AMBO

UNIVERSITY

-INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY
-DEPARTMENT
OF
MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING

BRAKING SYSTEM
BRAKING SYSTEM
AMBO UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
1

MOTOR VEHICLE
ASSIGNMENT

SECTION 3

GROUP 4 MEMBERS

1. ANWAR TOFIK BRT/0602/09

2. DEREJE NEGASH BRT/0847/09
3. IFA OLJIRA BRT/1177/09
4. JERUSALEM ASTATKE BRT/1205/09
5. KEMAL ABERA BRT/1240/09
6. MINICHIL AWOKE BRT/1412/09
7. MUHAMMED MUSA BRT/1460/09
8. SAMUEL LEULSEGED BRT/1577/09
9. TARIKU WONDWOSEN BRT/1694/09
10. YONAS HAFTAY BRT/1853/09
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express our thanks to our Instructor Melkamu Beyene for his caring and sharing his knowledge.
We would also like to thank Google, Wikipedia and the Internet for being our source in addition to our
reference books. Finally we thank our families for their support financially and encouragement. Also we
are proud of our selves working together over the week as thought as much about helping each other.
Obviously we are your students and we welcome any suggestions and comments from you.
Sincerely your students
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Contents
1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................................4
1.1 History of Brake.................................................................................................................................4
1.2 Characteristics...................................................................................................................................5
1.3 Classification of Brakes......................................................................................................................6
2. Hydraulic braking system with and without booster...............................................................................7
2.1 Hydraulic braking system...................................................................................................................7
2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydraulics braking system...........................................................8
2.3 Hydraulic braking system with booster.............................................................................................9
2.4 Hydraulic braking system without booster......................................................................................10
3. Braking moments for shoe and disc brakes...........................................................................................10
3.1 Shoe brakes.....................................................................................................................................10
3.2 Drum brake......................................................................................................................................11
3.3 Disc brake........................................................................................................................................12
3.4 Braking moment curves...................................................................................................................13
4. Antilock braking system (ABS)...............................................................................................................15
4.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................15
4.2 Advantage and Disadvantage of Anti-lock braking system..............................................................17
5. Distance travelled during braking..........................................................................................................17
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BRAKING SYSTEM

1. Introduction
1.1 History of Brake

Brake system evolution began in the 19 century, and continues today. The types of braking
systems that have been used over the years include:

Wooden block brakes

The earliest brake system applied the physical principles used to design brakes today;
however, the system consisted only of wooden blocks and a single lever used by the driver to
apply the brake. This form was used on vehicles with steel-rimmed wheels, including horse-
drawn vehicles and steam-driven automobiles.

Locked Wheel Brake Wooden Brake Shoe (wagon)

Brake is one of the most important safety system in every mechanical vehicle moving on
the ground, especially with people or valuable cargo onboard. Need of use for such a device
emerged with construction of first wheeled device used for transportation.

A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a moving system. It
is used for slowing or stopping a moving vehicle, wheel, axle, or to prevent its motion, most often
accomplished by means of friction.
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1.2 Characteristics

Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including: Peak force – The peak
force is the maximum decelerating effect that can be obtained. The peak force is often greater than the
traction limit of the tires, in which case the brake can cause a wheel skid. Continuous power dissipation –
Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail when the temperature gets too high. The greatest amount of power
(energy per unit time) that can be dissipated through the brake without failure is the continuous power
dissipation. Continuous power dissipation often depends on e.g., the temperature and speed of ambient
cooling air.

1) Fade – As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fade. Some designs are inherently
prone to fade, while other designs are relatively immune. Further, use considerations, such as cooling,
often have a big effect on fade.
2) Smoothness – A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter, or otherwise exerts varying brake force
may lead to skids. For example: railroad wheels have little traction, and friction brakes without an
anti-skid mechanism often lead to skids, which increases maintenance costs and leads to a "thump
thump" feeling for riders inside.
3) Power – Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human application force leads to a
braking force that is higher than typical for other brakes in the same class. This notion of "powerful"
does not relate to continuous power dissipation, and may be confusing in that a brake may be
"powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle brake application, yet have lower (worse) peak force than
a less "powerful" brake.
4) Pedal feel – Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective perception of brake power output as a function
of pedal travel. Pedal travel is influenced by the fluid displacement of the brake and other factors.
5) Drag – Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake condition depending on design of the
system to accommodate total system compliance and deformation that exists under braking with
ability to retract friction material from the rubbing surface in the off-brake condition.
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6) Durability – Friction brakes have wear surfaces that must be renewed periodically. Wear surfaces
include the brake shoes or pads, and also the brake disc or drum. There may be tradeoffs, for example
a wear surface that generates high peak force may also wear quickly.
7) Weight – Brakes are often "added weight" in that they serve no other function. Further, brakes are
often mounted on wheels, and unsprung weight can significantly hurt traction in some circumstances.
"Weight" may mean the brake itself, or may include additional support structure.
8) Noise – Brakes usually create some minor noise when applied, but often create squeal or grinding
noises that are quite loud.

1.3 Classification of Brakes

The following are the classifications of Brakes:

1. By method of power:
a) Mechanical brakes
b) Hydraulic brakes
c) Vacuum brakes
d) Air brakes
e) Electrical brakes
f) Magnetic brakes
g) Air assisted hydraulic brakes
2. By method of application:
a) Service or foot brakes
b) Parking or hand brakes
3. By method of operation:
a) Manual
b) Servo
c) Power operation
4. By method of Braking contact
a) Internal Expanding Brakes.
b) External Contracting Brakes.
5. By Method of Applying Brake force:
a) Single Acting Brakes.
b) Double Acting Brakes.

The purpose of braking system

►To reduce the speed of the vehicle.

►To bring it to a halt or to keep it stationary.

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2. Hydraulic braking system with and without booster

2.1 Hydraulic braking system

A hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake fluid, typically
containing glycol ethers or diethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from the controlling mechanism to the
braking mechanism.

Hydraulics is the use of a liquid under pressure to transfer force or motion, or to increase an
applied force. The pressure on a liquid is called Hydraulic pressure. And the brakes which are operated
by means of hydraulic pressure are called Hydraulic brakes.

Thus brakes are based on the principle of Pascal’s law. The pressure exerted anywhere in a mass
of confined liquid is transmitted undiminished in all directions throughout the liquid.
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Master cylinder

When we press the brake pedal, it pushes on primary piston through a linkage. Pressure is built
in the cylinder and the lines as the brake pedal is depressed further. The pressure between the primary and
secondary piston forces the secondary piston to compress the fluid in its circuit. If the brakes are
operating properly, the pressure will be same in both the circuits. If there is a leak in one of the circuits,
that circuit will not be able to maintain pressure.

Construction

The most common arrangement of hydraulic brakes for passenger vehicles, motorcycles, scooters,
and mopeds, consists of the following:

►Brake pedal or lever

►A pushrod (also called an actuating rod)

►A master cylinder assembly containing a piston assembly (made up of either one or two
pistons, a return spring, a series of gaskets / O-rings and a fluid reservoir)

►Reinforced hydraulic lines

►Brake caliper assembly usually consisting of one or two hollow aluminum or chrome-plated
steel pistons (called caliper pistons), a set of thermally conductive brake pads and a rotor (also called a
brake disc) or drum attached to an axle.

2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydraulics braking system

Advantages

►Equal braking effort to all the four wheels.

►Less rate of wear (due to absence of joints compared to mechanical brakes).

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►All of the four cylinder total braking effort is equal for each.

►System construction is very simple.

►Less rate of wear.

►High mechanical advantage.

►Force multiplication (or divisions) very easily just by changing the size of one piston and cylinder
relative to other.

Disadvantages

►Even slight leakage of air into the breaking system makes it useless.

►The brake shoes are liable to get ruined if the brake fluid leaks out.

►For intermittently brake the hydraulic system is suitable to be applied.

2.3 Hydraulic braking system with booster

Braking force is transmitted to the braking unit (caliper or drum) using a lever and hydraulic
pressure. Due to the high forces required on the lever to dampen the speed on heavier vehicles, the brake
booster is designed to assist in applying the required pressure. The brake booster is a servo unit which
uses negative pressure generated by the engine to the brake master cylinder.

As the driver steps on the brake pedal, atmospheric air is introduced in the variable pressure chamber,
producing a pressure differential between the variable and the constant pressure chamber. The force
generated by the pressure differential on the plate is transmitted to the push rod via the booster piston
which pushes the piston of the brake master cylinder. When the pedal is depressed, all components return
to its original positions through the return springs. Dependent on the application and capacity, a single or
tandem chamber design brake booster may be used.
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2.4 Hydraulic braking system without booster

When the braking system is without booster it is difficult for the brake to operate or
function normally. As the driver steps on the brake pedal, the driver will not supported by any means
like that of they have braking booster. When a car is in lack of brake booster our car is unable to stop
quickly because there is no additional pressure in the brake master cylinder.

3. Braking moments for shoe and disc brakes

3.1 Shoe brakes

A brake shoe is the part of a braking system which carries the brake lining in the drum
brakes used on automobiles, or the brake block in train brakes and bicycle brakes. Each brake
assembly has two shoes Primary shoe and Secondary shoe.
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3.2 Drum brake

A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of shoes or pads that press
outward against a rotating cylinder-shaped part called a brake drum.

The brake shoe carries the brake lining, which is riveted or glued to the shoe. When the
brake is applied, the shoe moves and presses the lining against the inside of the drum. The
friction between lining and drum provides the braking effort. Energy is dissipated as heat.

Braking power is obtained when the brake shoes are pushed against the surface of the drum
which rotates together with the axle.

Modern cars have disc brakes all round, or discs at the front and drums at the rear. An
advantage of discs is that they can dissipate heat more quickly than drums so there is less risk of
overheating. Mainly for the rear wheel of passenger cars and trucks.
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3.3 Disc brake

A disc brake is a type of brake that uses calipers to squeeze pairs of pads against a disc or
"rotor" to create friction. This action retards the rotation of a shaft, such as a vehicle axle, either
to reduce its rotational speed or to hold it stationary. The energy of motion is converted into
waste heat which must be dispersed. Hydraulically actuated disc brakes are the most commonly
used form of brake for motor vehicles, but the principles of a disc brake are applicable to almost
any rotating shaft.

Brake is one of the most important safety feature in every mechanical vehicle from bikes
to be designed in order to meet safety, reliability, efficiency and economical requirements. One
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has to remember that not only design of brake is important but also friction material used in its
construction. Without proper materials, brakes are not able to generate proper braking moment.

Braking moment is the most important parameter of brake from operation point of view.
It is directly connected to braking distance as well with amount of force needed to achieve
assumed braking parameters for the mechanical vehicle. Stability of braking moment is
important in order to get optimized characteristics of the braking process itself. Most of the brake
characteristics and efficiency calculations based on assumption that braking moment should be
stable during braking process.

3.4 Braking moment curves

As it can be seen on the graphs shown below there is strong dependence of the braking
moment to the force of braking or hydraulic pressure (which is directly connected with the
braking force) during the braking process. One of the most important assumptions is that braking
moment is constant during whole process if the braking force is stable.
If braking force is not constant during process, braking moment should resemble it. As it can be
seen on the graphs below there is clear deviation from this rule. Braking moment is not exactly
correlated with braking force. Such a phenomenon can be explained by various processes
occurring in the brake during work. These processes can be: change of temperature of material
and disk(s), temporary deformation of brake or friction material only, influence of grated friction
materials (material can get between brake pad and brake disk). All of this cause irregularity of
moment curve and in result can affect efficiency of the whole brake.
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Fig 1.2.1 Model (friction material) test of the brake

Fig 1.2.2 Full scale test of the brake

4. Antilock braking system (ABS)

4.1 Introduction

An anti-lock braking system (ABS) is a safety anti-skid braking system used on aircraft
and on land vehicles, such as cars, motorcycles, trucks and buses. ABS operates by preventing
the wheels from locking up during braking, thereby maintaining tractive contact with the road
surface.

ABS is an automated system that uses the principles of threshold braking and cadence
braking, techniques which were once practiced by skilful drivers before ABS braking systems
were widespread. ABS operates at a very much faster rate and more effectively than most drivers
could manage. Although ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping
distances on dry and some slippery surfaces, on loose gravel or snow-covered surfaces ABS may
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significantly increase braking distance, while still improving steering control. Since ABS was
introduced in production vehicles, such systems have become increasingly sophisticated and
effective. Modern versions may only prevent wheel lock under braking, but may also alter the
front-to-rear brake bias. This latter function, depending on its specific capabilities and
implementation, is known variously as electronic brake force distribution, traction control
system, emergency brake assist, or electronic stability control (ESC).

It is automobile safety system, the controller is provided to control the necessary

torque to maintain optimum slip ration. The slip rotation denote in terms of vehicle speed and
wheel rotation. It’s an automated system that run on principles of threshold braking and cadence
braking which were practiced by skillful drivers with previous generation braking system. It
response time is very faster so that makes easy steering for the driver. ABS generally offer
advanced vehicle control and minimize the stopping distance in slippery and dry surface,
conversely on loose surface like gravel or snow covered pavement, ABS can significantly
increase braking distance, although still improving vehicle control.

Anti-lock systems modulate brake application force several times per second to hold
the tires at a controlled amount of slip; all systems accomplish this in basically the same way.
One or more speed sensors generate alternating current signal whose frequency increases with
the wheel rotational speed. An electronic control unit continuously monitors these signals and if
the frequency of a signal drops too rapidly indicating that a wheel is about to lock, the control
unit instructs a modulating device to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel.
When sensor signals indicate the wheel is again rotating normally, the control unit allows
increased hydraulic pressure to the brake. This release-apply cycle occurs several times per
second to “pump” the brakes like a driver might but at a much faster rate.
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Typically ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel speed
sensors, and at least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. The ECU constantly
monitors the rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects the wheel rotating significantly slower
than the speed of the vehicle, a condition indicative of impending wheel lock, it actuates the
valves to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking
force on that wheel; the wheel then turns faster. Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning
significantly faster than the others, brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel is increased so the
braking force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This process is repeated continuously and
can be detected by the driver via brake pedal pulsation. Some anti-lock systems can apply or
release braking pressure 15 times per second. Because of this, the wheels of cars equipped with
ABS are practically impossible to lock even during panic braking in extreme conditions.

In addition to their basic operation, anti-lock systems have two other things in common.
First, they do not operate until the brakes are applied with enough force to lock or nearly lock a
wheel. At all other times, the system stands ready to function but does not interfere with normal
braking. Second, if the anti-lock system fails in any way, the brakes continue to operate without
anti-lock capability. A warning light on the instrument panel alerts the driver when a problem
exists in the anti-lock system.

4.2 Advantage and Disadvantage of

Anti-lock braking system
Advantages

► It allows the driver to maintain directional stability and

control over steering during braking.

► Safe and effective.

► Automatically changes the brake fluid pressure at each wheel to maintain optimum brake
performance.

► ABS absorbs the unwanted turbulence shock waves and modulates the pulses thus permitting the
wheel to continue turning under maximum braking pressure.

Disadvantages

►It is very costly.

►Maintenance cost of a car equipped with ABS is more.

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5. Distance travelled during braking

Braking distance refers to the distance a vehicle will travel from the point when its
brakes are fully applied to when it comes to a complete stop. It is primarily affected by the
original speed of the vehicle and the coefficient of friction between the tires and the road surface
and negligibly by the tires' rolling resistance and vehicle's air drag. The type of brake system in
use only affects trucks and large mass vehicles, which cannot supply enough force to match the
static frictional force.

►Stopping distance = reaction distance + braking distance

If a driver puts on the brakes of a car, the car will not come to a stop immediately. The
stopping distance is the distance the car travels before it comes to a rest. It depends on the speed
of the car and the coefficient of friction (μ) between the wheels and the road. This stopping
distance formula does not include the effect of anti-lock brakes or brake pumping. The SI unit
for stopping distance is meters.

d = stopping distance (m)

v = velocity of the car (m/s)

μ = coefficient of friction (unit less)

g = acceleration due to gravity (9.80 m/s2)

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The braking distance is one of two principal components of the total stopping distance.
The other component is the reaction distance, which is the product of the speed and the
perception-reaction time of the driver/rider. A perception-reaction time of 1.5 seconds and a
coefficient of kinetic friction of 0.7 are standard for the purpose of determining a bare baseline
for accident reconstruction and judicial notice; most people can stop slightly sooner under ideal
conditions.

Braking distance is not to be confused with stopping sight distance. The latter is a road
alignment visibility standard that provides motorists driving at or below the design speed an
assured clear distance ahead (ACDA) which exceeds a safety factor distance that would be
required by a slightly or nearly negligent driver to stop under a worst likely case scenario:
typically slippery conditions (deceleration 0.35g) and a slow responding driver (2.5 seconds).
Because the stopping sight distance far exceeds the actual stopping distance under most
conditions, an otherwise capable driver who uses the full stopping sight distance, which results in
injury, may be negligent for not stopping sooner.

The actual total stopping distance may differ from the baseline value when the road or tire
conditions are substantially different from the baseline conditions or when the driver's cognitive
function is superior or deficient. To determine actual total stopping distance, one would typically
empirically obtain the coefficient of friction between the tire material and the exact road spot
under the same road conditions and temperature. They would also measure the person's
perception and reaction times. A driver who has innate reflexes, and thus braking distances, that
are far below the safety margins provided in the road design or expected by other users, may not
be safe to drive. Most old roads were not engineered with the deficient driver in mind, and often
used a defunct 3/4 second reaction time standard. There have been recent road standard changes
to make modern roadways more accessible to an increasingly aging population of drivers.
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………………..THE END………………..