• ---- ~◄""' ~ ~

~~--
7
• --- ◄~
·-◄ 1
sf-&
;.J
• J ....

"/.
,,.,_
'I
<. •---
_,. ◄ \<l
◄
.~
~~
.
~,,.. ~i ~~~\
~ ◄ ~
7

"t:i. .I) ~ ~ - /.> "'' p

PLANT AND ANIMAL MATERIALS SOME BASIC CO1'CEPTS OF RHEOLOGY 9;

,c :i :pcrature . oxygen , food supply, energy consumption , as well as the c True strain In a body subjected to axial force , the natural logarithm
11,i l'.q,\ay of internal factors which arc difficult to control. ln biological of the ratio of the gage length at the moment of observation t(1 ,original
, ,i1d" elasticity \'aries with age and physiological conditions. Biological gage length.
, . ,_;.., are mostly non-Newtonian liquids which cause addi tional complica- f Macrosrrain The mean strain over any finite gage length of measure-
ment large in comparison with interatomic distances.
\ ~ ,, result of this complex situation, in studying the rheology of a bio-
g Microstrain The strain over a gage length comparable to ioteratomi:
, ,~iCt,1 system, only an empirical approach is possible. The treatment or distances .
· i1•: problem usually consists of either a simple description of observed facts
., r theoretical considerations which often lead to very complicated mathe- (_S1ress
matical formulations containing many variables. Constants, as known in The intensity at a point in a body of the internal forces or components of
physical experiments, rarely exist. force that act on a given plan'e through the point. Stress is expressed in force
Despite this apparently hopeless situation, the application of the funda- per unit of area (pounds-force per square inch, kilograms-force per square
m.:ntal principles of mechanics and rheology is a good start for the study ol' millimeter, etc., Fig. 4.1 and 4.2):
mechanical behavior in biological systems. Until specifi~ laws and principle\.
.uc derived and established, we can study the relative changes in one d~fmiw y
property by making a rather rough approximation of other variable~
influencing this one property.
Syy '
4 2 ASTM STANDARD DEFINlTION OF TERMS
. RELATED TO MECHANICAL PROPERTIES*

, S11 ;1i11 .
.. : due to force in the size or shape of a body referred to its Syz
I he un ,t change , .. ' . . tity but it is frequently
, ,n inal size or shape. Stram is a nond1mens1ona 1q~an , . Szx
. g d . . hes per 1· nch <:entimeters per centimeter, etc. (Fig. 4.2).
nprcs~e m me •
The change per unit length due
z Szz
II Linear (tensile or compressive) strain Figure 4.1 Components of force per unit area dA orien!~~ ~o~~I t~f,1.l• ~ ,,.
t P force in an original linear dimension. . . . directions ...
11 e1 t O the longitudma 1 axis \ .-
t, Axial strain LI _ -.Il~~! strain in a plane para ·
. 1 l d the net cross section
a Nominal stress The stress at a pmnt ca cu ate on
11 f the specimen. · h · . -.- ·. t the effect on the stress
St rain in a plane perpendicular to t c a>:1s by simple elastic theory without taking into accoun
c Transverse strain Linear . . .. h h grooves fillets. etc.
produced by geometric d1scontmu1t1es sue as oIes, · - ' .
" f the specimen . f h lar change. due · dicular to a piane on winch
. ) The tangent o t e angu . b 1\'ormal stre.,ss The stress component pcrpen
ti Shear strain (angular strarn - d. \· to ea•'h other throu f:,h
· · 11 erpen 1c11 a r . '~ the forces act. Normal stress"may. be either : . d , , . from the
'" !orcc . bet""een two lines ongma y p · · d forces directe a\\a\
l Tensile stress Normal stress ue to ·

'
1 "1 :1 1 in a °,°d:, • plane on which they act , or
---- - . • , E E-M last rcvi~,:.d 1965 .
, ,, • icd fr om ASTM Des1gnat1on ) .,
)
). I'
I
 ~ ,;.:; J;;; 3
. y PLANT ANO . '51>
. .. Al\lMAL MATERIALS
0
{, _ 8-'"' .E
~
<V
bcha, ior dnd ho" .
- ,:. t ri RJ{EOLOGY -E
. ·cEPlS OF
: g:ca-1 models.Sunhe ,. such b~hanor can be explained . ·1c CON E
SO ~lf 3.\S ·
:.-.:: rate of . . . r 1llustrat1ons of the t' a- in terms of r/J,.,...
straining for s 1 ime-e,,,.,-1 - .
~:: 1. ~ote, ,i__. . e ecr,.,i r _ •
. f susta ining w ithou; . an y
. . 1 15
. capable o -- . ,,
PLANT AND ANl~IAL ~t.\.TERJALS £ . h 1 rn:itena of the stress. / ,
· t stress " h.lC · · rnplete re tease ~✓
. d toward the The gre;1 tc~ --- n1-J upon co .
Normal stress due to forces d1recte . . t strain rern:11 _,,
2 . compressir:e stress pe(lfllanen · nl limit
plane •:>D which they act. . 1 to the plane on which /asticit . b 1 w the proportIQO
- - -- -- .... The stress component tangentia od11/ll..S O,f e -··ponding strain e 3 . . i[inear rather
c Shear stress-~, ._ .
The ratio of stress ~o c:.~:,"e the stress-strain relationsld(;i;~r:. 5) :
the forces act. e cross section resulting
The shear stress on a traosvers (Note) For materials r !lowing terms may be use
d Torsionai stress e of the four ,o . curve at the
from a twisting action. - . • test calculated than linear, on - f the stress-$tra1n
. . tension or compress1 00 ,_ . . ·/ d I· The slope o
e True stress The axial stress in a t' nal area instead of the o"ngrnal - - ,,A. In itial tangent ,no u :.s
on the basis of the instantaneous cross sec io . . . curve at any .s.pecified
ong1n . f h stress-stra1 n
I Tb! slope o t e
area .
ma[) The ma:-omu
. ro or minimum value of the
'bl b Tangen.I mod1111s j..
r Principal strefs (nor .d d w1·th respect to all poss1 e
• · · a plane cons1 ere stress or strain . drawn from the origin to any
normal stress at a point_m O ch principal planes the shear . . !· The ;\ope of the scecant .
orientations of the considered plane. n su c Secan: moctu ,,s . .
' fied point on the str!"Ss-scram cUI"'le. two speci -
stress is zero. · • .o;p:c1 f th ·hurd drawn between any
e normal stress on the minimum cross 5ectron:,1 d Chord modulus The ;!ope o e i.;
,, Fracture stress The tru
~ Et ;:be bgimliag of fractl!re.. tied points on the stress-:~rain curve.

. @: ~· ~:
-@~
Sxx
·•"

Sy.y
,. . .. ,

Szz
-~-- . ...
Syz
_,_. ..
..

Sxz
__ ,.. -r:~·
,

Sxy
VPoisson's ratio
The absolute value of th~ ratio of t~B~~-=---~;9~n. to the correspo:1 i_ng
d'

axial s_ti:;iin resulting from uniformly distributed axial stress below th~ pt o-
p'o_r.ti~nal limit of the m::.::!rial.
a Stress (Note J) For stresses '::eyond the proportional limit, the r.ange of /tress
should be stated.
(Note 2) Passion's rat fr, :viii hai·e more than one value if the materi~l: is not
isotropic.
in r exx eyy ezz eyz exz exy
b Strain ,,~rc;portional limit
>rec
=on Figure 4.2 A volume ¢lemcnt of a m:l.1¢rial ihowing the six components of The greatest stress which a mater ial is co.pable of sustaining witho~_t any
:~ ( stress and strain r•~iu ircd ior complete sr,:cification (Alfley, 1948) deviation from proport i0i'.ality of stress to strain (Hoo k~'s law).

B,·aring load Set

A col'!lpressive load on an interface.
Comprt!ssh·e strength
The m:i.ximum compressive stres~ which a m:i.terial is capable of sustain ing .
Comprcssi~e strength is calculated from the maximum load du ri ng a com-
;:~e ~-\·)!1 t'!•t ~•1d tJ,r: original cross sectional area of the specimen .
Strain remaining after c0 mpkte rekase of the load producing the defor-
rr:atio ,:
(No te I) Due to pracric :/ considerations, such as distortion in the soecime11
and slack in the stra in .- ,. _;icaring system, measurements of strain a/ 9 ·small
load ra rher than zero !,,,:.:' ,1 ri: ,,_{ten ta.!-;en. '
, .l ~
 vi
5

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF RHEOLOGY 95

PL,\~1 A~~D ANIMAL MAT[Rt:.J..S
'I,, is accompanied either by change of ,·o/ume or by change of shape . The
, ,,11 .?) Se1 is oftc1; referred 10 as pcrnra11c111 w if i1 sho 11 s no further change of volume is caused by iso~!op1c sires) such as hydro_srat1c pressu:e.
.ny " ~ ( II ith time. Time ela;sing betll'CC/1 remoral 'l_ r /oJd a11d(i11af reading The change of shape is brought about by shear stresses - (mch) . Material
•, 1 should be stated. can be deformed by uniaxia/ compress;on . uniaxial tension. shear, and bu! k
compression .
I
: :r,·ngth
~ 111;1x1rnum shear st_ress \\ hich a material is capable of sustarn1ng. Shear ~point
~zer .. , ,:1;t h 1s calculated from the maximum load d,irin& a shear or to rsion A point , such as yin Fig. 4.3 on the srress-Slrain or force-deforma:ion curve
., .111d 1s based on the original dimensions of the cross sec11on of the
at which there occurs an increase in def~rmation with a decrease or no
!the 'J ·, f'l l'l l iTil'Jl .
change of force. In some agricultural products. the presence of this bioyicld
;~ l , p1i/c s1rengtlz point is an indication of initial cell ruprure in the cellular structure of the
,lieu 1h,· m.ix imum tensile srre;s which a material i; c;apable of sustainin~~- material. The term bioykld point 1? proposed for bfological materials to

!an~

...\eci-
;I ! ~11,ilc strength is calculated from the maximum load during a tension test
,.1r•1cd to rupture and the original cross sectional 2rea of the specimen .

~ r
o,-----.._1
i
!
:ct111g
,pro-
!' f' hc first stress in a m2reri2.L less than the maximum attainable stress, al
11 ln..-!1 an increase in strain occurs without an increJ,e in stress.

I ,'I ore) Ir should be noted that 011/y materials th,:! exhibit the unique phe-
11,,111mo11 of yielding hare a "yield point ".
I
I
I
LJ..

l.lJ
u
er
0
. " R

;treJJ 1 ) 1, /,I strrngth

I hr mess ~t w~ich a material exh ibits a specifiec limiting deviation from
''" r rr,pc>r11ona!Jty of stress to strain. The deviatio:i is expressed in terms of
I
I
LL

F ,
, 11.,111. I
is ,wr
I
I •. " " ') /1
1 1111 0
'' ' " /
is customary to determine yield strength by Offset Method (usually
0.2 per cent is specified). I DEFORM A TIQN ,
figure 4.3 A possible force-<! ft •
o
ir a11, LL . e ormatron curve: for an agr· uJ
, linear limir; J', "bioyield . .. . rc turalproduct.
j " .i OT HER ·DEFil\ITJONS RELATED
I J)(lmt , R, rupture Point
TO MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES differentiate t~is.phe ' ·•• ·
/ '11 \ \ / ll 't'
I
/
Th . nomenon from the v· Id . .
c bzoyi~ld point may occur at an ·. ie p,oint m engineering materials .
•\ •~1..:.,1 urc of the mean norrna .
, I stress on a point of a body - (/b/in2). ' ~curve.,d.evzates from the initial strai yhpt oI_inr be}~nd the point LL, '.'-'here the
/1, •" 11 //1 / / ()/1 "-J,,, g ine poruon .
~q....- re point
( r,; •,1 ·,~ d'
I ' n or istortion is the relative d' . I·
•
A point on the stress-srr .
. JI ML1rmat ion like stre-ss is , isp _~~e_:n~!]l of points with in ·1 loaded s . . ain or force-deform .
a \CCtor quant ity. In general' def . ' ---.PE.2_meo r~res under al d 1n _atzo~ curve at wbi£tuh.;. axia Jh
, ormat1on
cause punctu f .. oa . - biolo('J I - .
re o shell or skin c k ' e-'ca matenaL, rupture ID.": ._.
' rac ing. or fract .
ure planes. Ji ma_v be statec
- ~
;:;;·
-,:
n
~

~2~ ~
"'0. -0
tP
')
~

-~
"ll
c::
".)
C
0
",-..
1-J
Cf,

(/1
,,.
0

PLANT A~D A:---:J~\AL MAH.1{1.•.LS

---:,f
S0,'.11 !~\ \J I· CO~t'~-OF RHWLOG \
:bat a .. b1(, \ 1eld point'' in these materials ·corresponds t r - · h
~ • o a 1a11ure in t c :-f'.::~'~:..
micros:rucwre while a ''rupture point" corresponds to a fa ilure in the clong:111 ons arc. ! fl la:gr. pap at lc:il,-r~COl'Crable. and are a mcJ, ~: e of
macrostrucwre , i:las 11c dcfu1m:it ion
. _ of the specimen. In. a force -deformation curve such as F"1g . 4.3.
the point 01" rupture of the specimen may occur at .any point on the curve \j~lasricity -;~.:...~·
beyond the bioyield point. In a " bri"ttle:• material, rupture may occur in the (::_ --
,:,-.,"~-.,y.,, :;,-,
eariy portion of the c;urve. In a ''tough'' ·material, rupture may take place The capacity of a rn:iterial_fo[ct~Jo~·.pJastic or permanent deformation.
_after considerable plastic flov.- at such point as R. - Since deformations from th'e bioJ1~if,p9int !_g_rhe _point of rupture are not
-~//
' .,g'-f-iE ness · · ·:~r:1 f·= ·
I I - -f¼.7.;~.::: . ~ C, :r
Stiffness or rigidity is .~ndicated by thf slope of the initial_gr.a.ighrrm; "'
.::J/ . ,:·t,'/..~ ,;;·. --:-
• ••'-' ·m ·
V
.,s
\)\..V .,..-

portion of the curve (Fig. 4.3). The ratio of s t r e s ~ in this more 5/ .,:i"4:~ i?. 1 i,l~---
1
oo,I ..-PLJ:":'J~:-·
,$J_ c-:J•,i·
!lc,E,I<.......
1P. ;...-
or less ela:;tic region of th e curve may ~rEfe;~~--t~--;~-t qe "~odulus of ~"I . t,'t.=: ~ .
elasticity· or ·••Young's modulus·• (lb/in 2 ). In the case of nonlinear stress-
sfrai n- oelia,ior, stiffness or "apparent modulus" can be defined ir. terms of
i1!l,I:;/ ''1
~rJ/..,., .: -13\ ~-
·-• · · ··
~LJ
~,
i
A -'
·-~~;;f~-.
.
initial tangent modulus, secant modulus, or tangent ·modulus, as illustrated in
~I .\
"Fig. 4.5. Initial tangent modulus is taken as the slope of the curve at the t/
~I I ~: - j",j. .'
vrig.in. Secant modulus is the slope of the Tine connecting the origin and a -~~::.~
I I
'selec .ed point A on the curve-; Tangent modulus is the slope of the tangent frn-e I I -~~ ·:. ~.:~.-4 -=.-_
-~o ~leered point B on the curve. _ t. I
1/
~ sricifr· 0
SJ.RAIN
~apacity of a material for takinl! elastic or recover_ablc deformation. Figure 4.5 Methods for ddi~i"n T!hc modules m non-linear stress-strain
In those portions of the curve in Fig. 4.3 before the pomt LL is reached, diagram~

recoverable, the un;ecovera b)e· ~Hrt <.. .in be~~ken as a measure_of p!astic
:i i!
& format ion (Fig. 4.4).
w
u G~ ,- r
lMi~e!,'ree n e a,11c1111
1 · · (fJ * -- • •
a: 1"-·1 ~he ratio of elast ic deformation to the sum of elast ic ard plasuc deformation
0
u. \\'hen a ma teria l is loaded to! certa in load and then unloaded to zero load n ' .
i
d
(Fig. 4.4) .

Srrengrh
,. I DEFORMATION
Dp--!+-De1 L The resistance to appl ied force (lb/in).
+oe---i . . U/timare strem!lh
Op . .. from a loading-unloadmg cllf\C. D,
Figure 4.4 Degree of elasllctl)_ . D - lastic or residual deformat ion ;
. overablc defonnat1on ,- v - P . . • (_,~stress correspond ing to the rupture point (lb/in2).
+
= clas11c or rec D,,f(D • D , ) = degree of elast 1c1ty
 V (!_ ,ii&p ½ \'Y\,lY -

~-~ & fn.VY'i',

PLANT A:--D A1','/ MAL MATER IALS I
I e__,,,.. SOME BA.SIC co :..; cc:?TS Or RH[C:..CGr ~ I
,::,,,,,.,-
U:/?igidity
Th e- qress corresponding to t'he b iovield poi'nr If th - . d Rigidity or shear modulus is the ratio b-erween sheari1_1g stress and 11: ~
-:-:-:::r.-==-=-::r--c:-,-::-:-:"."C"lr'T"----,--""""T---=-·--...'......-~· e '- u ne oes n ol show
·.1el1 -dc11ned b10y1eld point, the stress correspond ing r._-. an arbilrarv stra in . elastic shearing stra in (lb/in 1 ) .
!l'/ J r to the offset strain i n engineering materials , may be take~ as the
·, ,, 1c ld strength (Jb/in 2) . C. 1 ~ o r i c stress conipo~e,11
I

v ' ,_f',1111;/Jli eSS

I . The sJ;,9s v.;hich is responsible for change in 3hape.
-.-~---.:.-- 1

T ht work required to cause rupture in tbc mare rial. This can be approx i- C ~ i c stress component ~
m:1 :ed by the area under the stress--:-strain or force-d::format ion curve u,-, T~ stress which is responsible for change in volume.
3
10 the po int selected as the rupture point (in-lb/in ) . If in estimating tough -
,/4scoe/af{icity \
ti
e-J J
nc, , . a force-deformation curve is used , the size of the specimen and the
1..-iadi ng surface area should be specified. -I ~ . A prnbioed. soli<l~like and liq~~d_-j£!_(e beba,-ior in which the
~ relatio1:ship is time_ dependent.
stres►srra.in /
2
'
t
1
,,,;;,
.....
I!/
---
\, /--f<.r.silien,e
ca acity of a material for storage of strain enenr ,· i n rhe elast ic ran •c
I ~£ear m"scoe/asticity
A viscoelast ic behavior in which the ratio of stress ro strain is a funciion
j 11n-- lb/in 3) . Thus the area under the_ curve 1 'g:---4-:j~p to the po int LL is
t ., measure of res ilience of !he material. As in the case of toughness, when a of time_a~one and not of the stress magnirude.
I.
~
·,11 ce-deformat ion curve is used , the size of the specimen and the loaded /
?tress relaxation
.,re.1 should be specifie·d . v

4
Decay of s tress with time when the material is suddenly deformed ro a
G - M cchanical hysteresis gi:_e_E__jeformarion-<:01:~LS.U:ain (Fig. 4 , 15).
~~n
\~
1'11er absorbed b a m in adin12: and unloading- '-...fte/axation rime
.
n a/uared as area between loadin and unloading cur,·e (Fig. 4.4). Mee an1-
IC i c .1 hysteresis is a measure of the damping capacity or the ability of th "'
ma terial to d issipate the strain energy as heat (inch-pound per cycle).
The rate of stress decay in a material subjected to a sudden strain. Ir is rbe
time required for the stress in the M<!--\~~JLmg__dE, representin& stre<..s
relaxation bchaviolj to decay to ·1/e -c/i approxf,;;a1e'ly 3 7 ~ f --i:-;

1- ~~~ 1~
i"\ 1 ~ ·
/ J}I ,.
S tressed object / inal value~~~t [ ·- ---- L --- --
/ 1. •\ n o bject under a "ba lanced " sel of forces , tend ing to change its shape o r - \./'Greep_ - 1-
/n ,11~· . or both . ·- 1 1~ -t I O 1" fU . /
0 I

fd Deformation with time when the material is suddenly subjected tc, 2 dead I
·'
I r
- S rra 111ed object load--co_Estant stres~ (Fig .-4. J Sj:e
--- ---~ S.f- ) ------ -- - -
&i ,\n nbject subjected to a change of shape or size, or bo th as a result of ~Retardatio11 time ·$f l_,.l J_
o-51· l1M1.,__.._ ·_] -,L_
+I
1I.
1p r, li cat 1on of a "balanced'" set of forces .

'lornr (ore-effecr and elas tic after-effect

The rate at which the n;tarded e__la~f_ic__ deformation take~ ·piace w a ~ _rerw
crc:eping under dead_Joad. It is the ti;;e requirecf f;r the Kell'lr □ od~:.
0 'Ti',,,L

~£
}
/
I
re~rc~ent ing .creep behavior, to d_efor1:} to (J - I/e) or ab~u.t 63 per c-e:-. : ~ -;
'•, l.1)c- d elastic deformat ions wh ich take place up or. load ing and recove r,
of 11_s !O la/ -~ eforma!ion, . _ ~ .,,_ '~ , ;, t
11 1!o ad 1n g (Fig. 4.24) .
I ; • l
' .. ~,,, _h!, t.h"V'<'"
e,~ '
\_'vn-!
_,JR{
!
•

~- 0
I;;. %. p,
p,

i;;- f?
"'
 PL AS
. -I A :s. u·· 'l.'.'\I~IAL
. . •t-.i .-,
• -, 1:··K 1A L:>
· ..
,1 ,,, H, ,a c o ,~rE. PTS OF RHEOLOG)
·ifTect
'
I
~
t ie phys1c.d ~lm~ of th .
er·cep complt.an.:c fun rn ,Jn ande material Th . f .
! f)\
•.
?• .t:~ .s un -: e t (; fl o w in d icated by coefficient of \' .ISCOS .lt y . I . • estate o a maten a l in term s of
time h as b een gi1 en b: Sharma re axat ion mod
(1965 . I .f unct ion
~us · plotted aga inst
,. tuus 11_, coeffi cient comp~1ance function J11 l is th . ), as given in F ig. 4.6 and 4. 7. The creei;i
n...: rati o of <.hearing
: lb - st ress to shea ri. ng rate in Newtonia n flu id s (dynes - sec f
. .
given time I when the load
e ratio of she
.
or stress 1s kept
.
ar strain to shear stress at a □)'.
-
-
\i
unction G(t) is the ratio of h constant. The relaxation modulus 1\
• . s ear stress to she •
== 1"1,{)•se
r -• or I\ ft 2sec) (Fig.4. 11). . cm-, stram is kept co nstant. ar stram at any time t when l
f .

All the mater ials ha,ing linear res o . .

~
.
\ >

pond ing to one or more zo f h p . nse will display behavior corres-

Kir~ma ric t·iscosity · nes o t ese diagrams z 1
e a vior of perfe-tl)· el · . • . . · .one corresponds to the
O:dncient o f viscositv• d ivided ·b .y the mass d ens1.ty (ft2/sec). b h ' a)tlC" ,naterials The th . 0f 1 . . .
an d Good ier 19"1) ·h··h . " eof) e asuc1ty (T1moshenko
. ' - , "II i1, exp 1ams the b h · f •
is based on the assumptio th t h e av1or o th is class of ma1crials,
,_.t·,.·conian liquid . n a t e state of the mate · 1 d
o11 time or the history b,. wh ich t he given . deformation . was na reached
oes not. Zone
depend
1I
.
Ar. ideal. flui d. in which
. t h e rel~tionship between sh ear stress a nd shear·rat e
,s a straight line p a ssm g through the origin (Fig. 4 . l2) .

\ :on-Xe1,·tonian liquid
I II. m rr
PERFECT ELJ,S"7 tC VISCOELASTIC FINITE ELASTIC 1¥"..RFECT FLUtO
A ~ in which the relationship between shear stress and shear rate 1s I FLOWl
z (GLASSY ) l TRANSITION l l RUEaERY)
nc:m-hne~r. If the flow curve is coocaYe to the shear stress axis, the flow is 0
i=
caned dtlatant. If t he flow curve is convex to the shear stress axis-· the flow (.)
z
1s called pse11doplas1ic (Fi gs. 4.38 and 4.39). ' ::::>
I.I.. -
----
w ,,,/
(.)
z .., /
Apparent l'iscosif)'
~ / /
- '-r A ~ a p p lied t o no n- Newtonian liquids is the viscosity o f a Newtonia n liquid :J Cl'
Cl. 0
/
/
exhi b iting t he sa me resistance to flow at the chosen shearing stress or shear
rate . It is dete rmi ned from slope of a straight line connect ing the chosen
:!:
0
(.)
----
Cl.
point o n· the no n-linear cu rve t o the ,origin (Fig. 4.39). w
uJ
cc

I I
(.) TIME , loQ t
Thixorropic flu ids
GHARAGTER1571: TIME
Those fl ui ds which show a decrease in shear stress w ith time of shea r at a ◄ ,. .
Figure 4.6 Creep ro:n;-liance vs. time relations in shear. -- ·· crosslinkcd
fl \ en shea r rat e .
polyme~ - linear polymers (Sharma, 1965)
R /-. eopec ric fluids
Those fl uids which sho \\'. an in•c rease in shear stress w ith t ime of shear at a
corresponds to the beha,ior of materials exhibiting both elastic and viscous ll S
C!• tn shear rate. effects . The behavior ofthc;e materials, classified as viscoelastic, is obviously ly
- ,;
I time-dependent and is co\"ered under the theory of linear viscoelasticity tY
4.4 P HYS lC A L ST AT E S OF A MATERIAL t (Ferry, 1961). Zone 1II c0rresponds to the rubber)' or soft materials exhibi- ) I·

Ti:.e state of va rio us m ateri als de~ v instant o n loa d a nd deforma-

I· ting non-linear elastic lxh~vior. The theory covering the behavior of these
I \
t ,,) n h istory to which it is subj_~~~;e nviro nm_en ta l factors such
z ;, temperature . ln the case_,of~ 'ro-gical mate~_.,_ )e moi sture content also [ l\;-/ ·-: - t £ d e -z
L ~ ~ l l t'
- \ ,,.
,- c uB R A RY ".z_
 PLA.1':1 -\ ',[) .\Nl\l /\1 MATFR IAJ.S SO~f.E BASIC CONCEPTS OF RHEOLOGY !03

, 1c·r 1~il s _1s called the fin it e elas tic t heory , deal ing ,v ith la rge and fin ite / -4.5 CLASSICAL IDEAL MATERIALS
,', '' ,,r ma t, ons (Murnaghan . 1959). Zone IV shows the state of a material for
.' I ,· h ,t ress is prop~rtional to the rate of s1ra in of
a perfec t fluid . The As mentioned under defin itions , there are two types of deformation . elasuc
--: .: JI hydrodynam1cs ·c0Hrs the theor ies concerned with these materials deformat ion and no,1 . FJo,1 is also d ivided into plas'tic flow and viscous
:'1b . 1945). In real mater ials the linear respome can be ach ieved only ii' a flow. Therefore. elast icity, plast icit) and viscosity are three fundamental
properties by" h ich the rheological behavior of a material can be described .
,.t The three class ical ideal bod ies representing these properties are Hookean
I
I n lJI TI[
body, St. \'enant body, and Newton ian liqu id . Since no real material
t PERFECT ELAS11C VISCOELASTIC FINITE ELASTIC PERFECT FLUID
z (GLASSY) ITRANSITIO N l
behaves perfectly elastic or perfectly plast ic, the three ideal bodies have been
Q ( RUBBERY) ( FLOW)
) ,-
<..)
z-:,
---- ,----~
........,.._~ • - chosen to serve as standards of comparison in the analysis-of the behavior
r of any real material.
I
I
lL
!fl
:::,
'''
!,'
_J
:::, '' ~ a s t i c be~avior (H~okean body)
0
0
:::i':
z
<..?

C7'
' ---- In a Hooke body, .stress is directly proportional to strain as illustrated in
Fig. 4.8a. The relationship 1s known as the Hooke's law and the behavior
0
Q is referred to as Hookean behavior. ' Although this behavior has been
,-
c:l:
X
c:l:
_J
UJ
STEEL
a:
I iHARACTERISTIC TIME, I TIME, 109 1 (./)
(./)
LOAD ING

@
w
Figure 4.7 Relaxation modulus t's. time relations in shear.---- crosslinked c:::
1- St.OPE 1 E or G or t<
polymers, - linear polymers (Sharma, 1965) (./)

UNLOAD I NG

, rn;11 n critical stress is not exceeded . If this critical stress is exceeded,

STRAIN
pl.ist 1c deformations are observed for which the theories of plasticity can be
.1prl1cd (Hill, 1950). The real fluids also can display non-linearity which RUBBER
c;111 be studied by applying the theories of non-Newtonian fluids (Wil-
J.. ,11,l, 11 . )960) .
No serious attempt has yet been made to characterize the biological (./)
(/')
rn ;1 tcrials and determine their characteristic times by which they can be w HORNY ENDOSPERM
c::: OF ORY CORN
P••S1t 1oncd in the spectrum of the physical states of a material. Discussion I-
• KERNEL
(/')
fus , <i the: theories dealing with the various states of a material is obviously
~ly h n, •n J the scope of this book. The classical reference textbooks for each
tty ~ 1-11c: of the materials are gi\'en in the above references. In the following STRAIN STRAIN
' •,, q i, we shall briefly pre~nt only those concepts which we need to
,
1b1-
. Figure 4.8 (a) Linear elasticity in steel , (b) non-linear elasticity in rubbc-~ .
'ese ·lJ•: >1 · n discussing the work reported for food and feed materials.
1
(c) Inelasticity in Com
1 ,,
--0- ·{.'i1·
.,...
'·" .
 i 04 PLA :-.: T A. S O A~1MAL MATERIALS
'i<'IM E BASIC CO:S CEPTS O f 1'HFOI () ( ;)

(kmo r.stra td fo r small strains (l ess than 0. 1 per cent) in certain sol ids. a, \\'hen the Ho cil-.can solid 1s under hydros ta tic pre ssure : he bulk modulus
stated by Re mer (1960). imporvements in experimental techniques ma) or incompre ssibility 1s given by
p rove that perfect elast icity may-not exist·m any real mater ial. Furthermore,
the dtrfin it ion of elast icity req·uires only a complete recovery of strain upon
( K_,_) =_ hydros ta ti c pressure p
, where c,.
J1
(4.3)
volume stra in Ev r
I
removal o f stress. Therefore, we may differentiate between the Hookean or
Ir linear ela~ticity shov,:n for steel and the non-linear elasticity shown for rubber The relationship between the above elastic constants and , Poisson ·s ratio
(Fig. 4.8b). _ µ is given by
Compression tests of a variety of food and feed materials such as fruit's
and vegetables, forage, cereal grains, and egg shell have ind icated that
Hookean elasticity, even for very small strains, apparently does not exist
(f+Il (4.4)

(4.:i)
E = 3K(I - 2,u~-~
in these biological materials. Figure 4.8c shows the first cycle of loading
and unloading for the horny endosperm of dry corn kernel. This type of E = 2G(1 + µ) (4 .6)
curve which shows some residual deformation upon unloading is typical (3K- £)
µ= (4 . 7)
fo r most of the food and feed materials. . 6K )J.. f. R
Based on Hooke's Jaw and together with .Poisson 's ratio, the f~llow1~g
relationships have been established for elastic, homogeneous and 1sotrop1c 1 (£- 2G) (4.8)
µ=
2G
materials (See Fig. 4..9~-
Table 4 . J shows the range of values for Poisson ·s rat w. E;G ratio, and
KJE ratio calculated from the above equations.

T
P.
A
·T;.f;-,
~/0
/
·,--
Tablt> 4.J Elast ic constants for ri~d to liquid-l,i-e
materials

KE

1
Poisson's ratio E/G
J, :
u r": --~ 0
0.10
2.0
2.20
0.333
0.417
0.556
.J.. _ _ __ NO SHEAR
SHEAR 0.20 2.40
0.667
0.25 2.50
Figure 4 .9 Hooke's elasticity in tension and shear 2.60 0.833 . ,\
0.30
modulus 0.35 2.70 I.I l l '--Idt,.\ ,,..' "'
2.80 J.667
\\' hen the Hooke sol id is und~r t~nsile or compressive stress, 0.40
0.45 2.90 3.333 111.
of ela sticity or Young's modulus is g_1ven by LJ/ 0.50 3.00 $_tr,
tensile or compressive ress er where e = --
st (4.1) ma
/ . , . . be ween O 2~d..Q5. As seen from stn,;n
E = tensile or compressive s~t ain e_ For most materials Poisson s ratio is Ot5 - --th-~ character of a material
' th Hooke. sol id , j~ ;~bj;~;~d- to distortion by shear stresses, the • , t' approaches . as
Ta bk 4. 1 the Po isson s ra to . . h. '-o mes evideO! when we recall
on\il
\ \ hen e . . . • · by bbe
approaches tbat,o f ru r or
1tqu1ds. T 1s =co - .. .
sses resultinll in a ng1d1ty
~!.\n
lus or modulus of rig1d1ty is given t any shear stre , -
, hea r mo d u D ,t.., that a :iqu id cannot suppor t'j
(4.2) })
"' shea r stress -r where 'Y = _ = ta~ · y
G = shear stram · 'Y I

V\

,.., ~\:;• ~ -~. \

p.
~g ~
~
~
~i i.~
-6
~ '.:l .s i '?,., \; ~ ~ 'p.-% '?,., i ~ ~ ~
·r, ~
i:1• • ~0%,~tg>~ ~..... °G- ~ ; ';),
~~
~ :' '?,.,
'f~•. 6- e3 ~ - t: °%,· d ~- ~- i C ~ ~ C'>
-f'
~
<;.
i~'6i ~a
~~
rr r "~<; /.
~ .._.,,,,) / /

~ I PLAl'-T AND ANIMAL ~!ATER!/\LS

) I
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF RITTOLOG)
n, . ,1, 11, ~if G equals_z_ero. This will yield a zero value for£ in E .J 6 10·
..., .. ,. 1 he rncompress1bility Kofa liquid :
. , " · '--'-- f;. .,,
fi . . . . __ q. ( ·
' 5 a nite \alue, 1f E 1n Ee . (4.5) 1s
!- In a "simple" liquid with laminar flow the velocit~ gradient may be
, l1l kr~1 (I - 2p) must a'.so be zero . which yie.lds ,; value of for P. 0.5 expressed as follows :
I f
,l' c typical values for Poisson's rat io and bul1-
. . . "' mo u us or se Iecte d
d
-
dr
= <j,T = - T
! ·
r. : r, :11 s are given 111 the Appendix . (4.91
dy T/

where dv is the velocity inc;ement of one layer of the liquid passing over
!. • !tit- al plastic behavior (St. Yenant body) another layer a distance dy apart (Fig. 4.11). The mo1·ement is due to a

j , \ 1•1ctJon block such as shown in Fig.' 4. 10 can be used as the mechanical

nwd el for St. Venan t Bgqy__repr1,_se_!!t ing ideal pl;micity. In this model the
, c,l 1d fr ict ion between the block and the surface prevents any mo\·ement
IJ...

uw
ti f the block. When the pull slightly exceeds the static friction . the block u
0:
PLASTIC FLOW
,t .irh to move. 6nce the movement beg{n~~~iCmust· overcome only 0
t ht: isinetic friction to keep th.e..block mo,ing. ln this model the displacement
IJ...

p ., d 1cnt (in/in) ·stands for shearing strain ;., in an ideal p_lastic material..The
mater ial does not flow until a limiting \'alue of sheanng stress r,. called
DEFORMATION ( L11)
1
he ·' vield stress," is reached. The material can. sustain no str~ss ~eat~r
h;in ; his value and flows indefinitely under thi1s stress unless d1storuon JS
1
rcstr! cted by some other factor. ·..£.-6+
_ -v+dv
F dy

-fy ,,,;•cno• ijITT[I +=RII: - ~

lo:+~[++1J _'l_'l_.1 7' A ·.
Figure 4, 11 Laminar flow of a liquid under shear
-v

shearing stress, r , which is proportional to the v~loci~y gr~dient with pro-

,1, called fluidity, or 1/¢ = T/, calle4 VJS:O.sity._
. y t Body for ideal pl~i• portional factor 't'.> · - • tc · or s1mnlv rate o
f
·c11·00 block represcntmg St. enan -- lfwe write tne Eq. (4.9) ia terms ofs_!1.~ar_s~r~1~ ra i' . ~..,_ _
Fiiure 4. 10 Frl city shear ifie Newton 's law for ideal viscous liqmds \\111 result as given below
' (4.10)
t"i)'IC!-->'*-1\~.,- r .4:J..~
r/y == T/
· h · (NcV11onian liquid) f Newton's la;. of viscosity and a simpk
' 1dral l·iscous be avior . . lied the ,ield Figure 4. I2 shows the plot o . d l f Newtoo12::1 liquids. The plot
. d that a min imum stress, ca_ - · the mechanical mo e or · fi
I 11 .1n ideal plastic matenal we note . d flow beeins. In a liqu id. defor· dash pot representing . . The slope of the line is by de ·
• 1- sing through the ongin. 'd 1
. before deformation an .- 1· d nd whrn tile is a straight me pas h h the yield Yalue in an I ea,
,, 'L'''· is necessary . bear stress is app ie ' a 1
nition the viscosity. This shows thaft _a'. ougl resistanC( to flow called th~
flow begin as soon as a s . fl-;---jt,- will not return to it< • internal nct10na •
11,.1tr t1n an d f plastic O\l., • J•
liquid is zero , there JS_ an . , II 1 the viscous ekinen t. is supposec
.. . d lik e in the case o . l, f stress hu: of trrnc . 't The mechanical model. 1..a ec \.
, trc" I~ remove ' . . . a funct1on not on) ~ --- - - VISCOSI y.
• liquid strain JS
-
_____ .., -
.. r,1·1 11til state. I 11 a ' ...~-.-,.-- - -· --·-·-
·- .
•
l

\ PlA:-.:T AKD A\:l~!Al

MATERIALS
---
be a \VC 1ft Je~s,
.q:u1d . i loosely fitted piston

T:-ie visco~it\' of a Jiqui · ·

. I. . a IS measured by th t·
moving in a

.
medium filled with the
(n · ·
SOME BAS IC COl\(E
PTS Of RHEOLOQy
<7\~.
--.,v.u-Q-
J.(\

,ro l\w,S}N"
. .\\
r ,.:,,~ 'P
,u-·
109
~
it\•,~~-
;,, -~\\'1
area of either of two horizontal l ~ angential force and a unit 0,alinearv1scoelasticmate ··I h ~ ex" )g:i..· "'))..'\x
na t e ra ti o of '•
I panes at umt dist o f time alone and not of the stress . . Sires~ to strain is " func ti on '
move one pl~pe with unit veloci\y with refi ance apart , requ ired to . I . - magn nudc.1Fo ,,
matena 5 linear ,·1scoelastic rcspo ~ r a number of viscoelastic ,n •
I , .. . . erence to the other plane. When r • nse can be achieved · tc ·1
d e,onnrng stresses are kept suffic ' experimen tally if the i
ient 1Y small If th · 1e ~
~uch that the result in" strain is mo ti . ·- ·-· ~__!ll_agnJtude of m:ess_is_ t.
Vl · .,, ==--::..s ' nonrecoverabl is_ ~
Vl ~raTio of stress to stra in is a functio • f t _ e upon un Ioading. th_e ,
l.&J . ~ ·---.,~--=--no s rcss as well as 1• d h . :1e (
a: elasi1~ behavior is non-linear Th ' -- : · - ._ ime an t e v1s~o-
1-
Vl · ~ _____ _ : is t) pe of non-lmear-vrscne1astic behavior 0•
1
'
1s normaliy considered under viscoplasticity A h . or \,
er • I •· • • not er type of non-linear '
c:i: \'1~,0e astica_y JS _the type observed in rubber and rubber-like materials ar .
l.&J
:r
V>
where non-lmeanty results due to large or fin i'te 1 ·
. . . .
•
s rams, m contrast to
' Is
'
t
111finnes1mal strains considered in the theory of elasticity. to if
Based on ex~r~mental evidence, agricult!:!~~l.P.!QQ!,!C!~ are viscoelastic. J·
RATE OF SHEAR , 1=dvldy Fro~ the ve? !muted data available in this area it appears; ~;,;r, that - ic. I
Fizure 4.12 Newtonian liquid and the model t~-e ~l~s°'c_beha,•ior is m:m-Jinear. Since no general theory for non-linear :: ,.f
;,,,coo cay 1s yet available, in an attempt ro explain the rheological
beha,ior of agricultural products, we are fo~d ro =Jee simplifying :al JJ
lile force is one dyne over one square centimeter, the distance between assumptions and apply the theories of linear ,·iscoelasticity as fo the case ng '
pl:1nes is one centimeter, and the velocity one centimeter per sec~nd , the of some engineering materials. se }
absolute viscosity is by definition one "poise." A centipoise, which is one
I 'JOO of one poise, is usually taken as the unit of measurement. The kine-
tJ
~EOLOGICAl;. MODELS ~
matic viscosity or " stokes," used in engineering practice, is YJ/(! . where (! ~
is the mass density of the liquid , The units .o f viscosity in the Engl ish system {
T~ch::.nical models consisting Qf ~~(~.!?_~nd da~hpots are used to cxplai!I
are lb - sec . ft 2 for absolute viscosity and ft 2 /sec for k inematic viscos ity. _and interp~t \~e_rhe<:>logi9~l behavior of linear viscoelastic materi_als.7The
in
he f
/ \'iscosity values for various materials are given in t•he Appendix. model is supposed to behave qualitatively, to some degree ofapprox_!!PaAon, 'l

/ n,
in a m:rnner similar to that of ~tual material. If the mechan ical behavi~r

✓TIME
or
can ~ expressed in terms of force-d~[ o_!!!E!!ion or stress-stra in and 1irne, IC,
EFFECTS (VISCOELASTICITY) the res ults can lead to a rheological equation. This equation can be used
'f- to e.\pla in and in certain cases pred ict the behavior of the material under
:d
er
. I aterial shows deviation from the ideal materials discussed _i~ th: various loading conditions. . .
Am rea m
Dre~·ious article. According to Ferry (1961), these devia!lons ca~
. .
tb dl\'ldea
I'd
The use of .rheological models in studying the mecha~1_cal behavior of
.
cnmne-enng • ma tcna• 1s h as bee n questioned by some authorities,
. even though
of ~
)
· to two tvpes. First, the relationship between stress and s~rain or so 1hs th; model is to represent only the m~croscop_ic behavwr and not any
~h '!
in • . 1· ' d ma be more comphcated than t e ~)'
·• d stress and rate of.strain for iqui s Y . r 'd . . . h l Jar bas'is of the visco<!lastJC phenomena. In the case
111s12ht 11110 t e mo ecu · J t f se
~n •. . . .
si mple relauonsh1ps ~1ven .
for Hookean solids or Newtonian iqui s.
. d nd on the rate of strain a_s.
- . r 'd ·mulating the .viscous eemen so
of biological materials, where iqu1 s'. s1 . h ' bably a better just~
I

,pf
- h s-stram· re)at1onsh1p may epe l · · he material v.e a,e pro tfi-
s~cond , t ,;._E!'CS . . . Th 1's time dependency resu ts the model. actually exiS t 111 t ' h s been shown that despite the
. · dp ..,. ,...,t:,,es of-the-stra10. - • • h I gical mode 1s. 11 a . ~e
well as h1_g_h_$.L.ll.m.e- .' , •h · h combines Ji uid-like an d sohd-hk fic~tion for the use o f r eo O b d~ r r applying the theories
. h' h have een ma ' ,,0 .e ~
in :i behavior called v1scoe 1ast1c, ,, ic simplifying assumptwns w ic
~,fia"~istics. ,
 ' \l I PLANT A};D A"<IMAL MATERIALS
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF RHEOLOGY

,t \ i,coe\asticit y, the mechanical behavior of selected b iologica l mater ia ls

two elements are superimposed the net effect is the behavior of the KeJ -, ~n
, .,-n be fitte d to the physical behavior of rheological models .
model.
The tw o basic mechanical elements used in mechan ical models are a In the Maxwell model , initially all the stress goe~ into stretcr.ing ir:~
,·r, ,ng wh ich obeys Hooke' s law and a d_asphot with a Newtonian liquid . spring. result ing in an initial straight line portion of the curves which obe:,s
r\i cse clements and their two basic combinations, Kelvin model and !\_:iax- Hook·s law. As the spring changes, the dashpot carries more and more ~,(
.," \l 11ll)del , arc shown in Fig. 4.13 , These curves are drawn for two stra in the stress until the spring reaches the end of its elongation . At this po::it
all the stress goes into flow in the dashpot and the stress-strain cune Je \ e:s
off.
A .
V>
Ill
w
a::
E .~
~,.___________
~ c a l equivalence o( mechanical models
1--- · ' a:: €2 \I
Vl It bas been said that if a physical phenomenon can be represented b:·
e, a mechanical model , it can also be represented by an infinite number o.:
other models. Since the qifferential equations governing the mechani~
HOOKE ' S SPRING NE.\.liTONtAN LtOUID
behavior of a material provides the most complete knowledge of its proper-
STRAIN STRAIN ties , and the most thoroughly studied examples of these equations a~
available for the linear electrical networks, the electrical analog or:the m~h c-
nical models has been suggested for rheological studies.

~\i I
I
I
l \\

+
\
V> w

T
t./)
w a:
t-
a:
I-
t./)
t./)
\ I

STRAIN STRAIN
MAXWELL
t SPRING
,,......
CAPAC1TA"5Y OASHPOT RESIST.:.•,-::£
'-
'-...... I
I

Figure 4 . 13
;r'-"
Effect of strain rate i: on stress-strain curves of four basic
models i: 2 = 2i: 1 (Nielson, I 962)
-- .T--- 1
f
:1
r. 1tl:,
r

and i2 , It is shown that for the spring t~'=--~:e~•~".'.i? r_1s_ ~nd_e ~~ndent
i
\
i For· the dashpot andtne other models contarn ing a dashpot , stre~s--
)' '' l ti me . - -- - ~-:-----;- .. .
! . ·,, I 11 n r·; cationship is time-depen dent.
e
'. . ; n the Kel vin model , both the spring and dashpo1 a re forced to _move
,f
!:~ -~ \1,, ~et h . tant r ate Therefore , the force due to t. he dash p ot Jumps MAXWELL KELVIN s-':' _
i-

.
e r ,\ta cons · _
' LL)n s, tant value instantaneously and -rema 1m, consta nt v.
·h·I the force

11,e , pr ing sta rts at zero and grad ually build~ up . When thee ect s o
f the
-
1; Figure 4 .14 Electrical analogs of mechanical
/ ,-~"t
rno<lef .. _~-
' . ' (\ \ ~ \ )'r.
~~ ,- '
 PLA1''T A~l) ANI MAL MATER IA LS
In th is a n.dogy, the spring, rep;csenting el . . . .
,, _ . d ast1c1 t:. 1s replaced by a capaci-
,ance an the dashpot, representing viscos 1·t . l .
-
r lie tensio n and compression of the spring
Y, is rep aced by a resistance
d · .
. . . correspon s to chargrng and
J i~charging l1f the capacitor. The work done on the d· h t . .d.. . d Jt may be said that while the mean normal stress is a measure of pressure
. _ clS po JS ISSlpate as
heat JU~t as the work done on the electrical resi·st · d
. ance 1s converte to heat.
Figure 4.14 s~ows !he electrical analog of the basic mechanical element and
the models. Note that when elements are coupled in parallel in the me~hani-
c~_I 1~odeJ, its ~qui_valent in the el_ectrical network is a series cotlling. Similarly,
a series coupling in the mechanical system has a parallel equ'i'valence in the
electr!cal syste_m. In the electrical network, the stress is represented by the
elecmc potential (voltage) and the st~ain by electric cµrrent.
There are other mechanical-dectrical analogies, proposed by various in-
vrnigators (Stambaugh, 1952 ; Shoefield and Scott-Blair, 1933). The principle
ad\ antage of !he electrical models is the ~implicity and directness by which
rhe model can be built and put into operation against the more complic~ted
anJ elaborate mechanical system.
'·-z(g RHEOLOGICAL EQl' ATJONS
\ _ ~ e s s and total strain c/
\\'hen a material is subjected to tensile or compressive stresses resulting
in both change in shape and change in volume, the deformation may be
II • C
shown to be a combination oT both shear and bulk deformation. onse-
I .. qu~nrly. stress components at any point of this material can be decomposed
I •J
)I
int o a deviatoric stress component, which is responsible for the change
rn shape. and an isotropic stress component which is responsible for the
cha nge in \'olume. Therefore, the total stress in rhe x direct ion , Cfx, can be
,1-rirren as follows:
, <lx = Sx + iJ
where s,, is the <leviatoric stress and iJ is the mean normal stress defined as
a = 1/3 (<lx + <J>. + o':)
{ _,,. Sim ilarly, rhe total strain in the x direction: c,,, can be resolved into a
de, 1,ttoric strain ex and a mean norma l strain l as follows:
I SOlfE BASIC CO~CEPTS CJ! KHE:ULOGY ..,
IU
I
.
where
.
f = J/3 (er + E, + E,)
·
and the mean normal strain a measure :o f volumetric d~formation,Jhe devia-
toric stresses isolate the· shear stresses and strains. For example, the state
of stress and strain in an is~\ropic elastic material would lead to the simple
stress-strain relationships
iJ/c =Kanis leX ·=-=
X. G (4.11)
where K is the bulk modulus and G the :Shear modulus. (Compare Eqs. 4.2
and 4.3). Since in an isotropic elastic material K is much greater than G
(the incompressible case), it ·is often justifie•d ·10 neglect volume changes in
eng'ineering materials and consider only the shear strain relationship.
Jn the above discussion only one of the six components of stress at a
volume eiement of a material is given. However, the type of test and the
frame of reference can be chosen such that 11:r and the corresponding Ez
become the principal stress and strain. The other components wiJI either
be smaDer than the principal tensile or compressive stress, or become zero.
An example for th is situation is tensile test of a cylindrical specimen where
the principal tensile stress in the direction parallel to the long axis is F;A.
the principal shear stress is 1 / 2 F/A, and the other components of stress are
zero. Therefore, the principal tensile stress. being twice that of the principal
shear stress, should be the one to consider.
Since simple shear deformation can be easily produced on both solids
and liquids and viscoelastic materials are intermediate between solids and
ii quids, it is customary to show the rheological equations in t~rms of s?ear
stress and shear strain. Jn the following, however, the rheological equations
have been developed for total ax ial stress 11 and total axial strain tin tension
or compression. The equations are equally val id for shear parameters as
well as bulk compression. Except ions are ind_icated.
(l_ //
\)Maxwell model
It
To derive the rheological equations for the basic Maxwell and Kelvin mod~~• b'.
we assume the Newtonian I. ..· of viscosity for'the dashpots and the Hoo s i
I law for the springs. With n:; : rence to Fig. 4.15, if
l u = stress
= strain
I
t
 p, . , . .,.. '
~---. . , • AND ANIMA.L MATERIALS

t im e SOME BASIC CO~CEPTS OF RHEOLOGY

s ti ffness or modulus of th . .
I
in (4. 18 ). constants A and care found to be r
L ,, insta ntaneous modul e spring representing the ideal elast ic body I
I
= Tb . us or modulus at zero time <\, --D . I

equ1 t num modulus or d I . . . C = t 0 E, = a,

= E - E - mo u us after infinne t ime ,t _J
o c - decay modulus
i A = to(Eo ·- E, ) = a,
I
' =_: v isc~si ~y coefficie~t of the liquid in the dashpot . . ~c, l\1 . . ·
l
~ ' ; - subscripts denoting respectively , spring and . After subst1tut1on of the above constants-- Eq • (4 • 18) can
. be written
· ·
1 h M 11 111 re~ - ,
r in ' e iaxwe model for the spring :
viscous element ,
of stress
t
,. . a,/i, = E a(t)= a, e- r ,. , + a
1
/
\ and '-:. J -- G' J IE ✓
(4 . 12) Gl'b(t) ::: Ce fJ e. ·-1/r~.t. + £'o f -e_ V (-..: -
'l, ✓

where a(r) d~~otes stres~ at any time " r •·. G, is the decay stress, and <J, isl'•!
w h e re dot on any symbol represents the time~e .
Fo r th e dashpot ....-- stress at c~u1!1 brium . In terms of time depend~n\ modulus, E(r ), Eq. (4 . ! ;
can be ¼Titten as o ~:.Xcu:-10~~ . .U
(4 . 13) ~ _,,,...-::'J • "l'f\.-0 CJ-, ~1J)Y\-(V' I C) ""-
/£( t) = £ e-r ' r,., + E ' (·' -,;
· t h \.'. ~tra in s be i ng add i t ive in the MaxweJI model, the total strain I : ' ~ V ""'·-·

N?te that after t = oo there is still som~ stress Jefr io tbe spring E of c·,!
A (4.14) Maxwell model in F,g. 4.15. This can physically be visualized either :- .
dilk renti atin_g _(4 . 14) and substituting i.s and i , from (4.12) and (-U3) yields assuming the dashpot being limited and reach ing the bottom wh ile the spr. :- ~
is still strained , or by considering the dashpot being unlimited bu, add1:-_r
i. =Es + i ,. ilnother spring with modulus £ , in parallel with the Maxwell eleme;:~
Th is latter s ituation can be seen in Fig. -U6 where; generalized Max"=·
(4 . 15)
model is illustrated . Sometimes the equa tion for a simple Maxwell m,,j:
\ 1\1lT in a Maxwell model the s_a me force is carried through tht spring and 1s shown as
1\i l· d;1 ~h pot , subst itution for a, = a r '7" a in Eq. (4 . 15) yield s <T(r) = Oo e.-; T«l (4.: :
and
- --------
\ i. = a/E + ah (4 . 16)
E(t) =' Eo e- = Tul (4.::

11 1 h t: mo del is subjected to a constant strain a5 in Fig. 4. 15 (i = 0) . and the

Jn this case it is assumed that the dashpoc is unlimited in flow result rng -=
\c- r rn I/ E is replaced by t_he S)'.mbd -t;~;, called the time of relaxation, z ro a er m n;te time. In real materials, howe-ver , e, !":
I q (4 . 16) can be reduced to ~ --;;.· tR a°r!S! long peri ods of time. streM<lonot vanish complecely. Therefo,!
,a+a/T,c1=0 .-:-=:
! v ·r.;e
., , . . , . · (4. 17)
Eqs.' (4.T9)-and (4 .20) appear to represent the actual beha,ior more rea l:~:-

t).I
l li e ,<1 lu t1 o n o f the above d ifferential equation is of the fo r m icall y.
Exam ination of Eq . (4.19) and (4.20) shows that the Maxwell mode: -
_.....\ ~ - \ a=Ae- ,tr.. ,+C (4 . 18) not sufficiently general to describe the behavior of a linear viscoeh:: •
,',. ·1 m,1tcrial. For example, if a cons~nt stress is applied to a, ~faxv.e~I r:c;_:_
,, hri c ,. 1s the ba se of Naperi an lo gar ithm (e
I• 1111 ,l.,r~ cond it ions of
<J ao = ~ o-"o at I = 0
= 2.72) . Sub, rn ut ing th c
,' ~
\ ;}\i\'H I °' the model exh 1b1ts only New'to!]ian fl_~- ~nd not a reta rd ed elast
<){)~,,n ,' ,
f•'inal ion which is experimentally observed tn a ere~ or fO nstc_n_t sir --_-;·..
·1 o avoid this problem. an infinite number of Ma~well models are ~se~
;~,:e.':,
,J • '\-Q. l parallel and the resulting model is called a e:enerahzed M3 xwell mod :
(J = <J,
'
£,r. 0 a t t = oo ~ ').{) l)CJ\), -,
r w '-l \\ ')\ ' ~•
'- """"'IJ..,..J,.'y.. i
, '.i µ, ' ~ " l';',
~~ ~~
~ ~; · 9i ~; ~-f;r- ~
;;; q f!!_. o ·o i " \ ~ .?-~ % ~- i. "'q' %~ ~ '§:
p. t'1.
 t
L cc~CE PT S O F R H"EOL OGY

I
E

er
I• ·ICELVlN MODE!. REPRESENTATION MAXWELL MODEL REPRESEN i ATION
Generalized Maxwell model representation
t· Figure 4.16

Stress, r:1 Strain , €: \!

1.· l---: --Generalized Maxwell model
r,, '
I

A generalized Maxwell model is composed o! _n_

M~xw~ll clements with _a
~ spring in parallel with the nth element, as illustrated 1~ ~l~- 4.16. T_Ee :,l~st1c
€0
modulus£~ of this last spring corresponds to the equihbnum modulus m a
stress relaxation test.
Time, t Ti me , I
0 0 ] he generalized Maxwell model is usually used to represent stre:, ~ r elaxa-
00 oa
tion . lf this model is subjected to constant strain e0 at time t = 0 , the t otal
r !:
I

:, 1 ~p fUNCTIOtl STRESS HISTORY STEP FUNCTION STRA I N H I STORY stress in the model

S t ro in , €(tl - Stress , O' decreases with time and can be represented by

I
€E = Eo(Ed1 + ··· + +
~ ------------- 0 0 a(t) c- " T' + Ed 2 e-i /T, Edn e-r /T" E~) (4.23)
E . /See Fig . 2 . 15
'·-....('_ when: T1, T2 , T 3 .. . , T" are the relaxation t imes , T,.i, correspon din g to
.'1.0

Time , t
0'----------.:..00_
·-·-
-- - --·- · -·-
O'----- - - ---=:=.._.__
Ti me I
0()
\':trious. elements in the model. The physical sign ifica nce of T,c1 can beS"t
be appreciated if we consider that the relaxation t ime, accord ing t o th e
simplified case given by Eq . (4 .21) , is the .time required for the st ress to
:st
he
decay to \fe times its original valu~ or to 36.8 per cent of itc:; o rigi nal valu e . to
STRA ltl VS. TI ME RELATIONSH I P STRESS VS . TI ME RELAT I ONSHIP
CORRESPOND ING TO STEP FUNCTION CORRESPOND I NG TO STEP FUNCT I ON I ~ ,vords,· at
constan t strfil{l , a Maxwell element rel ax es its stress
STRESS H l ~TORY STRA I N HISTORY )
,~xponent1allv~ ~( _!~~~ determi~ed by T ,'"; 1•
~ Fiiur, 4.15 . ::chin and Maxwell models showing creep and stress rclaxa-
~ ~ tion characteristi cs (Sharma, 1964)
1 v,\t~~ ,
-~ l~elrin model

~~~~~ ~Wm- ~ .xY'f- In the Kel\' in model of F ig. 4 . 15 , wh1·1e t l1e total
-
·
stress 1s d i\i d ed b etwee n

\ i l ~ ~~ ·~·\~ ~ v ~ __,
the spring and the dashpot
~ryyj/__ a = a, + a.,
u> \}j.. c~{~NW
,., ~'I'- t 11\ ~ -· (4.24)
i.,.i,.n ~ • ,. ~ 'u ·-=.

~~<Wtil#W
 P L AN T AND A1'IMAL MATE RI ALS SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF RHEOLOGY

,· 1 ~ cLi\ hpot is forced to take up the same deformat io ,. as the spring such lf the
•
constant
•
load is removed from the strained body , 1·1 w1·11 not r::·. :rt
!) , 1- _to the unstrained state unt!l after infinite time. This can be-seen froc; ;be
following equation which is derived rom 4 .30 b letting
(4 .25)
,.
~
'-t t) , 1nu t i ngfor G , and a ,, form- -c4·: r25 -and ( 4 . 13) and. considering ( 4.25) , <:10=0 4 '30)
1

i u l o◄ . : 4) can be w rit ten in the follow ing form = Eo e -r l Trc i

,.l
£

( a = Ee + 11 i (4.26)
Equat ions (4.31) and (4.32) represent respecti vely th~ loading and unlo;: ~ ,g
t
t 11 t he ratio 1j ,' E = T.w called the time o f retardatioc. . Eq . (4 .26) can be sections of the straj~ riroe cmve of a Kelvin model (See F ig . 4.24).
r f ,I

rcJ:.,ced t o As in the case of Maxwell model, Eq. (4.31) is not sufficiently gen~~ to
r,, a/£ = t: + T,c , i (4 .27) _2redict the behavior of a viscoelastic material under alJ conditiol15 -;f
l 1\ t ter d ifferention loading. For example, ifuthe model is subjected to a c~n~~~~~~-;;e
t a/E = i + T••, ii (4 .28) observed stre~~ relax:g/01J __cannot.....be ...predicted fro,; tbe Keiviq ....L::o.:d,
l
l \tic
a ~u bject in g the model to a c~_n_s~a_n_t stress a 0 , as in Fig. 4 . I 5, reduces Eq . (4 .28)
lll
because <10 remains a constant stress and not a decreasing stress. To coma
this situation, a more gener.11 model called a 4-element model -has ~r.
proposed.
\
T .. , ii + i ~ 0 (4.29)
pa L // .
B) nte gration we ob~ta:i: _:n:_._-~--- - - - - ---, .J'/41eme~t model (Burgers model)
r'"'' \
1

[• ~ o /E·+ (,, >o /E.)

0 0 (4.30) The 4-element model shown in Fig. 4.17 is one of the best known rheol0p;al
,\ he re a 0 is t he constant stress and £ 0 1s the 101ttal stra: n at r = 0. . models wh ich has been used to predict the cree ~h~vior in a number of
J f t he in itial strain is zero , substituting £ 0 = 0 in ( 4 .30 J yields t he following materials. Application oft 1s mo e to ood materials is discussed in C~p-
n prc ssion for creep under constant load : - tcr-6 . "!"he model is composed of a s rin and__dashpot in serj_~~_wit~ ano:.:..!r
spring an as ot m arallel. This 4-element model is also kno11,"I: as
t: = a 0 /E (I - e- •/rr.,) (4 .31)
urgers model and has several other equivalent representations (Fig. 4.18 ).
23) f or Reference to Fig. 4.17 shows that in the 4-element model strains uc

to , ~ o. £ = £0 = 0 0 ... - ~dditive while the stress is the same in all three units A. B,..and C. -

<!St 00, E = <:10 / £

:he
I ~
T,c, , E = (a 0 /E) (I - 1/e) a= a,. = <:1s = <:1c
to
.i \ •. \hown above , the retarded elastic strain reaches the constant valu~ of
.tr'! , Substituting for a,., <1 8 , and <le from Hookean elasticity, Eq. (4.26). ~d
" L only after i~finite timeJleveling off of the curve) . Note that the tun \,'._
"- ----·· -- · b t 63 er cent of Newton ia n viscosity, respectively
. if retard a tion, T,,, , in the case of cree is I - e or a ou II 1-- . - -b:--:·- ··
· · h · · d for the para e com 111,1-
ilw time o r total strain....Ib1s 1s t e ume requ ire _ . a,1 = E 0 e,1 (corresponding to instantancous.defo_rmation)
i 11111 to deform t o this extent. (Compare with time of relaxation T,,1) - In
1 (corresp.onding to retarded elastic deformatioio)
, 'I l~~ r words at con_ilan.L.Sl ress a f etarded elastic elemen~_relaxes _ t;i;PQill;l •
en · ' ---:-:- · h •t rate dete rm ined by 115-L~, JUS t as at
11 il l\ into its eqwlibnurn s ape a a _ . -.--~~--- - (corresponding to Newtonian fl.ow) '
. -- - . Max",·',e:!1!__:e~l'..:e~m~e::_:n'...'.._t:.__:r'..:e::l.:a:.:.x.:.e.
::..s_;_c:.:. x~p:.:._o n
_e_n
_ u_a_l..:I)_
' _1_t_s_e_q_u_1l~.!!!l.-- <le = 11 ,.lc
' ,,n q an t stnuo a _ !.'_ .
11,- .;
4)
-- -- --- -----
,i~-a rate determined by its T,c1·
 \1 \
l'LAt--:T Al'-D AS ! ~lAL !-IATERIALS

Thr ~e three r qu:1t1o n, c:111 b r co mh111cd 0 o ne equ a tt on relating str-: \'> a rid
---- - - T tot:il ,tr :i1 n ( for ,kr1 , ., t1on ,cc M o rr o w . 96 5)
I

---t
A
c + i /T,.. = I / £ [o0 + /\~ +
£, T,, ,
t., /17 + I /T,. ,) a + ( ~ )
T,. , 1J,
a]
(4 . 33)

q--+ C
Th is different ial equati on is suffi cient ly g
a linear viscoel ast ic mate rial t hrough th
B~;;; -;;n~ta~; s~ress -~r~e~~ c; nstan t
neral to describe the be havior _o f
behavior of a 4-eleIT!ent mode l.
stra in (stress relaxation) behavi o r_
'
T
'I,
•
...
;

______ _j_ can be pred icted from th is equat ion . H veve r, it 1s much easier to use a
i;.
general ized Ma.... wel(modelfor stress rel , ·at ion . Th e eq ua t ion is a ls o val id ,
for a material exh ibiti ng instantaneous la st icity. ret.arded elasticity , and 1;
(

flow .
For exam pie. if a coQ_n!}_s~tjlaffil.lOcilll...UJD&Sl!.U~~ll!.:UiP-pll.c!l and held con-
st ant, for the in:tial cond itions of
'..·,
::,
)

a = <Jo = -~ onstan at 1 0
0 ; . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - T i me , t
0 00 Equation (4 .33) reduces to
Slroin, e 1
E + i/T,. , ( 4.34) ,,
~,~-----------=-~-~-~-=------
The solu ti on of the above equat ion (as gi n by Morrow, 1965) is

t{t) = <10/E,;, + a 0 /E, {I e- ,/T,. ,) + <J'ot (4.35)

17,.
0 :,-----------------Time , t
0 00
If we define a compliance funct ion D(r) s the rec ip rocal of a tensile or
Figure 4.17 4-Element Burgers model characteristics
r
compressive modulus un0ion£'(,for the tio ofstr~J;; -t-;~-t~~s. th~ ; ·bove -
cquat ion"can be.expressed in ter~s ·of corr lian ce _ _.
1
1 where
D(r )

D 0 = 1/E 0 = initial compliance

= D0 + D,(1 - e 117
•«) + t/Tj , (4 .36) )

D , = 1/ E, = retarded compliance

f1 The stra in varia ti on v.i th time shown in - ig . 4 . J 7 is actually the ·plot of

Eq . (4 .35) . It resembles a typical creep cur e for a linear vi scoelast ic mate-
Fi~re 4.l 8 The four-elemenl model and equ i\'a lent represen ta ti ons
(Bland, 1960)
r ial. Although Eq . (4 .35) is derived for total stress and total stra in in tens ion-·' ·•
\
.

- -- - - - - -- - - -
 ;,,

PLANT A~D .
. ' A!'\IMAL MATER i ALS

. ',, ;~1p re ssi on , it is equal\ . 1· L // SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF RHEOLOGY

. Y va id for shear I tl .
' ," c, c r. 11 ,. be 1ngtbcraticr f h . n 1ecaseofbulkcompression
. -· o s ear stress to th f ' ' yicncralizcd Kch'in model
"- ," toni an v iscous element •fl b . . e rate o ~hear strain in the
, "' 1 e infinitely lar"e d -1
;.: h e1.. a u se no shear strain . . ' e an t 1e term aor/1i.. drops Experimental data on many viscoelast ic materials, includ ing biolocical
may ex ist under hyd t · .
, '" ,n the follow ing equaf f b ros at 1c compression . This materials , have shown more than one relaxation time or retardation t~me .
ion or ulk creep compl iance For these materials , the complete behavior cannot be represented bv 2
single Maxwell model or a single Kelvin model or even the 4-e\ement mode.l.
B(r) = B 0 + B,(\ _ e -ri T, .. )
(4.37) Each of these models has only one time constant. To present the visc.-0,-
" h,·; c B( r) represents compressib ility th . elastic behavior more realistically, like the case of general ized Maxwell
. . . . .. . ' e inverse of bulk modulus K.. model, a chain of Kelvin models, each with its own time of retardation .
f:1 1~ me a ns that for oulk oehav1or •nt"!"r.retaft
• • • -· Y on, th c visccus
· .
element with is assumed and the model is called a generalized Kelvin model. It consim
,,. ,, to be el1minated from the 4-element mo e .
of "n" Kelvin elements connec d in series with an initial sp~T~g and C.
nal viscous element, as.1shown in Fig. 4.19:-The first spring with £ 0 is tg__
account for instantaneo1:1s elastic strain. The "n" Kelvin models are to
account for retarde~:- A!!~, the dashpot with;;, viscosity correspongs •
to the lrow experienced ·in creep tests. ~ ·· •'
J'
The equation for the generalized Kelvin model can be derived in the ·
same manner shown for a 4-element model. This procedure would lead to ··.
Er, 71, T - ~
' - Er, the following equation which is the generalized form of Eq. (4.35). l

c{r) = o- 0 -[1/£0 + 1/£, 1 (I - e-rir,) + 1/£,2 (1 .- e-•JT,) + •· ·

Er·2 712 T
2- - ~ + 1/ E,n ( 1 - e-r /T") + I /71
1.]
(4.38)
E r2
where T 1 , T 2 , T 3 . .. ·T. are different retardation times, T,.,, corresponding
to various elements in the model.
Er 3 T/3 T
3· - ~
Er 3
4.9 VISCOELASTIC CHARACTERIZATION OF
'Tl, MATERIALS
I)
Er" Tl" T,=E
r, There are a number of tests which may be used to study viscoelastic mate:
rials and determine the relations among stress, strain, and time for a giv~
re type of .defon,nation and a given type of loading pattern. A~ mentioned
t before', the assumption of linear viscoelasticity can be valid if the stress
is kept sufficiently small. The most important tests include stress- s,train,
Tin creep, stress relaxation, and dynamic tests.
Ern 'Tln Tn= - -
E rn
Stress-strain beha,ior
The force-deformation curve of Fig. 4.3 tog.ether with definitions of terms
in section 4.2 give some of the mechanical properti~ related to the strength
~f Figure 4 . 19 Generalized Kelvin model rcpresen la li on
of a material. Figure 4.13 shows how the rate of straining affects the sm:s;.-
,c-
tt.

)lr'

.
\'
\
 ~ ~ ANT A ND AKlMAL MATERIALS
~O \ ll BAS IC l'U '- <. t:J' f ~ Ul:- l{H l:OLOu \ ·
125
·--.:. tr, behavio r dn d h o \\ such beha \'1 or can be expla ined i n te r ms of rhco -
: g:c.al m odel s. Furthe r 'ill ustrations of the t ime-effect , man ifested through that at large del'orma t1 om. th e fo rce (s tress) levels off to a Jim iiine value
.:-.:: r 2t e o f s tra ining for selected food m a terials are g iven in Fig. 4.20 and The grea 1er t he speed of test ing. the grea ter is the lim iting value of the fore ~ i:q. (:: .;1
or stress . ~,~
.:. : 1. ~ote that in the case of fresh fruits the initial slope of the curve is
Because of th is time-effoct phenomenon, in evaluating qualities of pro-
: r, dependent of the speed of testing ·(Fig. 4.20). This phenomenon was also
duc ts such as tenderness of meat, hardness of gra ins, and firmness of f;u its ~ .1 thi s cc,

a nd vegetables. the compression apparatus must provide a constant rate . ,, ·For this ·
FRESH FRUIT
of loa d ing for the duration of the test. Otherwise, for any fixed displacement ,, oweve i.
13 i pm
of the crosshead, the force readings may vary as the rate of loading varies. large s:r;
To illustrate. suppose the compression force exerted on samples of fruits at incrca~t'
l 00 units of d isplacement of the crosshead is to be taken as the firmness of rntes of s
t he fru it (Fig. 4.20). lf due to the change in oil temperature, in a hydraulic relax,J! ioi
ty pe of machine, or other factors , the speed of the crosshead increases from the beh:1~.
t5 "
CZ: G,,ecia r J
J inch per m inute to 13 inches per m inute, the firmness reading may vary
~ E from 4 pounds to more than 6 pounds just because of the variation in the
vis,:ocl;, , t

'/
suggest :i :t
rate of load ing. ·
marenaJ i
Th e effect of rate of loading on stress-stra in behavior can be predicted
Taerc ;
from the stress-stra in equat ion of the Maxwell model which can be derived
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 stra i , ,: \ )1
fr o m the d ifferential equation
DEFORMATION ( in. x 10-'} m::i c },i nc

Figure 4.20 Firmness reading of a fruit can be influenced by the ra te of i = a/E + a/;;
load ing c a0 is
given previously. For a constant rate of strain i = R, the abo ve equation ·1r inil!
5
6 .0 x _l0- cm/sec
ca n be rearranged to g ive Si(11> j
15 , 1. 4 • ,o- cm /se:::
5 a+ Ea/7} = RE (-..39)

The homogeneous solut ion of 4.39 for RE = 0 is

o- 10 ..ie
.$. <J = A e<-E/ ~>r
\'~~ is
tcstn1.. .,1 c
The particular solution of (4 .39) for the stress a being some constant Bis tr, the ,,,
WHEAT
o~=---4L-----::-e--- EB/77 = RE
or
DEFORMATION (%} it
B = Rq ~j
. • ., I At hi"h rates or loading grain is more bri11le and produces t1
F 1.;ure .. ... ~• · · I e produced
coarsely ,t:round wheat-at low rates of loading, flaky paruc es ar Now the complete solution of ~4 .39) can be written as 1
(Sh . Polyanskaya, l 952)
a = A e<-EJ~>' + RrJ (4.40) ""Jc
~
:i

I · F ' 13 After a Jn
sho\\' n ih the stress-stra in curve of the .Max\\'. ell mode_ ~~- ~ ~faxwell
:n Co nstant A can be evaluated by considering the initial · .Jndition of a = 0 der. c r Fi/
. E 1. F' 4 ?O) the reaction as g1, en ) e cxp- t ;c
gi'- en fo r ce (poin t ~ ig. ·- . ' • / behavior. This results in at I = 0. This results in
model. c o mbines elasti c and dv'. sco~~ tli:::t~s of loa ding. It is' a lso seen
A = -R17 'r l

,fr. age nee of rhc c urve , ~ccor i rig