of the
structure.
3. Rigid Frame Structures. — The many distinct advantages of
the rigid frame bridge have been appreciated for a number of years. It
has amply demonstrated its numerous desirable features not only in the
structures of this type in Westchester County, N. Y., but in Texas, Cali
fornia, and elsewhere. The principle of continuity as applied to bridges
reduces the amount of work done by the structure in supporting a given
load by six-tenths that of the non-rigid frame type bridge, in which the
abutments or piers merely support the horizontal members. It is a funda
mental engineering principle, which is evident without proof, that a
material economy will be wrought by the structure that accomplishes the
same purpose with the minimum amount of work.
The slenderness and simplicity that characterize the members of a
rigid frame bridge not only reduce the cost of the main structure but
result in a marked saving in the cost of the approaches. The effect on the
height of the approach fill is illustrated in Fig. 7, which shows a T-beam
bridge super-imposed on a frame bridge, and also a fixed arch bridge
.Gride for. Beam ^gi_
Rigid Frame Shoivh in Full Lines

Beam. Slab and Abutments Shown in Dash Lines
Grade, for Arch Bridge _
Crac.
rrame Bridge'
Rigid Fume Shown in Full Lines -Flat Arch and

a sutments shown in dash l ines (in r 1610frame cow-
struction. Lateral Earth Pbcsbure Performs in
fHRr the Function of ah Abutment)
Fig. 7.
— Comparison of Rigid Frame Design with Usual Forms of
Bridge Construction
compared with a rigid frame. In the latter case the horizontal earth
pressure performs in part the function of the heavy abutments, thereby
not only reducing the amount of material involved in the construction, but
minimizing the quantity of excavation.
The slender proportions of a typical rigid frame bridge are shown in
Fig. 8, which shows a section of the bridge on the Saw Mill River Park
way in Westchester County. The simplicity of form work and reinforcing,

as well as the relatively small quantity of concrete required for a rigid
frame bridge, is evident from this illustration.
Since practical applications of the principles of structural continuity
are comparatively new, very few design data are available in published
form. To date, four practical design methods have been developed, each
of which is definitely successful. The first method, as evolved by Arthur
G. Hayden, Designing Engineer, Westchester County Park Commission.
New York, utilizes analytical calculations which include the use of unit
loads and influence lines. The second, also evolved by him, is a mechanical
analysis of the structure with the aid of the deformeter of George E.
Beggs. The third method, is the analytical calculation of the actual stresses
in a structure through the use of simultaneous equations. The fourth
method, as developed by Hardy Cross, Professor of Structural Engineer
ing, University of Illinois, is based on the distribution of fixed end
moments.
The cost of the reinforced concrete rigid frame bridge, including the
approaches, has been shown to be 83 per cent of the next cheapest type
of construction, neglecting the economic value of appearance and main
tenance of the structure. It has been repeatedly demonstrated by the
Westchester County Park Commission that rigid frame bridges of con
crete or steel show savings of 20 per cent over any other type.
The economic span limits of the rigid frame type bridge have not been
definitely established. Although a number of such bridges have been
Fig. 8. — Typical Details of Solid Section Rigid Frame Bridge
built having spans under 30 ft., it is generally considered that for such
short spans the reinforced concrete T-bcam floor support on concrete
abutments is the more economical. The economy of the rigid frame type
of construction for spans between 30 ft. and 100 to 120 ft. has been
amply demonstrated as compared with concrete arch or T-beam bridges.
Rigid frame bridges constructed of concrete possess great inherent
strength and rigidity which insure their safety. From the very nature
of the construction, any overloading of one part of the bridge simply
causes the stresses to be transferred to other parts until a balance is
obtained. Maximum clearance is obtained for the roadway or stream by
the use of or barrel type rigid frame bridge. Such bridges

a solid slab
offer the least possible obstruction to stream flow, so that m periods of
flood the danger of the bridge being carried away is minimized.
4. Continuous Slab Spans. — The economy of continuous long
span one-way reinforced slab bridges has been demonstrated in a number
of long viaducts in Washington. The Woodway Park Bridge, Fig. 9, built
by Snohomish County, is of this type. Although the columns were ex
tremely high, in some cases being 55 feet from top of footings to under
side of beams, the structure cost only $73 per linear foot of bridge. The
roadway is 20 feet wide, with a four-foot walk on one side, so that the
square foot cost was very low ; and comparable in first cost with less
durable types of construction.
In this type of bridge a heavy, solid slab is employed. It is thickened
at the supports to give additional resistance to negative moments and to
stiffen the slab. This thickening of the slab also serves as the floor beam,
which is wide and shallow. There are no longitudinal beams or girders,
which greatly simplifies the form work, resulting in a material economy,
since panel forms can be used and numerous repetitions obtained.
Other factors that contribute to the economy of this type of bridge
Fig. g. —Details of the Woodway Park Concrete Viaduct, Seattle
are the use of large reinforcing bars which avoid crowding in the slab,
and the ease with which the concrete can be placed. A more economical
concrete mixture can be used than where small narrow members are in
volved, since a relatively stiff mix can be placed easily. The lower water-
cement ratio that is used and the fact that the thick slab affords almost
ideal curing gives a concrete of high strength. Commensurate working
stresses have been used in the Washington viaducts of this type, so that
advantage has been taken of the actual strength of the concrete.
In those cases where clearance is a factor, this type of bridge is most
suitable, as a minimum of depth is required for the deck.
An important feature of the solid distribution

slab type of bridge is the
of heavy concentrated wheel loads. Even though the structure is sub
jected at some time to unusual loads for which it was not designed, the
solid slab readily distributes the concentration of loading, so that no part
of the structure will be over stressed.
One of the inherent features of concrete construction is its continuity.
Cognizance of this characteristic permits reduction of the number of
expansion joints to the absolute minimum, only one joint being used in
the Woodway, Park bridge, which is 342 feet long. One of the chief
maintenance expenditures on concrete bridges is thus practically eliminated.
SHORT SPANS OF STEEL

With of the deep beam sections (30, 33 and 36 inches
the introduction
deep) now available, it has been possible to greatly simplify details of
steel construction, particularly in the shorter span bridges. Spans of 60
to 100 ft. can be worked out, using available beam sections which will
show considerable savings when compared with the older type low truss
contraction. This type of construction has the additional advantage of
ease of construction and as the surfaces are flat they can be more readily
cleaned and painted. Where a concrete floor slab is used the beams are
well protected from weather exposure and painting cost will be greatly
reduced. By using concrete diaphragms and burning a few holes through
the beams in the field the fabrication cost can be eliminated. No field
riveting is required for this type of construction and erection costs are
surprisingly low. The concrete diaphragms between the beams should be
placed before the slab is placed. This adds stiffness to the beams and
holds them in line as the load from the slab is added.
A comparison of the weights of structural steel and castings of pony
trusses with beam spans shows that the beam spans are somewhat lighter
Tig. 10. — Steel Beam Bridge Cantilever Type. Center span oo feet,
side spans 6o feet, approach spans 40 feet
than the truss span. This is especially true with the cantilevered or con
tinuous beam spans.
The weight of structural steel for the main spans of the bridge shown
in Fig. 10, consisting of two sixty-foot side spans and a ninety-foot main
span, twenty-two-foot roadway, was 171,200 lb. This compares with
199,000 lb. estimated weight for two sixty-foot and one ninety-foot pony
truss span with a twenty-foot roadway.
Steel Bents. — Beam bridges having two or more spans may well
have steel bents on concrete pedestals to support the adjoining ends of the
spans, provided the location is such that there is no liability of damage
to the bridge by drift or ice lodging against the bent.
The structural steel may be shipped from mill to site without fabrica
tion or paint.
The steel H-columns should have their ends milled at the shop to
receive the cap and base plate, which should be fastened on before ship
ment, so that the plates will bear on the milled ends of the column.
A cross cap made of a wide flanged steel beam completes the bent,
and all parts, including cross caps, are securely fastened together by
welding.
The bracing angles can be cut to correct length by a torch in the field.
The base plate, cap plate and bracing may also be welded to the columns
in the field. The steel stringers are ordered long enough to cover the full
width of the flange of the cap. The height of bent can be made to suit
the ground up to a length of column of 16 feet.
Steel I-beam stringers are placed and welded to the cross caps and
then steel cross struts are welded between the stringers at intervals of
eight feet or more, depending on the width of the flange of the stringer
for short spans and with wider spacing for longer spans. The distance
between struts is determined as follows : The laterally unsupported length
of the compression flange of a beam shall not exceed 40 times the width
of flange. When the unsupported length of flange exceeds 12 times the
flange width, the compressive stress in pounds per square inch shall not
exceed 19000 — 250 — with a maximum value of 16000 pounds, where

/;
/. equals the length in inches of unsupported flange between struts and b

equals the flange width in inches.
The beam spans have the further advantage that they can be widened
or sidewalks can be added if this becomes necessary, whereas the pony
truss spans cannot be widened. All steel in the beam spans is protected
by the concrete floor slab and the surfaces are flat so painting costs will
be much less.
Steel Floor Plates. — The use of welded steel floor plates is being
promoted and this type of construction has merit under certain conditions.
Maintenance and service experience are very limited, however, and this
type of construction will be economical only where saving in dead load is

of considerable importance, as in long spans or movable spans.
Use of Copper-Bearing Steel. — Experience in this country and
Europe during recent years with copper-bearing bridge steels has shown
considerable savings in maintenance costs, as the paint coat adheres better
and rusting underneath the paint is o'f~rare occurrence with this type of
steel. The extra cost of copper-bearing steel is but two to three dollars
\per ton and it is readily available from those mills rolling structural shapes.
It is therefore well worth while giving consideration to the use of copper-
bearing steel when economic studies are made in connection with bridge
designs.
Developments in Steel Design. — Recently there has been increased
attention given to the development of new design in steel bridges, and this
has been marked in the smaller highway structures. The engineers of the
Tennessee State Highway Department and others have developed an eco
nomic design for a continuous deck girder bridge, and have built a three-
span structure, continuous over four supports, using girders consisting of
rolled sections, at a very marked saving in cost as compared to various
alternative designs studied for the project. The details of splice connec
tions for the girders and the expansion rockers were very simple and inex
pensive. The Bureau of Public Roads has, during the past year or so,
made extensive studies regarding the economy of continuous I-beam
bridges. These studies have covered the comparative economics of struc
tural carbon steel and alloy steel for the continuous girders, and demon
strate the great economy of continuous bridges where the foundation con
ditions are reasonably satisfactory.
Steel Piles. — About 1900 there were a great many short-span
highway bridges built in Iowa and Nebraska with steel piles of rolled sec
tions. Recently the economy in cost and maintenance of this type of sub
structure has become better recognized, with the result that several steel
beam bridges with steel H-pile bents have been constructed. The fact has
been established that, even without maintenance, steel H-piles lose not
more than one per cent of their cross section at the water level, the loca
tion of greatest corrosion, during a 25-year life. But adequate maintenance
or protection by concrete is recommended.
The use of steel piles is unusual but the experience of the Nebraska
State Highway Department indicates that under certain conditions it is
economical and satisfactory. The following excerpts from Civil Engineer
ing, September, 1932, are instructive.
The principal advantage of steel piles lies in their ability to stand the
punishment of the long-continued hard driving necessary to obtain the
required penetration — 50 to 65 ft. They have the fortunate characteristic
of showing any distress due to driving at the very top. This is probably
due to the inertia of the pile and its ability to distribute the impact of the
blow at the point of application. Therefore, in a short period of hard, fast
driving the pile top will bend and finally wrinkle. This damage usually
occurs within the top 6 to 16 in., leaving the remainder of the pile in per
fect condition. The damaged end can be cut off with a gas torch in from
three to five minutes, and the driving can be resumed with but little loss
of time.
By carefully regulating the height of fall of the hammer, the greatest
amount of penetration per cut-off can be obtained. The majority of piles
require but one cut-off, although there are records of single piles that have
been cut off seven times in order to secure full penetration. Obviously,
in such cases the required bearing capacity was attained before the full
penetration was reached.
SHORT SPANS OF TIMBER

The cost of creosoted timber can be reduced by using the sizes of
timber which can readily be obtained. In the Southeast the larger sizes of
timber are difficult to secure in a good quality of material. If the designs
are carefully worked out cutting treated timber in the field can be avoided.
Even where great care is used in protecting and treating cuts, there is
grave danger of decay at these points.
Timber bridge floors if not protected by a wearing surface are subject
to severe conditions of wear and exposure. There are quite a number of
methods of providing a wearing surface for timber floors, such as asphalt
plank, rock asphalt, bituminous mats, etc. Maintenance costs on these
wearing surfaces are, however, much higher than on concrete floors.
While it is becoming generally recognized that structures of creosoted
timber will probably have a life of upwards of 35 years, the life of sound
timber well treated and handled may be much in excess of this depending
upon conditions of exposure.
There have been failures due to decay even in well creosoted timber,
but such failures are due to decay not in the treated, but in the untreated
portion of the piece. Such failures are due to two causes : First, possible
incipient decay present in the timber before treatment; and second, ex
posure of the inner wood due to cutting, checking or mutilation of the
treated protective coating. The first is prevented by a reasonable inspec
tion of the material for soundness followed by adequate treatment, which
will check any further advance of incipient decay. The second can and is
being avoided by improved field technique in the handling and erection of
treated material and particularly by the increased tendency to specify the
pre- framing of material.
Kinds, Grading and Preservative Treatment. — The two kinds of
timber used chiefly in bridges are Douglas Fir and Southern Yellow Pine.
In order to obtain 40 years or more durability in these timbers, it is neces
sary to select the right kind and grade of lumber or timber and have it
pressure treated with an approved standard preservative.
The first and essential requirement of wood for treatment is that it
shall be strictly sound and free from the least attack of decay. In un-
reated timber the heartwood is always more durable than sap wood, but
the sap wood takes the preservative much more readily than heartwood
(untreated) which is not protected by the surrounding creosoted sap wood.
Different grades must be selected depending on whether treatment is
required. The following grades of lumber and timber which conform to
grading rules of recognized lumber associations should be selected for
use in creosoted wooden culverts and trestles which are designed for a
maximum working stress in bending of 1600 pounds per square inch:
TABLE X
Grades of Lumber for Creosoted Timber Bridges
Member Douglas Fir Southern Pine
Truss members, floor beams, Structural stringers Structural square edge
stringers, floor members (218) and sound (33-38)
over 4" in thickness, rail
posts
Caps, posts, sills, mud sills, Structural timbers Structural square edge
nailing strips, culvert sides (210) and sound (33-38)
and floor
Floor members and rail 4" Structural plank (214) Structural square edge
and less in thickness and sound plank (47-51)
Sway braces Common structural Xo. 1 common dimen
plank. (215). Note-B sion (232)
Bulkhead plank for culverts Common structural No. 1 common dimen
and bridges plank. (215), Notc-B sion (232)
bridging cleats and scupper No. 1 common dimen Xo. 1 common dimen
blocks sion (195) sion (232)
Wheel or felloe guards and Common structural Square edge and sound
cribbing timbers. (211), Note-B (56-59)
Note A. — Figures following grades of Douglas fir refer to paragraph numbers in the Stand
ard Grading and Dressing Rules, Number 9 of the West Coast Lumbermen's Association, effective
July 1, 1929.
The figuresfollowing grades of southern yellow pine are the paragraph numbers in the 1927
Rules of the Southern Pine Association for Structural Timbers, Joists and Plank with the
exception of Paragraph 232, which refers to the paragraph number of the Southern Pine Associa
tion for southern pine lumber.
Note B. — With medium pitch pockets.
Note C. — See grading rules of the lumber associations for their recommended working stresses.
In addition to the pine and Douglas fir usually treated there are sev
eral kinds of oak and gum available locally which take treatment well, ex
cept white oak. Oak lumber is used for floors. Pressure treatment with
grade 1 creosote oil is recommended for all lumber and timber for use
in culverts, bridges and cribbing.
Untreated timber piles are used below the elevation of low water to
support piers and abutments.
Creosoted timber piles are used for trestle bents to support steel or
treated timber caps and either treated timber or steel stringer and usually
cost less than concrete or steel piles.
Locations in a cool and dry climate such as that of Wyoming do not
require as much oil retained as those in the warm and wet regions of the
TABLE XI
Grades of Lumber for Untreated Timber Bridges
California Western
Member Douglas Fir Southern Pine Redwood Cedar
Truss members, Superstructural Select struc Superstructural Structural
floor beams. (217)* or dense tural (26-32) or prime stringers
stringers, floor structural or dense structural (462)*
members over (218-302) heart (26-32)
4" in thickness,
rail posts
Caps, posts, Structural Dense heart Select Structural
sills, mud sills (210) (26-32) structural posts (460)
and nailing and timbers
strips
Floor members Dense struc Dense heart Super-select Structural
4" and less in tural (214-302) (26-32) structural joists and
thickness and plank (461)
rails
Sway braces Common Structural Select struc Structural
structural square edge tural and prime joists and
plank (215) and sound structural plank (461)
(33-38)
Bulkhead Common Merchantable Select No. 1 common
plank structural (52-55) structural (464)
plank (215)
75% heart
Bridging, cleats No. 1 common No. 1 common Select No. 1 common
and scupper dimension dimension structural "(452)
blocks (195) (232)
Wheel or Common struc Merchantable Select No. 1 common
felloe guards tural timbers timbers (52-55) structural timber (458)
(211)
Truss i No. 1 common No. 1 common No. 1 common No. 1 common
sheathing boards (187) boards (256) boards (155) board (452)
South specially near the marine waters, where the maximum amount of
oil should be specified. The penetration in heartwood is very little, pos
sibly one-quarter inch to one-half inch and in sapwood for the full thick
ness of sapwood and slightly into the heartwood.
Zinc chloride may be used in dry and protected positions such as in
covered bridges where there should be a specified not less than three-
quarter pound and preferably one pound of dry salt per cubic foot of
wood. Salt treatment is not recommended for use in water as in substruc
tures of bridges, in culverts or cribbing.
Zinc meta-arsenite and Wolmon salts are comparatively new treating
• Figures allowing grades of Douglas fir and Western red cedar refer to paragraph number
in the Standard Grading and Dressing Rules, Number 9, of the West Coast Lumbermen's Asso
ciation, Seattle, Washington, effective July I, 1929.
The figures following grades of southern yellow pine are the paragraph number in the 1927
Rules of the Southern Pine Association, New Orleans, La., for Structural Timbers. Joists and
Plank with exception of Paragraph 232, which refers to the paragraph number of the Southern
Pine Association's Standard Specification for southern pine lumber.
For grades and permissible unit stresses applying to California redwood see the California
Redwood Association Specifications November 26, 1928, address 24 California St., San Francisco.
California.
materials in the United States which have not yet taken the place of creo
sote oil to an appreciable extent in the treatment of wood for highway
structures.
Treated timber should be carefully handled in order not to break
through the treated surface layer. Any cutting or boring of holes which
is done in the field should be followed with a thorough brushing of the
cut surface with three coats of hot creosote oil allowing each to be absorbed
into the bolt holes or applied with waste on a wire. If any holes are not
used they should be tightly plugged with treated plugs.
Treated Fabrication.— One of the most important recent develop
ments is the cutting, shaping, notching and boring of timber at the treat
ing plants before treatment. While this method has been made possible
and economical by the installation of machinery at the treating plants the
full advanages to be gained may not be realized. Wherever practicable
each structure will have plans carefully prepared in advance to have all
possible framing done prior to treatment. Where this method is followed
there should be many years of useful service expected from throughly
creosoted wood.
Piles have to be cut off in the field and their tops should always be
protected very carefully by applying 3 coats of hot creosote oil as above
specified followed with a coat of hot pitch, after which suitable covers of
galvanized metal or mastic water proofing consisting of two layers of
open weave burlap and 3 layers of hot tar pitch should be fitted over the
tops of the piles and fastened to the sides of the piles to prevent moisture
from getting into the cut surface. In marine waters the cutting of treated
wood or boring holes should be avoided so far as possible. The bolt holes
of sway bracing usually become points of entry by marine borers.
Descriptions of various preservative treatments and specifications can
be found in the publications of the American Wood Preservers' Associa
tion and, if not available, in the specifications furnished by state highway
departments. All treatment should be specified to be in accordance with
such state or association specifications, with a specified minimum amount
of preservative retained in the wood and with the explicit requrement
that all sapwood be thoroughly penetrated and as much of the heartwood
as practicable. The depth of penetrations should be checked by means of
an increment borer and this should be done before the material is shipped
from the treating plant. An inspector is generally employed to see that all
requirements of the specifications are complied with.
Maintenance. — As a maintenance feature the life of creosoted
wood may be prolonged indefinitely and continued usefulness assured by
spraying the woodwork with creosote oil about once every eight or ten
years, particularly all surfaces exposed to sun and rain and around bolt
holes, cut surfaces, etc. Spraying should be done during a dry season and
when the wood is thoroughly dried out and preferably when the water in
the stream is low. There should be good absorption of the creosote under
favorable conditions and the cost is small since creosote oil is cheap.
The cost of spraying a timber trestle at eight to ten year intervals
would be probably not exceeding $2.00 per lineal foot of bridge or $0.20
per lineal foot per year.
COMBINATIONS OF MATERIALS FOR SHORT SPANS

Quite a number of designs have been worked out utilizing creosoted
timber, steel and concrete. A design which is being extensively used con
sists of creosoted timber pile bents with creosoted timber caps supporting
steel joists and a concrete floor with guardrail either of concrete or timber.
This design has many advantages both in cost and in ease of construction.
The substructure consists simply of a series of pile bents. No excavation
is required for the substructure and construction can go forward regard
less of water conditions where pile driving is done with an overhead rig.
No cuts are necessary in the creosoted material other than cutting off the
piles. These cuts are well protected with galvanized iron caps and the
wooden cap resting directly on the piles. The top and ends of the wooden
caps are covered with galvanized iron before the steel joists are placed.
Steel joists can be shipped without fabrication and can be easily erect
ed. The concrete floor slab requires no centering extending to the ground
as the forms are supported by blocks between the bottom flanges and
I-beam joists. Concrete diaphragms are provided between the joists to
prevent overturning and provide lateral support to the joists.
The maintenance costs are greatly reduced by having the steel joists
well protected with a concrete slab. In case of decay of a creosoted timber
pile the pile can be cut off below the ground line, a concrete pedestal built
on top of the pile extending from several feet below the ground line to
just above the ground line, and a post placed on this pedestal will replace
the pile which has decayed. The concrete floor slab requires practically
no maintenance with the exception of filling expansion joints with asphalt,
and keeping drain holes open. The fire hazard on this type of construc
tion is very low, the only danger being the possible loss of one or two piles
due to brush fires. There is no danger of the fire spreading from one
part of the structure to another. At 1931 contract prices in Georgia, this
type of construction costs from 38% to 40% less than an all-concrete
structure.
Many structures are being built with creosoted timber bents, creosoted
timber joists, and concrete floor slabs. This type of construction has the
advantage of a concrete slab for wearing surface with creosoted timber
substructure which requires comparatively little maintenance and no paint
ing. The disadvantages, however, are that the span lengths must be greatly
reduced to use timber joists and details of placing concrete floor slab on
the timber joists must be carefully worked out to allow for shrinkage of
the timber joists. At 1931 prices of steel, the creosoted timber joists cost
very little less than the steel joists.
LOCAL MATERIALS
Any discussion of low cost bridges would not be complete unless men
tion is made of the use of local materials wherever durable local material
is available. In sections along the Pacific Coast certain cedars and red
wood timber are available which, when properly used, are durable bridge
materials. In sections of the coastal region of the Southeast a good quality
of heart cypress timber can be secured.
Black or red heart cypress timber is very durable when used in the
regions where it grows. When used in the upland country, the material
is not nearly so durable. For short span trestle construction in the coastal
regions cypress timber and cypress piles have been widely used. The eco-
Fig. ii. — Highway and Railroad Trestle of Local Cypress Timber
nomic life depends largely on the quality of timber secured, but where
care is used an economic life of twenty years may reasonably be expected.
The diameter of cypress piles should be specified in terms of heart diam
eter rather than outside diameter, as the sapwood is not durable and
should not be considered. Cypress is rather a soft wood and floors of
this material must be protected from wear by a suitable wearing surface.
Due to low first cost of cypress timber and piles in certain sections,
this type of construction has been and will continue to be widely used.
Fig. 1 1 shows a railroad trestle and highway bridge of cypress timber
and piles. The railroad trestle was built about 1906 and not more than
30% of the timber has been renewed since first construction.
SUMMARY OF SHORT SPAN BRIDGES

The bridge type should be in keeping with the surroundings, but
where appearance is not of great importance an economic comparison
should be made of several designs to determine the bridge of lowest an
nual cost.
Maintenance is an important consideration, but reliable data on cost

are rather meager. An estimate is made for proper charges on various
types of material.
Renewal charges should be made against all bridges, but too much
emphasis is generally placed on this item.
Material savings can he effected by making designs simple and taking
advantage of continuous slabs or girders, rigid frames or cantilever con
struction where conditions are suitable. Open end bents show savings in
comparison with abutments. Bridges using a combination of creosoted
timber piles and caps, steel joists and concrete floor and rails are econom
ical in cost and have several advantages.
The use of local material where available and suitable should always be
given consideration.
Acknowledgments. — Papers on low-cost short-span bridges were
presented at the 1931 meeting of the Highway Research Board by E.
M. Fleming of the Portland Cement Association, J. F. Seiler of the
American Wood Preservers Association, and F. H. Frankland of the
American Institute of Steel Construction. These papers were discussed
bv C. B. McCuIlough, G. G. Wickline, and N. H. Houk. Searcy B. Slack,
the author of a large part of this section on short spans, has used infor
mation and data from these papers and discussions.
SECTION III
TRUSS SPANS
Truss spans for low-cost bridges are commonly of structural steel and
range in length from a minimum of 60 feet up to 250 feet or more.
Near the lower limits and up to 100 feet, the rolled steel I-beam is
replacing the pony and short span steel truss.
In some localities, notably California, timber trusses of redwood are
used to some extent. Redwood is also used for trestles of short span for
both substructure and superstructure. Timber trusses from 50 feet to over
100 feet in length are also used in isolated and rugged locations where
steel can be brought in only at great expense and where local timber is
available. Timber trusses are also used to a limited extent for rustic
bridges of low cost.
It is possible that suspension bridges will and should be used more
than formerly instead of steel or timber trusses for low-cost bridges.
Suspension bridges are discussed in Section IV.
STEEL TRUSS SPANS

Truss spans and truss design are treated briefly in this book and the
reader is referred to the several excellent treatises on bridge design for
more detail on truss bridges.
Deck trusses of steel instead of through trusses are coming into favor
because their roadways may be more easily widened.
The following discussion of comparative designs and estimates illus

trates how steel I-beam and truss spans may be used to effect savings :
The upper layout in Fig. 12 shows an 80 ft. truss span with 45 ft. con
crete girder approaches. This type of bridge has been extensively used
where a span longer than 50 ft. across the stream is necessary to take care
of drift and ice. The approach spans usually vary from 20 ft. to 50 ft. in
r I®""""
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7- IMtt 1*um —- I? 7TO»

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Alternate .Aio^
TABLE XII
2
Estimates of Quantities for Typical Steel Through Truss
Superstructures for Spans 60'-0" to 250'-0"

n
Width 2V-0"
£>
Roadway
2
Concentrated Live Load 15-Ton Trucks.
Floors of Reinforced Concrete.
2" Thick — Bituminous

^5
Surfacing Type.
Cl
fa
Spans Center to Center of

Bearings
ITEM 60' 0* 80' 0" 100' o- 120' 0* 140' 0" 160' 0* 180' 0" 200' 0" 250' 0" Unit
Ik.
A
Concrete Class 32.2 42.8 53.8 64.4 75 85.7 96.5 107.5 135.5 cu. yd.
Reinforcing Steel 6000 8000 10100 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000 25200 IK
Structural Steel 53600 76400 103100 129000 160000 187000 232000 269000 400000 lb.
Cast Steel Shoes 450 1620 1670 2400 2700 2800 3100 3400 4100 lb.
Cast Iron Drains 800 800 800 1100 1100 1300 1300 1550 1550 lb.
§ s
Galvanized Pipe (with fittings) 45 160 200 244 280 320 360 400 500 lin. ft.
Surfacing 132 175 219 263 306 350 393 438 550 sq. yd. to
(Courtesy U. S. Bureau of Public Roads)
in
•si
length. Had steel beams been used in the approach spans there would
have been a saving of $4,366 or 12.9% of the original cost. The span
length is 260 ft. Alternate No. 1 shows the cost using two 130 ft. spans.
There would be a saving of $2,146 or 6.35%. Alternate No. 2 shows a
160 ft. and a 100 ft. span with a saving of $2,961 or 8}4%. Alternate
No. 3 is based on using a 140 ft. and a 120 ft. span. The saving is $2,700
or almost 8%. Alternate No. 2, which is the combination of the 160 ft.
and the 100 ft., is the most economic of the three alternate layouts. The
abutments, pier, floor, and railing are identical in all three. The differ
ence in cost is due to the combination of trusses used.
An engineer might assume that maximum economy would be secured
by dividing the space equally, as was done in Alternate No. 1. There
would be a saving on account of duplication of spans, but for purposes
of illustration this has been neglected. In these layouts the state's standard
designs for trusses have been used. The combination of using the two
130 ft. spans does not show up well. It is out of line with the 120 ft., the
140 ft., and the 160 ft. layouts, there being more steel in Alternate No. 1
than in either of the other two. In the original design we have an 80 ft.
truss and a 45 ft. concrete girder at the right. Pier 5 cost $4,001. The
combination at the right end is out of balance. If we were to use a 125
ft. truss we could eliminate Pier 5, but the state does not have a standard
of this length. It does have a 120 ft. and a 130 ft. If we use a; 120 ft.
truss, as shown in the, lower picture, and eliminate Pier 5, retaining the
other concrete girders, there would be a saving of $3,354 or almost 10%.
If we were to use steel beams there would be another saving of $3,423,
making a total saving of $6,777 or 20%. The bridge in this case would
have a clear waterway of 252 ft. as compared with 255 ft. in the original,
and Pier 5 would be eliminated.
The most recent designs in steel trusses show trends toward :
(a) The use of solid rolled sections for laterals and portals instead
of laced sections.
(b) The of deck trusses, where sufficient under clearance is avail
use
able, instead of through trusses. This will save expense and delays in case
of future widening.
(c) The use of continuity in designing multiple span deck trusses;
this results in a reduction of about 10% in the quantity of steel required.
Trends in Welding. — Welding of steel for structures has been devel

oped to such extent that it is advantageously used in repairing,
an
strengthening and widening existing bridges. There are many advantages
to be gained, including the possibility of use of the bridge during the time
repairs or changes are being made. In all cases, good workmanship and
careful supervision by an experienced engineer are proper precautions
to take. Recondition welding has not been accepted generally on bridges
for tension member connections or splices, but it is used for compression
attachments, as in cap and base plates of trestle columns, expansion floor

plates, metal railing and bracing connections.
In several instances girders and beams have been strengthened by
welding narrow plates to the flanges, and its possibilities for maintenance
and reconstruction work should be encouraged.
Rusted members which have lost considerable of their original sec
tion may be very easily brought back to their original efficiency by remov
ing the rusted portions and fusing in sufficient weld metal to restore the
section or by cutting out the bad places and welding in new material.
This is oftentimes found cheaper than supplying a whole new member,
particularly so when it might be necessary to close the bridge to traffic
in order to replace a whole member.
To attempt repairs by old methods may be not only costly but slow
and in some cases practically impossible to do on account of the anti
quated type of structural details ; therefore, little or nothing can be done
in the way of effectively strengthening or reinforcing many of these old
steel bridges except by welding.
Wrought iron or low carbon structural steel of which the older struc
tures are built, can be and are being successfully welded.
The causes which require alterations may be thus classified :
1. Corrosion
2. Cracks due to overloading or to defective metal.
3. Excessive stresses.
4. Readjustment to existing members.
Wrought iron bridges seldom become inadequate because of corrosion,
but steel bridges frequently suffer from this influence. And as this
deterioration is usually localized, as for example at supports, at points
where wooden floors cover steel stringers or floor beams, or at places
where planking is in contact with or close to girders or truss members,
the addition of new material welded in place is efficacious.
Defects resulting from cracks are most likely to appear in structural
details such as angles connecting stringers to floor beams; or top flange
angles on stringers which crack horizontally along the junction of verti
cal and horizontal legs due to bending.
Increases in weights of vehicular traffic on highway bridges consti
tute the most common cause of strengthening wrought iron or steel
bridges. And generally this inadequacy manifests itself in the floor sys
tem, although trusses are sometimes light for the duty imposed on them.
TIMBER TRUSS SPANS

Modern redwood bridges are built under specifications approved by
federal, state, county and railroad engineers. They may be found in Cali
fornia, Texas, Arkansas and other states, and as far east as Ohio.
Redwood is naturally durable and requires no artificial preservative,
such as creosote, to protect it from the elements. Its natural resistance
permits dapping and framing in the field without necessity for depend
ence on brush treatments of abrasions and cuts with preservatives.
Redwood and other timber trusses are usually of the combination
Howe truss type. In this type timber is used for all compression mem
bers and the bottom chord, while round steel rods are used for the vertical
tension members.
This type of timber truss using local pine was built extensively on the
Bouquet Road in the Philippine Islands by the U. S. government engi
neers as early as 1910. These bridges up to 160 ft. in span carried heavily
loaded trucks and trailers for many years on the only line of communica
tion between the low lands and the otherwise isolated capital of Bagino.
SECTION IV
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF SMALL SPAN
SUSPENSION BRIDGES
The following brief discussion* of the basic theory of suspenion bridge
design is offered so that approximate designs may readily be prepared for
the purpose of economic comparison with other types of bridges for any
particular crossing. Owing to the rarity of occasions that the average
bridge engineer engaged in the design of highway bridges has for becom
ing familiar with the comparative economics of suspension bridges, there
are undoubtedly many crossings bridged by trusses, arches and viaducts
that could more economically be crossed by bridges of the suspension
type.
For locations where piers or trestle bents are difficult and expensive
of construction or where suitable rock is not found at convenient locations
to receive the horizontal thrust from arch spans, or where it may be desir
able to use one instead of several spans — with no great increase in cost —
it will be found that a suspension span solution of the problem is fre
quently surprisingly economic for crossings of 200 ft. or more in length.
Transportation and erection difficulties are invariably less for suspen
sion bridges than for any other type of permanent structure, consequently
the suspension type particularly recommends itself for those locations
where these considerations are important.
Not only has the science of suspension bridge design been greatly
advanced during the last few years but ideas of bridge architecture and
aesthetics have been developed, whereas, in this country but a short time
ago the small steel bridge was designed with an almost entire disregard
to good looks. It is possible to make a small suspension bridge graceful,
artistic, substantial and altogether as pleasing in appearance as an arch
bridge.
The following design considerations will be dealt with : general theory,
* This discussion was prepared by F. H. Frankland. Director of Engineering Service, Amer
ican Institute of Steel Construction, for this book and also as a paper before the 1933 convention
of the American Road Builders' Association.
effects of live loads, stiffening trusses, lateral wind bracing, cables, towers,
economic ratios of side spans to main span, economic ratios of cable deflec
tion to span length, piers, and anchorages.
It is desirable that, in the design of small suspension bridges, the
Elastic Theory be used instead of the Deflection Theory ; the reason being
that, in the Elastic Theory the curve of the cable is assumed to remain
undistorted after the application of load, but in the Deflection Theory
deformations due to load are taken into consideration. For small spans
the deformations are small and no material error will result from the use
of the Elastic Theory of design.
The Effect of Live Loads. — The effect of live load is to disturb the
condition of elastic equilibrium that exists. The elastic stiffness of the
stiffening trusses and the work required to distort the equlibrium polygon
resist the deformation due to live load. The stiffness of the truss is pro
portional to its moment of inertia and the rigidity of the equilibrium
polygon is a function of the external forces that reach the cable from the
hangers. In other words, the greater the ratio of dead to live load the less
are the stresses in the stiffening truss.
The deflection curve of a flexible chain or cable, of uniform section
and material so that the weight of any part is proportional to its length,
suspended from two points and having only its own weight to support, is
a catenary. If. however, a series of loads of equal intensity are suspended
from the cable at equal horizontal intervals the deflection curve closely
approximates a parabola.
In preliminary design studies for small suspension bridges it is usually
first assumed that the suspended dead and live load is uniformly dis
tributed and the proportion of load carried by each hanger is the unit load
multiplied by the length of the panel ; that the curve assumed by the cable
is a parabola under all conditions of loading and that the stretch of the
cable is relatively small.
From Fig. 13 we see that
/ = span from tower to tower
d = deflection of cable below points of support on the towers
x and v = coordinates of any point with respect to the center or
maximum ordinate of cable deflection
H = constant horizontal component of tension in any portion of
the cable
w = unit dead load
«■'= unit live load
W = total distributed dead and live load
T = tension tangent to cable curve at R
t = tension at any point P
Wl
Then H = , the constant horizontal component of tension in the
Sd
cable. All external forces acting on the cable are vertical and have no hori-
=
d X x2
zontal component and the curve of the cable is y and dividing
this by the allowable unit stress gives the required section of cable.
(tY The
length of the cable between R and R' is
The tension in the cable increases from C to R and R' where it is maxi-
Fig. is. — Chart of Symbols
I
mum at the coordinate x — — and v
= d. At anv point P, distant .r to
2
the right from C,
The maximum tension at the tops of the towers, R and R' is
If a series of loads are suspended from the cable at given intervals,

and the vertical deflection of the cable or the horizontal component of the
stress is given, the equilibrium curve in which the cable will remain undis
turbed under the given condition of loading may be graphically determined
and the stresses found in the sections of cable between points of suspen
sion of the hangers. As an example, assume a span of 200 ft. ; a cable
deflection of 25 ft. and ten hanger loads of 30,000 lb. with a panel length
300,000 X 200
of 20 ft. The horizontal component of the tension will be
8X25
= 300,000 lb. A parallelogram of forces may then be constructed from
these data.
The tension in the cable at any point may be graphically determined

as in Fig. 14. The tension at the point P, whose coordinates, with respect
EP
to C , are x and v, is / = H X sec a — H X • The greatest load
ED
on the hangers will occur when the span is fully loaded and not when
the greatest concentration comes at a specific panel point, as is the case
for ordinary truss spans.
V.
r__
Fig. 14.
—Graphic Determination of Tension
When investigating the stresses in the towers and in the backstays it

is seen that, if the cables rest on saddles on the tower tops, the cable
tension on either side will be the same provided the cables and backstays
have the same angles of inclination. If the angles are equal or if the
horizontal distance, taken as AR between the point of support at the
tower tops and the point of connection of the backstays with the anchor
age is % I the resultant of the compression in the towers will be vertical.
If AD is less or greater than J4 ' there will be bending in the towers, the
magnitude of this bending stress can be readily determined graphically.
Hv the use of rocker towers, pin bearing at the base, the stresses from
unbalanced horizontal forces are eliminated and movable saddles are not
required. If a is the angle of the backstay to the horizontal the stress
in the backstay will be T = H sec a. The vertical reaction of the cable
'
// /(t
x
1
—+H \
mult- H
J if
-
at the is J / (w + />) tan a and the backstay
has the same inclination as the cable it will also have the same vertical
reaction so that the total compressive stress in the tower will be 5" =
(w + p)l.
Stiffening Trusses. — To resist the tendency to distort under a moving
load stiffening trusses are introduced, which distribute the reaction from
the moving load uniformly over the cables and thus prevent oscillation
and deformation of the roadway. In small suspension bridges the hangers
are frequently connected to the lower chords of the stiffening trusses
which are held down at their ends in a manner to permit free horizontal
but no vertical movement. Stiffening trusses carry little load to the piers
but function to distribute the live load concentrations uniformly along
the cable.
The maximum deflection of the cable at the center of the span takes
place when the central portion of the span carries full live load with no
live load on the balance of the span. The cable sag under these conditions
will be
wl2 zi/l2
d= =k (2—k)
8// 8H
where H = horizontal component of end reactions at R and R'
k = length of span covered by live load
w' — live load per unit length
If R, and R2 be considered as the vertical reactions of the stiffening
truss at the towers then
w x
R, = (/■ x) = R.
21
The shear from live load is equal to the vertical reaction at each end
of the stiffening truss and becomes a maximum numerically when the
w'l
live load covers half the span, in which case the maximum shear =
8
A shear diagram is illustrated in Fig. 15.
n n
/\i/\b\i/\I/\t/\i/\I/\ y\ s\ R*
R'
/*- -x ►
Shear Diagram
Fig. 15.
— Shear Diagram
The maximum bending moment occurs when x has the respective

2 / wT
values of — I and — and is equal to -,
, ,.
or when the live load covers
3 3 54
0.618 for which position it becomes M — 0.0451 w/2. The point at which
the maximum moment occurs is 0.382 / from the end of the span, and
the moment to be provided for, allowing for the reversal of stress, is
1.75 wl2 wl2
= 0.0323 si'/2. The maximum moment extends over
54 31
0.236 / at the center and diminishes uniformly to the ends; the average
bending moment will be approximately 62 per cent of the maximum.
Wind Bracing. — The cables of small suspension bridges with small
ratios of roadway width to span length are sometimes cradled inward
from the tower tops to the center of the span, the hangers thus inclining
inward. This cradling of the cables provides considerable lateral stiffness
although the design is much simplified if the cables are allowed to hang
in vertical planes. It is more economic and otherwise more satisfactory to
retain simplicity of design by providing in the floor system full resistance
to lateral forces. The entire wind pressure should be assumed to be car
ried by the suspended span to the supports at the towers.
If P represents a uniform wind load along the length of the span the
i
moment from wind pressure is M„ = — PI2, the maximum value of the
8
PI2
total chord stress is S = , and the average chord stress will be S' _—
8b
2 Pi2
—. .9 = , where b is the horizontal distance between the central
3 126
planes of stiffening trusses.

The economic ratios of side spans to main span are about 1/4 for
straight backstays and 1/2 for suspended side spans. Conditions at the
site sometimes are the controlling factors of the length of side spans. The
economic ratio of cable sag to span length between towers is about 1/10
with straight backstays and about 1/8 to 1/9 with suspended side spans.
The width between centers of stiffening trusses or wind chords should
not be less than 1/30 of the span. The depth of stiffening trusses should
be about 1/35 to 1/50 for highway bridges with main spans up to 500
feet ; it should be noted that the stiffening effects of the truss are more
marked for short than for long spans, because of the variation in the ratio
between live and dead loads.
Anchorage Design. — In suspension bridge design the main piers offer
no difficulties that are not common to pier design for other types. The
design of anchorages should be carefully studied, though adequate and
safe anchorage is absolutely essential to guarantee the integrity of the

structure as a whole, as considerable expense may be saved by proper
attention being paid to this item of design.
When designing anchorages two primary conditions must first be in
vestigated — stability against sliding and stability against tilting. The forces
acting on the anchorage as a whole are the cable pull, the weight of
masonry, the superimposed reactions and the resistance of the abutting
earth or rock. A paralle'ogram of forces is drawn to find the total resul
tant and its direction. The resultant of all the external forces, plus the
weight of anchorage, must intersect the base within the limits necessary
to prevent uplift at the heel, and the inclination of the resultant from the
normal must not exceed the angle of friction.
It sometimes may be necessary to slope or step the base so as to pro
vide sufficient stability against sliding. Stepping the base is only effective
when hard ground or rock is available. Where piles are used to resist toe
pressure the caps should be embedded in the masonry and the piles bat
tered on an angle parallel to the direction of resultant pressure.
Erection Methods. — To illustrate that the erection of the small sus
pension bridge is not as difficult as many believe, the processes of erec
tion of a small bridge are described.
The following divisions of the work of construction will be considered :
piers, anchorage, towers, main cables, suspenders, stiffening trusses and
floor system. The line diagram illustrates the erection of a bridge with a
main span of 170 ft., which was designed for one lane traffic with H-15
loading, plus 26 per cent impact and wind, snow and ice loads. Each of
the two main cables consisted of one 2-in. diameter galvanized bridge
cable carried over the steel towers on cast-steel saddles. The backstays
were of the straight (unloaded) type. These cables have a mid-span
deflection under full load of 26 ft., and were cradled with a horizontal
middle ordinate of fifteen inches. Nothing different from ordinary prac
tice is required in the construction of piers and anchorages.
There are two general methods usually adopted for the erection of
the main cables. In the layout illustrated, Fig. 16, the cables were laid
out across the river and extended from anchorage to anchorage to which
the ends were attached. A bight of the cable was then hoisted at each
tower and placed on the saddles. The gin pole and tackle used in erecting
the towers were used for hoisting the cables and seating them on the
saddles. Another method of cable erection that is sometimes used is to
pull the cable from one anchorage up over the tower saddles- and then to
the opposite anchorage. When this is done a pull line equal to the length
of the cable is required, care being taken to see that, by the use of wooden
rollers or blocks, no injury is done to the main cables as they are drawn
over the saddles. It is important, when erecting by this method, to see
that the cables are not suddenly released at the reeling end, and to prevent
this a snubbing line with a suitable clamp should be used.
The method first described is safer and simpler and should be used
wherever circumstances permit. It is easily seen that, where the ends of
the cables are securely anchored before the tension is applied, this method
guards against the possibility of runaway ends.
The reels on which the main cables are wound should be properly
mounted so as to rotate when the cable is being unreeled. Where space is
available and conditions permit, the cable may be unreeled by rolling the
reel along the ground. Care should be taken to protect the cable from
injury to the individual wires and to the galvanizing. It is recommended
that, if the cable is paid off by rotating the reel a brake consisting of a
strong piece of timber be used to act as a lever to insure smooth and even
unreeling.
The cables must first be adjusted to the correct mid-span sag by vary
ing the length adjustment in the cable sockets at the anchorages, at the
same time the cables must be worked over the saddles. It is necessary
carefully to check the cable deflection and this may most easily be done
with a transit or level. It is most important, however, to see that the cor
rect no-load deflection is obtained. If this is not accurately done, it may
be difficult to close or properly align the sections of the stiffening trusses
when they are subjected to full dead-load conditions. Care should be
taken first accurately to calculate and establish the no-load cable deflec
tion, and second, the position of the towers must be checked during the
adjustment of the cables so as to see that the correct calculated tower
positions are maintained. During erection of cables the towers may or
may not be vertical, depending upon several factors. A plumb line from
the top of the tower to the base is a simple and effective means of deter
mining tower position. Tower bending must be constantly watched dur
ing the erection of the suspended loads and the calculated safe bending
of the tower must never be exceeded. It is thus seen that the elimination
of tower bending by the use of rocked towers simplifies erection con
siderably.
After the main cables have been properly adjusted for the main and
side spans cable clamps are placed on the cables so as to bear on each
side of the saddle and thus prevent slippage during the rest of the erection
process.
The cable bands and the suspenders are usually erected at the same
time together with the floor beams and stringers. Sometimes, however,
all the suspenders are erected before any of the floor system is placed. In
either case erection should proceed simultaneously from each tower, or
under certain circumstances starting at mid-span and proceeding simul
taneously toward the towers. The loads must be kept balanced and
thereby insure a balance of tension and load on both the cables and towers
— this is important.
The spacing of the cable bands, when band points are not previously
marked on the cable, should be made according to the correct panel lengths
by measuring horizontally and ignoring the actual cable curve lengths

between bands. The Roebling Company recommends that the cable band
and saddle point positions be marked on the cables at the time they are
being measured for correct lengths at the place of manufacture. The cable
bands should be set out of position slightly above their final point on the
cable, for, when the final adjustments are made, it is much easier to move
the bands slightly down the cable curve than to move them up the cable.
It is a good scheme to use a template equal in length to the horizontal
panel spacing, and then adopt a temporary cable band setting slightly in
advance of the final positions.
To erect cable bands and suspenders a movable working platform
may be used. It is recommended that a sheave be mounted on the main
cable and a platform hung from the sheave. The sheave is allowed to
travel on the cable as a track, being controlled by a connecting rope run
ning to the tower. By the means of two such rigs two crews can work
along the cable until they meet at the center of the span.
The suspenders on small bridges are generally connected to the floor
beams though sometimes the stiffening trusses are designed to take the
suspender connections. When erecting the suspender system the deforma
tion of the cable curve under the concentrated loads causes the partly
erected bridge floor to assume distorted shapes. When the uniformly dis
tributed dead-load is all placed the cables and the floor system assume
their correct positions. When the suspenders are adjusted each must take
its proper share of the load. Starting at each end, and proceeding simul
taneously toward mid-span, all suspenders should be adjusted to give the
calculated floor elevation and camber.
The stiffening trusses are, of course, erected after placing the sus
penders, floor beams and stringers, by starting simultaneously at each
tower and proceeding toward mid-span. The truss connections near the
center cannot be finally connected until the truss has been closed at the
center. As the truss is erected a wave or rise in the truss chord is notice
able, reaching its maximum at mid-span and a smooth curve is not attained
until the full dead-load is in place, after which there is no difficulty in
aligning the trusses.
The erection of a small suspension bridge is seen to be simple, provided
that certain basic requirements have been taken care of as stated. Cal
culations, measuring and marking must be accurately done and close
supervision exercised to see that everything is properly done in the field.
It is therefore evident that the most important and difficult matter is the
planning and supervision, as little skilled labor and special equipment are
required to perform the actual work economically and satisfactorily.
For a more detailed discussion of suspension bridge design and erec
tion the reader is referred to "A Practical Treatise on Suspension
Bridges," by D. B. Steinman, published by John Wiley and Sons.
S30 LOW COST ROADS AND BRIDGES
SECTION V
SLOPE PROTECTION AND CRIB WALLS
In the past fifteen years practice has changed to an appreciable extent
in the type of abutments built and in the protection of earth slopes. Now
open type abutments with fills running through and rip-rapped slopes or
slopes protected by concrete slabs, are built much more than formerly.
Each succeeding year there are more paved slopes and relatively fewer
installations of complete abutments with long wing walls for bank pro
tection. The chief reason for these trends is the great difference in cost
of the two types. While opinion is divided on the merit of end bents and
there is yet a general preference for solid walls, cheaper types of con
struction give excellent results in many cases.
In locations where stone is not available for rip-rap concrete slabs
are cast on the slopes to protect them from the erosive effect of water
currents.
Riprap. — When using hand laid riprap the embankment should be
first settled to the full extent practicable and shaped into even and regu
lar surfaces, before paving.
The stone must be sound, durable, one-man stone not less than 3
inches thick nor containing less than one-half of a cubic foot in volume.
No stone must be used that does not extend through the revetment.
Construction Methods. — The slopes to be protected should not
be steeper than the angle of repose of the material. An adequate footing
must always be constructed by excavating through soft and easily eroded
material down to stable ground along the toe of the slope of the proposed
fill. The stones are placed with their beds at right angles to the slope
that is, on their edges, the larger stones being used in the bottom courses
and the smaller stones at the top. They should be laid in close contact
so as to break joints, and in such manner that the weight of the stone
is carried by the earth and not by the adjacent stones. The spaces between
the larger stones are filled with spalls securely rammed into place. The
finished work should present an even, tight, and reasonably plane sur
face, varying not more than about 3 inches from the required contour.
Grouted rip-rap is recommended for embankment protection and is
used extensively, especially where the stones are small, and erosion prob
able if the stones are not grouted.
Grout for grouted rip-rap consists of one part of Portland cement
and three parts of sand, thoroughly mixed with water to produce grout
having a thick, creamy consistency.
After the stones are in place, the spaces between them must be com
pletely filled with grout from bottom to top, and the surface swept with
a stiff broom. No rip-rap should be grouted in freezing weather and in
hot dry weather the work must be protected from the sun and kept moist
for at least three days after grouting.
Concrete Slope Paving. — Concrete slope paving is made by con

structing a concrete slab in place or precasting units, usually triangular in
shape. The triangular units are 3 feet long on each edge and are fas
tened together at the corners with galvanized wire, which has been em
bedded in the slabs when poured. The slabs are made 4, 5 or 6 inches
thick and in the case of precast units all openings should be rilled with
grout or mortar to prevent water from going through the paving. A toe
wall is essential to prevent slippage and scour; it is carried down into
stable material usually from 2 to 4 feet, depending on the condition of
the soil.
Cribbing. — There are many earth slopes not subject to stream

scour or wave action which are liable to slip or slide. Some of these
may be well protected by laying cribbing in log house fashion on the face
of the slope.
Concrete cribbing, creosoted timber cribbing and more recently metal
cribbing are being used to good advantage for holding slopes. Their
advantages are : economy in cost, easy transportation and erection, require
little or no skilled labor, may be built at any time of the year.
As compared with a monolithic retaining wall, equal stability and
permanence can be secured at less cost because less material is used, less
excavation is required, less labor is needed, and no field equipment has
to be provided. Interference to traffic during construction is practically
eliminated and salvage in case of a change of location becomes possible.
In mountain locations where local stone is available, rubble masonry
walls may be much cheaper than any type of cribbing and equally satis
factory in service. Local materials must always be considered in select
ing type of wall.
There are also locations where the fill of the widened highway will
encroach on private property and where the cost of solid retaining walls
would be prohibitive. A crib wall in such a location will reduce the
expense of maintaining the slope sufficiently to cover its own cost in a
few years.
The appearance of a cribbing wall, when made of the open faced
design can be made pleasing by carefully laying it in true lines. If
improvement in appearance is desired the soil exposed in the face of the
wall can be used for growing vines and shrubs.
The batter of the front face of crib walls varies from 1 to 3 inches
per foot, 1 to 2 inches being usually specified.
The following points indicate the utility of cribbing:
1. It is economical in first cost and in maintenance, compared with
solid masonry walls.
2. It can be shipped, hauled and erected with ordinary labor and
equipment.
3. Crib walls of medium height which would produce light loads on
the soil do not require any additional expense for foundation because
slight settlements do) not injure them, although on very soft soil and for
high walls where excessive settlement would be liable to occur piled
foundations or cast in place spread footings may be required.
4. Cribbing can be easily built on horizontal and on vertical curves.
5. Additions to the length are easily made which is advantageous for
widening the roadway. Similarly the height can be raised or lowered
to accommodate changes in grade.
6. In making the excavation for carrying the wall down to a suitable
foundation the excavated material can be used for rilling the adjacent
section, thus requiring less labor and space for handling than required in
usual retaining walls. However, clay should not be used for back filling.
7. Cribbing can be built at any time of the year.
8. The details can be prepared in advance and be made uniform for
most pieces so that timber cribbing can and should be preframed at the
treating plant in accordance with details shown on the plans.
9. Cribbing walls are well adapted to support vines and shrubs for
beautification in any general landscaping scheme.
SECTION VI
TRENDS AND COST DATA
This section briefly states some of the trends in design and use of
materials for low cost bridges. Several of these trends are still new and
their use confined to a few localities. All are definite, have been thor
oughly tried and tested and have the backing of expert bridge engineers.
For these reasons the recommendations of this chapter may be taken as
fact based on theory and experience.
Cost Data. — The cost data on low cost bridges here presented are
based on contract prices of structures actually constructed and in use.
The data were compiled for structures located in nearly every state
and therefore represent in detail a true cross section of bridge costs. The
tables can be used with confidence for comparisons and estimates.
It must be borne in mind that these data were compiled in 1930 and
that unit prices are lower at the present time (1933).
Trends. — The recent trends of practice are as follows:

1. Existing bridges are being widened.
2. New bridges are being made from four to ten feet wider than in
1928.
3.. T.ong bridges are being built with the grade line on a long radius
camber curve, giving long sight distance and good riding conditions.
Steel I-beams are being used to a greater extent in several ways:
4.
namely,
a. In the place of pony spans in lengths up to 90 feet, by splicing
for continuity (due to the availability of I-beams 33 and 36 inches

in depth).
b. Instead of reinforced concrete spans where economical (due
to low price of steel beams).
c. In the place of plate girders, both deck and through (due to
possibility of adaptation without shop work and neat appearance).
5. Concrete floors are being used instead of timber for all kinds of
bridges except bascule draw spans.
6. Raised or high curbs and very much stronger railings are now
being made than formerly.
7. Improved alignment is sought consistent with speeds of 45 to 60
miles per hour.
8. Roadways are being kept clear of obstructions to a greater extent
than ever before. The underpass with pier in the roadway, will be con
demned in the future as dangerous.
9. The alignment, grade, sight distance, width of roadway and proper
crown of small amount on tangents, and superelevated for curves, are
being made for safely moving vehicles at speeds of 45 to 60 miles per
hour.
10. The live loads used for designing bridges have been increased
from fifteen ton trucks to twenty ton trucks by several state highway
departments to care for heavy single units and combinations of several
heavy units in trains from 60 to 80 feet long.
11. The clear height of roadway opening has been increased from 14
to 15 feet in several states. The portal brackets and similar encroach
ments are being removed from present bridges and carefully avoided in
new structures.
12. The curbs and bottom rails are being made strong with a view
of stopping a moving vehicle from going over the side of the bridge.
They are being made smooth on the inside for a height of two feet above
the pavement so as not to catch wheels. The type varies in snowy regions
to avoid causing snow being deposited on the bridge.
13. Light colored paint, light gray, blue, white or aluminum is being
extensively used on railings, trusses and girders of through bridges for
good visibility in all times of day or night, and in all kinds of weather.
Aluminum paint has grown in popularity until its use is general.
It is practicable to apply aluminum paint on creosoted timber by the
use of a varnish vehicle. The wooden railing on embankments and on
the sides of bridges may be made of all creosoted wood and painted with
aluminum afterward. Any other paint can be used over the aluminum.
The general adoption of this practice will doubtless save many thousands
of dollars annually, since in the past untreated wood has been either
painted or unprotected against decay with heavy annual expense for
renewals. So far as possible, all wood should be framed and bored before
treatment.
Width and Clearance For Safety. — The clear roadway on bridges has
become important with the increase in the average speed of cars. The
roadway width of low cost bridges should not be made so narrow as to
render dangerous the meeting of two vehicles at full speed. For culverts
the width of roadway should be the full width of the top of the grade
between slope lines.
For bridges the clear height of roadway should be as much as 15 feet
if practicable for the full width of the treated surface. The portal and
sway frames of through steel spans should have straight horizontal bot
tom struts, with no brackets lower than 15 feet above the pavement.
Generally for bridges the clear width of roadway between curbs will
depend on the amount of traffic, with the following prevailing widths :
For light traffic bridges 20 feet. For main thoroughfare highways
in open country 24 feet. For main thoroughfare highways in and near
towns 30, 40 or 60 feet for 3, 4 or 6 lanes of traffic. The width of
roadway on the bridge should be somewhat wider than the pavement
preferably 3 or 4 feet for 2 lane bridges.
Attention is called to the fact that one type of bridge may be cheap
for one site whereas another would be cheap at another site and only by
a full knowledge of the engineering features involved and cost of ma
terials can a fair comparison be made.
The best time of year to let contracts for bridge work and structural
steel is in the fall. It is possible to reduce costs by grouping several
bridges into one contract, except for very large projects when separate
contracts are generally better.
Type and Span. — A study of low cost bridges
Trends in Selecting
has indicated that span lengths bear a relation to the type of bridge. For
certain span lengths the following types are suggested:
Timber stringers with timber floor for spans up to 30 feet.
Timber stringers with concrete floor for spans up to 21 feet.
Simple span steel I-beam stringer with timber floor for spans up to
80 feet.
Simple span steel I-beam stringers with concrete floor for spans up
to 65 feet.
Continuous span steel I-beams with timber floor for spans up to 88
feet.
Continuous span steel I-beams with concrete floor for spans up to
85 feet.
Simple span riveted plate girders for spans up to 100 feet.
Continuous span riveted plate girders for spans up to 130 feet.
Riveted trusses for spans over 90 feet.
Concrete flat slabs for spans up to 22 feet.
Simple beam concrete deck girders for spans up to 60 feet.
Continuous or cantilever beam deck concrete girders or concrete
arches for spans up to 75 feet.
Pointers. — The following rules might well be observed by those who

have responsible charge of spending public or private funds :
The layout of spans for every crossing should be considered a prob
lem for careful analytical investigation, not a problem for guess work.
Appraise the value of advantages to be gained in the selection of loca
tion, type, loading, materials, unit stresses, appearance, all of which are
dependent upon judgment and vision.
Mathematics and the laws of mechanics used in the preparation of
the design will not correct faulty judgment or vision.
Determine the value of the appearance, first cost, assumed life, cost
of maintenance of steel, concrete, stone or timber bridge before deciding
which will prove to the best advantage.
Place a fair value on appearance.
Avoid alternate design bids except when required by policy or law,
because they pave the way for collusion.
Employ engineers who have the experience and knowledge of low
cost bridge structures.
Let competent engineers in the employ of the owners make the designs,
supervise the work and take care of the owners' interests, and let con
tractors confine their operations to doing the work of construction. When
a contractor undertakes the design, the construction and the supervision
it will be to his advantage and not to the advantage of the project.
Incorporate features in design which will make widening relatively
easy and inexpensive.
Keep bridge open to traffic while widening is in progress.
Study McCullough's "Economics of Highway Bridge Types" before
designing a crossing structure.
For actual design, data, stresses, loading, clearances and methods of
attack the reader should refer to standard works on highway bridge design.
The American Association of State Highway Officials publish adopted
standards. The Department of Agriculture of the United States pub
lishes technical bulletins on special design problems.
Cost Data. — Construction Costs. — The tables which follow were
averaged from tabulations, which were bid prices in the main, of jobs
in a large number of states. The bridges in each classification were com
parable structures in design and size so far as width and span length
were concerned. The total lengths were variable.
TABLE XIII
Estimates of Low Cost Structures for Railroad Overhead Crossings
20 ft. roadway on bridge, 22 ft. vertical clearance above top of rail
1929 Prices
Over Single Track Over Double Track
Treated timber $ 4,470 $ 6,840*
Steel 8,075 8,845
Concrete 10,205 11,050
• Main span of steel stringers.
TABLE XIV
Estimates of Cost of Low Cost Structures
: 8£
* 1 ; c .t: „ .s E
» *3 H w bew mM X
'- - *--5 o u.£ u c
(- 5 i- u f- se«
~ s= ^ « £! T ^^
" u !T
O V O,J,
-J q
— o D^v
jjû y o
g>
Total length, ft 741 748 972 1043 361

Roadway width, ft 19.5 20 20 20 20
Panel length, ft 19.6 21.S 28 26 38
Untreated timber, per MFBM $74.11 $ 75.00
Treated timber, per MFBM 108.77 115.00 $118.28
Treated piles, per !in. ft 1.20 1.15 1.08
Concrete slab or Class A, per cu. yd 20.59 21.85 $19.94 $22.02
Reinforcing steel, per lb 0.06 0.05 0.046 0.051
Structural steel, per lb 0.06
Concrete piles, per lin. ft $3.45
Type floor surface Thin paving
Floor surface, per sq. yd $1.01 .... .... •
Railing, per lin. ft •••• $1.81
Total cost incl. 10% $26,532 $29,800 $54,000 $57,000 $35,380
Cost per lin. ft $43.52 $39.80 $55.55 $54.65 $98.00
Cost per sq. ft 2.22 1.99 2.77 2.73 4.90
No. bridges averaged 17
-'/
19 7 10
* The design capacity

varies from 10 to 15-ton trucks. Cost varies with pile lengths. The
untreated timber consists of railings. The treated timber includes wheel guards, stringers, caps
and bracings. Total cost includes 10 per cent for incidentals but not including earth approaches.
Built from July, 1928, to July, 1930. Prices in January, 1933, 25 per cent lower.
Design capacity 15-ton trucks. Total cost includes 10 per cent for incidentals. Built from
t
July, 1928, to July, 1930, Prices in January, 1933, 2S per cent lower than above. Total cost
varies due to varying pile and panel lengths at different locations.
INDEX
Asphalts, fluid —
A Characteristics 408
19 Classification types 406
Accrued depreciation Consistency 408, 409
Acres drained 479
387 Essential properties 408
Adhesion Hardening
88 410, 41 1
Administration of plan f
Setting up
79 409
Aerial mapping
Agrolith 374 Tests recommended 407
limestone ....375 Atlantic 371, 373
Alabama
Atterbcrg test, soil 158
Alignment 95
Alignment and grade— Azrock 375
94
General
Rural 92 B
Trunk 93 Backsloping, grader 141
Alignment, structure 473 Barber asphalt 372, 373
Altapave 373, 374 Barricades 446
Alternatives, public 8 Benzol _ 352
Amiesite 370, 374 Bermudez 362, 373
Amiesite, modified 298 Berry asphalt 373
Ammonia 352 Bitucote 375
Ammonium sulphate 352 376
Bit-U-.Crete
Amortized depreciation 40 Bitumens — ■
Amulco 372, 375 Coarse road-mix 273, 274, 275
Analysis of roal oils 394 Content 397
Analysis of tar 399 t lash point 41 1
Anchorage 525 Interpretation of tests 382
Annual cost — Insoluble 415
Annual cost H, 14 Prime coat _ 224
Bridge 496 Tank car 31 5
Equated 18, 20 Bituminized cement 347
Penn. method 23 Bituminous —■
Annual expenditure 14 Aggregates 202
Annuity table 28 Macadam 202, 306
Annuity tables, depreciation and 25 Paver 304, 433, 437
Arboriculturist 452 Plant-mix ...288
Area, waterway 474 Surface courses 205, 326
Arkalite 373 Bituminous macadam —
Armor coat 239 Binder 311
Asbestophalt 375 Bitumens 307, 308
Asphalt — Construction 309
Adhesiveness 387 Maintenance - 314
Analysis of 384 Quantities 312
Base 359 Rolling 310
Bermudez • 383 Spreading 310
Blended 384, 385 Surface 307
Blown 361, 385 Width 306
California 384, 385 Bituminous materials —
Columbia 384. 385 Emulsions 229, 231
Composition of 357, 413 Surface treatment grades 226
Content 413 Method of testing 224, 225, 229
Cracking 362 Tests 224, 225, 229
Cutbacks 363. 370 Bitumuls 372, 376
Emulsions 372 Bituroc '. - 373, 376
Flow diagram 360 Bitusprink 376
Fluid 389 Black top paver 304, 436
Flux group 371 Blade grading 139
Hardening 388 Blading 455
Limestone 375 Blends 416
Manufacture of 356 Blotter treatment 270
Mexican 384, 385 Blowing ." 361, 385
Native 384 Bond issues 35
Oils 363 Bond table 38
Paraffin base 359 Bond, value of 36
Refined 373 Bond yield _ 37
Rock group 372 Box culverts 491
Semi-asphaltic base 359 Bracing, wind - 525
Specification 383 Break of emulsions 401
Steam refined 359 Bridges —
Table 317 Bridges 472
Tank car measuring 384 Clearance 534
Tests 225 Combinations 496, 513
Trinidad 383, 388 Cost data 535
Usage 363 Creosoted - 510
537
Culverts, and 493 High strength ..502
Fabrication 512 Minimum design -3J7
Insurance 495 Penetration type ..344
Maintenance -.446, 494 Piles _5Ui>
Operating cost . Pile bridge
Painting
-.493 ..m
495 Pipe ..485
Painters 535 Sandwich type -347
Renewal charge 494 Short spans 497
Short 493 Single lano
Steel OP?
507 Single track 49
Survey notes 129 Trestle „
Suspension 496
520 Two lane 341, 343
Through trusses 517 Construction, stage 199
Timber 509 Construction penetration macadam 309
Truss spans 515 Costs of surfaces.... ..269
Waterway - 474 Continuous slabs -505
Widening -.500 Contract maintenance ..464
Width 534 Copyrighted
Broom-drag
names -374
286, 439 Corrugated pipe -485
Bunker "C" oil 353 Cost —
Burkli Ziegler formula 476 Annual bridge 496
Bridges 472
Comparison unit 17
Cable tension 523 Data, bridge -.535
Calcium chloride 458 Maintenance 467, 469, 470, 471
Calcium chloride treatment 47
Pipe 484, 486
Caliche - 155 Road-mix. coarse 280
Calol _ - 571. 573 Theories, two 16
Cantilever wing wall 501 Theories, accepted practice- 17
Capitalized annual costs 18 Value of 467
Cast iron pipe 485 County planning 83
Cement-bound macadam 344 County zoning .... 89
Characteristics of — Cracking 362
Emulsions .. ..368 Creosotcd timber S10
Oils ..209 Cribbing -.531
Charging stock ..360 Crib walls ..530
Chert ...155, 164, 165 Cross section —
Choke stone 312 Crown -.107
Circular culvert drainage.. 479 Edge stre nKthcning ...110
J~tl ■ r r
Classification of roads 94 Macadam -.306
Classification table, road 95, 96 Surface courses ...107
Clay, effect of 157 Thickness ...109
Clay gravel, sand clay or 43 Traffic capacity ...110
Clearance, bridge 534 Treated surfaces ...107
Clearing - 441 Untreated surfaces -106
Coal, distillation
352 Crown rock ..377
Coal tar 350, 352 Culverts —
Coal tar derivatives 354
Alignment 473
Coefficients 481 Box 483
Coefficients, drainage Bridges and -126
478
Coil, vacuum flash 360 Costs _ _492
Coke 352 Culverts - 472
Coke oven tars Design 481, 491
351
Colas 372, 376 Inspection _490
Cold application tar 323, 325 Opening 474
Cold-mix 304
Pipe - 483
Cold-mix — Sizes 476
Bitumens 304 Waterway 474
Classes of Curvature, cost of.. 10
370
Cold-mixes 369 Curve chart 134
Cub-back group - 370
Curves, vertical .... 123!
Emulsion group 372 Cut-backs . 413, 416, 419
Equipment 305 Cut-back, definition of.. 408
Flux group 371 Cut-back tests - ..417
Pointers
Cold patch tar
305
326
D
Colloids - 366 D. C. mix ..297
Colloid mills 365 Definition of tar.. „349
Colprovia 371, 376 Deflection theory
Combinations, bridge 496, 513 Delays, cost of
Compacting road-mix 256 Depreciation
Comparison, unit of cost -— 17 Depreciation, amortized
Composite automobile 11. 12, 13 Depreciation and annuity tables.
Compound interest table 27 Design —
Concrete — Concrete
Alignment standards 328 Culvert
Bridge. «9 Desifrn
Cost limits 32B Field inspection of..
Cribbing 531 Final plan
Grading standards 329 Objective of
INDEX 539
Steel 508 Rotary broom .. 425

Suspension 520 Seal coat 425
Dillonite _377 Spreaders -.433
Discharge 480 Surface treated ..424, 444
Distillates ..413, 415 Trends 447
Distillates, refinery 416 Untreated surfaces 422
Distillation ..392, 398 Erection, suspension ..526
Distillation of coal 352 Estimates of mileage 450
Dragging 455 Evaluating bond issues 35
Drag, broom 286
Drainage—
Area Fabrication 512
Bituminous treatment 118 Floor plates, steel 507
Capillary rise H5 Filling station investment 450
Drainage H* Flash coil, vacuum 360
Formulas 476, 480 Flash point 411
Frost boils "9 Flint Fait 377
Good H9 Float test 397
Movement of water 115 Fluid asphaltic materials 389
Subgrade treatment 117 Fluxing : 362
Table 4" Flux group 371
Water removable Formulas, drainage 476
11^
Ductility 387 Fractionating tower 359
Duraco 377 Frames, rigid 503
Dust laying 210, 216 Fuel oil ....415
Funds 449
E Furnace oil 415
Earth maintenance 442
Earthwork, effect of haul of 145
Economics — Gas ..353
Bridge 493 Gas oil ..415
Low cost surfaces 41 Gasoline ..415
Planning, and 8 Gilsonite 362
Road surfaces 16 Glossary of types... _ 374
Simile track concrete 338 Grades 95
Transportation 8 Grades —
Elastic theory 521 Alignment 94
Electro-magnets 443 Alignment, general 94
Emulsions 229, 231, 364. 366, 400 Alignment, rural 92
Emulsions — Alignment, trunk 93
Bituminous 400 Limits - 122
Characteristics of 368 Reduction saving 10
Construction 287 Relations 121, 124
Cost of making 367 Graded agg. mix 250
Manufacturing 400 Gradient, allowable 120
Mixing 244 Grading 90, 139
Road-mix 281 Grading —
Penetration 282 Balancing cross section 142
Quick breaking 282 Blade graders 139
Slow breaking 244, 282 Cost of —.143
Use of 367 Equipment for ...153
Viscosity 402 Hand shoveling 139
Water loss 368 Low cost ....150
Equating the cost 18 Wheelbarrows 139
Equated annual costs 18, 20 Granite surfaces, disintegrated 164, 165
Equipment — Graphic analysis 523
Bridge -446 Gravel 155
Calcium chloride 424 Graveling equipment -442
Cement bound macadam . ..448 Gravel or macadam 45
Central plant 432 Gravel surfacing 167
Clearing 440, 441 Ground line gradients 5
Dragging 423 Grouting 345, 530
Drags 431
Earth surface 442 H
Equipment 420 H-piles 508
Finishers 433 Hand shoveling 139
General 447 Hardening 388
Gravel surface 442 Haul-
Immersion 434 Earthwork 145
Maintenance 439 Fresno 146
Mixing 429 Wheeler "6
Motor graders 430 Length of _ 1*5
Oiled road 420 Graphs of - 146
Pavement _ 445 Headley products 372, 373, 378
Penetration macadam 438 Headwalls 484
Plajit-mfx 431 High carbon tar 323
Portable plant 432 High strength concrete 502
Proportioning 43 1 High temperature tar 350
Road-mix 427 Highways, classification of 94
Rock spreaders 427 Highway costs 8, 14
Highway services 4 Surface economics ... ... 41
Horizontal retort tars 351 Surfaces, table ...201
Hot-mix 288 Low temperature tar.... ..350
Hot-mix bitumens 293 Lumber preservative ... ..509
Hot-mix, coarse 297
Hot-mix, coarse — M
Bitumens 299 Macadams — 155
Construction 294, 303 Macadam —
Costs 295 Bituminous ~ 202, 306
Proportions 301 Bituminous penetration -207
Quantities 302 Cement bound — 344
Hot-mix, fine 289 Gravel or — — 4a
Hot-mix, graded 291 Grout 345
Hot mix, Michigan 295 Surfaces 174
Hot mix. New York 298 Macasphalt 371, 378
Hot tar 325 Machinery 420
Hydrocarbons 353, 35/ Maintenance 18, 449
11yd roca rbons — Maintenance —
Saturated 357 Administration 45 1
Unsaturated - 357 Bit. macadam -314
Bridge 446
Bridge, costs 494
Identification tests 393 Clearing - 44 1
Income of bond 37 Costs 467. 469, 470, 471
Indiana 373 Costs by road types 21
Initial cost 21 Costs, determination 18
Inspection of pipe 490 F.arth surfaces 442
Insurance, bridge 495 Expenditures classified 23
Intangible values 2 Expenditures by road types
Intangible value, capitalization of 1 General
Intar 373 Gravel
Interaco 371, 378 1nspection
Interest ratios, logarithms of 35 Methods
Investment — Oiled roads
Filling stations 450 Organization
Investments 19 Pavement
Roads 450 Road-mix, coarse
Streets 450 Surface courses ..
Vehicles 450 Manufacture, asphalt 356
Interpretation of tests 382 Manufacture, emulsions 364, 366
Isomers 358 Manufacture, materials - 349
Manufacture, tar 349
Manufacture, water gas tar 353
Justifiable expenditure, example of 32 Master plan 85, 88
Materials, cracked - 363
K Materials, manufacture 349
Kerosene .415 Maximum safe speed 101
Keystone .312 McKesson basket 401
Kutters' equation 481 McMath formula 476
Kyrock 373, 378 Measurement of waterway —
L Area
Field
476
475
Laboratory proportioning 262 Formula 476
Laying out system 78 Tables - 475
Leading man 453 Medium curing 320
Lime rock surfacing 180 Medium tar 325
Lineal shrinkage, soil 158 Metal cribbing S31
Lincolnite - 371, 378 Mex. Pete 373
Liquid asphalts 317 Michican maintenance costs 470
Live load, suspension 521 Mileage cost estimates 450
Local roads — Mileage, local, table 189. 191
Commercial value 2 Mileage, state, table 188. 190
Curvature 5 Minnesota specifications 292
Distance 4 Miscellaneous, roller bound 156
Economics 3 Miscellaneous, traffic bound 156
Gradients 4 Missouri experiment 218
Improvement of 1 Mistakes, aligiunent and grade 94
Objective 3 Mistakes, coarse road-mix 280
Safety 6 Mixed-in-place surfaces 206, 240
Service 7 Mixing on road 277
Surfaces 6 Mixtures, cold 369
Location 90 Mixtures, proprietary 34Q
Location, bridge 472 Montezuma 37^
Local timber 514 Mud pumn 44S
Logarithms of interest ratios 32 Multinle lanes " -7*
Loose bases 235 Multiple lift „..239
391
losses by heat
Low cost—
N
Bridges 472 Nailnickcrs 443
Roads defined 41 Naphtha -415
INDEX 541
Naphthalene 352 Curves 261

Natural asphalts 362 Density 242, 261, 262
Natural depreciation 19 Field 265
New Mexico costs 269 (traded agg. mix 261
Norco _ _ 373 Laboratory 262
Mixtures 253, 261
o Screen
Stain
analysis
test _
264
241
Ohio maintenance costs 469 Surface area 264
Oils 210 Swell test 264
Oil analyses, road 394 Proprietary mixes 349, 374
Oiling clay soils 210, 216 Protection, slope 530
Oil content 265
Oiled earth 205
Oiled earth experiment «. 218 Q
Oiled roads 208
Quantity discharged 480
Oiling sandy soils 210, 213, 216
Oiling silty soils 213, 216 R
Operating, bridge 493
Organization chart, maintenance 451 Railroad crossings, trunk 93
Oven tars, coke 351 Rapid curing 318
Rating schedule 487, 488, 489. 490
P Raveling 259
Painting cost 495 Recovery value 19
Paraffin scale 393 Redwood 519
Paraffin series 357 Refinery distillates 416
Passenger-car density 64 Refinery practices 358
Patching 455 Refined asphalts 373
Patented types 374 Refined tars 373
Pavement maintenance 445 Renewal charge, bridge 494
Paving, slope 531 Repair costs 18
Penetration 385 Residuals 413
Penetration concrete 344 Residue, per cent 392
Penetration macadam 306 Residue, topped 359
Penetration macadam equipment 438 Retort tars —
Penetration tar 326 Horizontal 351
Pennsylvania method, annual cost by 23 Vertical 350
Penolithic 370, 379 Retread 202
Penotread 370, 379 Right of way 95, 97
Petrol 373 Rigid frames 503
Petroleum oils 357 Rip rap ...-.530
Pile and post bent 500 Rise and fall 9
Pile bridge, concrete 500 Road —
Piles, steel 508 Capacity 75
Pipe and box 483 Classification table 95, 96
Pipe, cost of 484 Design 135
Pipe laying 486 Earthwork design 136
Pipe rating 487, 488, 489 Investment 450
Pipe service 488 Vertical curve formula 136
Pipe still 359 Roadite 371, 373
Plan- Road oil analyses 394
Acceptance of 86 Road oil specification 210
Administration „ 88 Road-mix —
Master Costs 269
85
Workable 84 Density 242
Planning Discing 248
78
Planning — Fine aggregate type 242
Administration 85 Graded agg. types 250
Commission 84, 88 Proportioning _ 241
County 83 Stain test 241
Diagrammatic scheme Surface 206, 240
80
Economics and 8 Surface area 242
Improvement 80 Table of costs 269
Legislation, enabling 86 Road-mix A —
Organization 83 Bitumens - 254
Studies 83 Construction 254
Plans and surveys 128 Emulsions 258
Plant-mix _ 288, 379 Quantities 253
Plasticity index, soil 158 Seal coat 256
Pointers, bridge 535 Road-mix B —
Pointers, cold-mix 305 Bituminous quantities 259, 266
Political pressure 77 Road-mix. coarse —
Polymerization 358 Aggregates 272
Pre Cote 372, 380 Bituminous quantities 273
Pre-mix 28R Coarse agg. type 2/1
Present worth 20 Construction 275
Present worth of annuity 31. 34 Cost 280
Preservative 509 Emulsion 281 , 284
Prime coat 224 Maintenance 280
Proportioning — Materials table 283
Aggregate grading 264 Mistakes 280
Mixing _ _ _.277 Class II _.„ 33$
Prime 276 Class III „33$
Seal coat 279 Concrete . ..49, 328-
Road-mixer 304 Cost 338
Road-mix, fine aggregate — Cross section „ ..336
Aggregates 243 Curvature _ «. -334
Bitumen 243, 246 Economics - _™, -338-
Construction 247 Economic limits 341, 342
Cost 249 Efficiency 340"
Materials 242 Engineering policy „ —331
Road-mix, graded aggregate — Grading 334, 335
Aggregates, type B 260 Grade lines _ _„......m 334
Bitumens, type A 254 Location _ _ „ 33S
Bitumens, type B 260 Structure 337
Blotter treatment 270 Width „ _.334
Construction methods, type B 267 Sinking fund -....-._ 20
Costs 269, 271 Sinking fund table 29, 30, 32
Field proportioning 261 Slabs, continuous *505
Maintenance 258 Slagmac 370, 380>
Mixing, type A 254 Slopes, cross section of „ „110
Proportioning 265, 266 Slope protection _ „ „ „.530
Raveling 259 Slow curing 321
Recommendations, type B 268 Snow removal 460
Rounds 256 Snow removal equipment 463
Tvpe A 250 Snow removal example 462
Type B _ 259 Snow removal program 461
Variation 270 Soap emulsion 365
Road service 41 Social values 2
Road standards _ 91 Socony 371, 373
Road surfaces, economics of 16 Sodium silicate 185
Road tars 395 Softening point ....385
Rock asphalts 372 Sohio 37J
Rolling 310 Soil-
Rolling road-mix 256 Characteristics 211
Rotar 373 Clays „211
Rural stations, urban and 68 Clay gravels 211
Cohesive _ 21 1
Mortar _ 158
s X on-capillary 212
Oil recommended 210, 213
Salvage value 20 Plasticity .212
.Sand asphalt surface 202 Sandy _212
Sand clay and top soil 155 Shrinkage 158
Sand clay or clay gravel 43 Silt 212
Sand clay surfaces 161 Types 211
Sandwich type concrete 347 Solubility 388
Saturmix 372, 380 Solvent 353
Savins, as income „
14 Specifications, asphalt 319
Scarifying 454 Specifications, tar 396
Scrap value 20 Specific gravity 384
Screen analysis 264 Spur roads 126
Seaside 373 Stage construction 41, 43, 199
Semi-solid asphalts 383 Stage construction —
Service of pipe 488 Bituminous macadam 202
Shale 155, 164, 165 Bituminous surfaces .201
Shear diagram 524 Concrete 202
Shell 371, 37\ Retread 202
Shell still 359 Sand asphalt 202
Short concrete spans 497 Soil surface 201
Short span bridges 493 Surfaces _ 201
Short steel spans 506 Table 200
Short timber spans 509 Traffic bound surfaces -.201
Shoulders or roadbed width 95 Stain test _2-41
Side ditches 1 13 Standard .. 371, 373
Side slopes 110 Standardization 316
Sight distance 95, 98, 99 Standards for concrete ....332
Sienals, survey 130 Standards, road 91
Silicate of soda 185 Stanocola _ 373
Simple concrete bridges 499 Stanolind 371, 373
Simplification, 395 Steam refined asphalt 359
Simplification — ■ Steel bents 507
Groups 405 Steel design „....508
Scheme adopted 405 Steel floor [dates „ 507
Tests 404 Steel piles _ „..508
Single lane concrete 202 Steel, short spans 506
Single track — Steel truss spans 515
Alignment 333, 335 Stiffening trusses „ 523
Annual road cost 338 Stills 359
Capacity 340 Stopping and starting 10
Classes of roads 329 Street investment ...... 450
Class I 332 Structural timber 510, 511
INDEX 543
Structures, minor — _472 Characteristics of ..325

Structures, road _ 95 Coal ..350
Suitable earth soils- ..156 Definition of _349
Sulfate, ..352 Distillation -355
Sulfur ..352 Equipment - ..350
Superelevation, chart ..100, 101 Grades 323, 324, 395
Surfaced width 95 High carbon — 323
Surfaces — Low temperature 350
Bituminous ... 201 Manufacture of _ - - - 349
Bit. macadam 306 Refined _ 373
Cold-mix 304 Specifications —396
Disintegrated granite 164 Standardization of — 323
Economic 16 Table of analysis 399
Gravel 167 Table of grades 324
Hot-mix ...288 Tars 395
Macadam .174 Tests ..224
Miscellaneous .183 Viscosity of ..395
Operation costs „ 339 Water gas ..353
Sand clay - 161 Tarine ..373
Sodium silicate 185 ..373
Soil 201 Tarite _ 373
Traffic bound .171, 201 Tarmac 370, 371, 373, 380
Untreated .154, 203 Tars, table of analysis of 399
Surface courses, bituminous.. 205 Tarvia 371, 373
Surface courses, bituminous — Tarvialithic 370, 380
Cold-lay ..207 Tension, cable 523
Hot-mix ..207 Tests _ 224, 225, 229
Macadam ..207 Tests —
Mixed-in-place ..206 Asphalts - 382
Mulch, retread _206 Basic - - - 417
Multiple lift ..206 Bituminous 382
Oiled earth . -.205 Distillation _ 418
Oil mix ..206 Fluid, asphaltic 389
Oil process .. 206 Function of 404
Plant-mix 207 Interpretation of -.382
Pre-mix 207 Road oils 382
Road-mix 206 Semi solid asphalt 383
Surface treatment 205. 220 Tars 382, 395
Width of 107 Tests, emulsion-
Surfacing — Break 401
Crown of 158
Characteristics 401
Depth of 158 Tests, fluid asphalt-
Lime rock ..... 180 Analysis table 394
Materials 158
Bitumen insoluble 415
Treatments 205 416
Cut-back
Surface treatment — 392
Distillation _
Aggregates 223 412
Identification
Asphalt 22? 4 12
223 Questionable
Bitumens Simplification 395
Bituminous 220 Viscosity - 390
Construction -.232
Volatilization loss 390, 414
Cost 223, 235
Tests, semi-solid asphalts —
Emulsions 229, 231 Ductility 187
Equipment 444
Flash point 384
Maintenance 234 385
Penetration
Modifications - 238 Softening point 385
Loose bases 235 Solubility 388
Prime coat 221, 224
Specifications 383
Seal coat 222 Specific gravity 384
Service 235 387
Volatilization loss
Solid bases 221
Tests, simplification program 404
Tar 129 Tests, tar —
Survey map 129
Bitumen content 397
Surveys, low cost 133
Distillation 398
Surveys, plans and 128
Float 397
Suspension bridges —- Specific gravity 395
Design - - 520 Viscosity 395
Erection - 526
Texaco 371, 373
Shear 524 highways 100
Three-lane
Tension 523 Through truss 517
Swell test 264
Timber-
Cribbing 531
Fabrication 512
Local 514
Spans, short 509
Table of stage construction 201 Structural 510, 511
Talbot's formula 477 Truss 519
Tank car _ _ 315 Untreated 511
Tar- Toluol 353
Analysis table 351 Topped residue 359
By products -. 352 Top soil, sand clay and 155
Traffic- Utah maintenance costs _..471

Accuracy 65 Uvalde 373
Agricultural sections 54
Analysis of data 60, 61
Capacity 75 Vacuum flash coil —359
Data 58t 59 Value-
Data, uses of 70 Recovery „_ 19
Density 17 Salvage _ „ 20
Economic data _ 53 Scrap „ _ 20
Engineering data 53 Wearing ,-...- 19
Example 73 Value of bond .. 36
Industrial 54 Vehicle costs _8, 14
Key stations « „ 57 Vehicle investment - 450
Lines „ 103 Vehicle operating cost 11, 14
Scheduling 59 Vertical curves 123
Speeds « ™ 75 Vertical retort 350
Stations 58 Viscosity 390, 396
Station averages 63 Viscosities, comparison of 397, 398
Station locations 54 Viscosity, temperature effect 390
Surveys 53 Visibility 98
Surveys accomplish 77 Visibility — ■
Variation 70 Horizontal curves __— —101
Weight stations 57 Intersections 104
When, where, how 74, 71 Roadside - - 105
Traffic bound 47 Vertical curves - 103
Traffic bound surfaces 171 Vitrified pipe „.485
Transportation cost 13, 14, 15 Volatilization loss 387, 391, 414
Transportation, economics of 8
Trends, bridge 532 W
Trestle, concrete 496 Walls, crib - 530
Trinidad 362, 373 Warcolite _ - 370, 380
Trimount 373 Water gas tar „ — 353
Truck mixers 448 Water, movement 114
Truck traffic 66 Waterway 474
Truss, timber _ 519 Waterway table — 477
Truss spans 515 Wearing value 19
Tube still 359 Weeds _ 466
Two-lane concrete 343 Welding _ 518
Typical cross section 106 Weight of pipe ~ 484
Wcstphalt
u
371, 380
Widening, bridge -
....500
Ugite Width-
Untreated surfaces
373
154
Bridge - 534
Untreated surfaces — Rural 93
Aggregates Trunk _ 93 _
Cross section
157
157
Willite - 370, 381
Wind bracing „ 525
Equipment '. 186
Wolman salts 511
Miscellaneous ].183
Rock size 154
Stage construction 154
State examples 192 Xylol .353
Traffic capacity ]....! 59
Untreated timber 511
Urban traffic ."".". 68 Zinc chloride 511
Use of emulsions 367 Zinc meta-arsenite -. 511
Useless tests „ ..........412 Zoning _ 85
SOME OTHER BOOKS PUBLISHED
by the
GILLETTE PUBLISHING COMPANY
Handbook of Cost Data. Vol. I.
By Halbert P. Gillette.
1,878 pages, illustrated, flexible binding, 4^x7 in.
Handbook of Cost Data. Vol. II.
2,733 pages, illustrated, 4^x7 in., flexible binding.
Handbook of Cost Data. Vol. III.
In preparation.
Handbook of Mechanical Cost Data.
By Haliiert P. Gillette and Richard T. Dana.
1,750 pages, illustrated, 4^x7 in., flexible binding.
Handbook of Construction Equipment.
By Richard T. Dana.
1,850 pages, flexible binding, 4^x7 in.
Handbook ok Rook Excavation; Methods and Costs.
840 pages, 184 illustrations, 4J^x7 in.
Earth Work and Its Costs.
1,362 pages, illustrated, flexible binding, 4^x7 in.
Construction Cost-Keeping and Management.
By Halbert P. Gillette and Richard T. Dana.
572 pages, 264 illustrations, cloth, 5J4x8J4 in.
Engineering Failures and Their Lessons.
By Edward Godfrey.
270 pages, illustrated, 6'/tx9,/i in.
The Trackman's Helper.
By Richard T. Dana and A. F. Trimble.
400 pages, cloth, 4)4x6*4 in.
Labor Costs of Construction.
By F. L. Connor.
202 pages, flexible, 5)4x8 J* in.
Economics of Highway Bridge Types.
By C. B. McCullough.
246 pages, hard cloth binding, 5)4x8)4 in., profusely illustrated.
Ideals of Engineering Architecture.
By Charles Evan Fowler.
303 pages, 6x9 in., red leatherette and gold binding.
Highway Location and Surveying.
By W. W. Crosby.
398 pages, hard binding, 5)4x8)4 in.
Economics of Construction Management.
By J. L. Harrison.
330 pages, hard binding, 5)4x8 in.
Byrne's Inspector's Pocket Book.
By Samuel T. Goldsmith.
244 pages, stiff paper binding, 5x8 in.
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
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Low Cost Roads and Bridges - Brown

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Low cost roads and bridges, by Victor J. Brown and Carleton N. Conner.

Brown, Victor J. (Victor Jacob), b. 1894.

Public Domain, Google-digitized

We have determined this work to be in the public domain,

VICTOR Jf 'BROWN, C.E.

CARLETON N;k CONNER,

Gillette Publishing Company

Gillette Publishing Company

To those conscientious representatives of tlte

ivho must decide upon how, when,

of bituminous construction and it is not uncommon to hear very broad

A. Oiling of Earth Roads

(a) General Description

The Design of Local Highways

Economics and Planning

CHAPTER III 90 to 153

Location, Design and Grading

CHAPTER IV 154 to 204

CHAPTER V 205 to 327

Bituminous Surface Courses

CHAPTER VI 328 to 348

CHAPTER VII 349 to 381

CHAPTER IX 420 to 448

CHAPTER X 449 to 471

CHAPTER XI 472 to 536

Low-Cost Bridges and Culverts

DESIGN OF LOCAL HIGHWAYS

Neither Economic nor Social Value Attaches to a Road Like This

social contacts or educational facilities. On the other hand, men regularly

spend considerable amounts of money to enjoy these activities from which

distance for the benefit of through traffic.

Highway Service. — But if service is the important consideration,

Distance. — In the improvement of local roads the objective is serv

Gradients. — In rural regions as on the trunk lines and in the cities

the percentage of horse-drawn traffic is so small that it is all but negli

low type surface, so much is added by way of comfort and personal

The Need jor a Low Cost Surface is Plainly Evident

Measure of Service. — It would, perhaps, be desirable to close this

THE surfacing problem.

version factor can be applied to the estimated volume of traffic to convert

H = height in feet of existing summit above the sag

[y2T{MH— H^^/rTiH,— H2)\C

0.00075 [(MH— H,) + (H— H2)]

ing energy is absorbed by the brakes in stopping. Where traffic is heavy

From bulletin just published by the Iowa Engineering Experiment

bulletin by the Iowa Engineering Experiment Station.

Bulletin 91 of the Iowa Engineering Experiment Station. The significant

Total cost 5.44 6.43 7.50

"From a recent examination of the data being developed at the Towa

Prof. R. L. Morrison this problem differently but his statement

cost is interest on the money which is invested in the road to build

tion. usually the largest.

If we let represent annual cost. D depreciation, average interest,

M annual equated maintenance cost, and annual cost of vehicle opera

Administration or highway operation sometimes included as

Summary of Cost of Transportation

Practical Example. — This formula has been used in determining

Vehicle Operating Costs. — For the purposes of this problem, vehicle

3. Contributions to Road Funds. — Contributions to road funds are ob

4. Highway Transportation Cost. — By substitution of the .values for

Theoretical Cost of — 890)

ECONOMICS OF ROAD SURFACES

Two Cost Theories. — I. — We may look upon highway funds as