CHAPTER -7

Consumptive Use of Water

7.1 General

The major port10n . of water ma

. crop t·1eld gets 1os t through evaporation and
. .
transp1rat10n. ... . IS
tvaporal!on '~vhi.-h
. the process hvY \.' • v u nvater
'" • •;(' .-hanged
0 vu fromrf the
liquid state to vapor state. It takes place from the adjacent soil, water su ace
or from the surfaces of leaves of the plants. Transpiration is the removal of
water vapour through plant body. Evapotranspiration (ET) is the s~m. of
evaporation and transpiration. The process of evaporation and transpiration
goes on simultaneously and difficult to separate them in a crop field.
The term consumptive use is used to refer evapotranspiration together with the
water used in the metabolic activities of the crop plants. The actual amount of
water used in metabolic activities is insignificant (less then 1% to ET) .
Therefore, the consumptive use and evapotranspiration are often used as
synonymous term. It includes the water consumed by the plants for metabolic
activities or transpiration plus the water evaporated from the land and water
surfaces of the cropped area. '

The factors affecting the rate of evaporation are the vapour pressure at the
water surface and air above, air and water temperatures, wind speed, atmosphere
pressure _and_ size of the water body. Other factors remaining same, the rate of
ev1aporal!on mcreases with an increase in the water temperature. Higher wind
ve oc1ty causes greater scope for evaporation Decrease in atm h ·
. . · osp enc pressure
mcreases evapo~al!on. The solute dissolved in water causes reduction in the
rate of evaporat10n than that of pure water. The evaporat· f · -
occurs m · same way to free water surface when. the s ·1 ion . 1 rom soi1 surface,
by 01
. th·~n flI m of water and pore spaces are partiall filled
Partic Hes are surrounded
.
situation greater resistance has to ov f Y · · owever, m such
.
Particles than while evaporating from ercome
f . or evaporatio n from t h e soil.
.
process practically stops when the a . ree water surfac , e. The evaporation.
threshold value. moisture content in soil goes below a

nn.,m,,,n...,,,.,_ __ _
 ----....---•--n:: 11-tidlll
290
Irrigation & Agricultural Drainage Engineering

The factors influe . . .

temperature and ;cm~ _transp1r~tion_ are availability of water to the plants
sunlight, stage of ulm1 ity of au, wmd velocity, intensity and duration of'
. p ant growth ty O f f 1·
growmg staoe of . ' pe o iage and nature of the leaves At
o crop high te . ·
etc, greatly incre , mperature and wmd velocity, dry atmosphere
ase movement 0 f hr '
rate of transpiration. water t ough the plants and thereby the

Some terminolo l
gy re ated to evapotranspiration / consumptive use
Potential evapotrans . .
evapotransp· . pirabon (PET): It may be defined as the highest rate of
1ration (ET) b · .
covered by th . Y an actively growmg crop or vegetation, completely
refers th"" 1 foliage and no limitation of water in a given climate. It
~ Pant
'"' maximum loss of water in a crop field.
Crop evapotr • .
anspirahon (ET ): It may be defined as the rate of
evapotranspiration o f,a ct·1sease f ree crop
c
growing in a field of not less than one
h ectare under adeq t f ·i·
. .. ua e ert1 1ty and water supply so that full production potential
can be acn1eved in preva11mg·· · environment.
• Evapotranspiration requirement of
a crop refers the ET
C.

PET indicates highest evapotranspiration in a crop season. This

evapotranspiration is used to determine highest water requirement in the crop
season and thereby in designing irrigation system capacity. ET c is the
evapotranspiration at any "time of the crop season. This is important in
determining the requirement of water in irrigation.
Reference crop evapotranspiration (ET 0): It is the rate of evapotranspiration
from an extended surface of 8 to 15cm tall green grass of uniform height,
actively growing, completely shading the ground and not short of water. The
ET O may be computed by using the empirical formulae like Blaney - Criddle,
Modified Penn1an, Radiation and Pan Evaporation for a specified period using
the mean climatic data for the period.
Actual crop evopotranspiration (ET): Actual crop evapotranspiration is
the rate of evapotranspiration of a crop in a given soil and climatic condition .
The ET is estimated assuming adequate water supply. There is no such assurance
for ET c and in fact very often in crop field soil water is limited. Thus, ET a is
a
less than or equal to ETc.
The usual behavior of the two components of evapotran ~piration viz.
evaporation and transpiration are sho~n in Fig. 7.1 . After sowm~ and befor_e
h oermination there is only evaporat10n and forms the ET. Dunng th~ e~rly
t e O f lants when the 0around cover is insignificant the rate of transp1rat10n
stage o P '- . ., . . • • · h
is low and the evaporation rate 1s stul important m contnbutmg to ET. As t e
Consumptive Use of Water 291

plants grow further and shading the area by foliage the transpiration rate
increases as the evaporation rate progressively decreases. The process continues
till almost the entire area is covered. At this time the ET value reaches to its
peak. This peak values continues with little variation till the start of maturity
of the crop. The proportion of evaporation and transpiration also remain almost
same.

Evapotranspiration (ET 1
ET
---- -
------- Transpiration ( T )
--~---J
//- - -- - - - - --.._~I' -.

r _
·----:<

,/ / ----- ·-- ------ -- -

Evaporation ( E)

- _j_ -
\

,'

Sovv-ing Grand growi:h per·iod ' Senescent stage'

---► Crop Stage

Fig 7.1 Schematic representation of components of evapotranspiration with crop stage

Crop coefficient or crop factor (K): It is the ratio of crop evapotranspiration,

ETc and the reference crop evapotranspiration, ET 0_ when both apply to large
field under optimum growth condition.

ETC
K =- (7.1)
c ET 0

The crop coefficient depends on crop variety, duration, growing season, stage
of crop growth, depth of rooting, method of irrigation, plant population,
fertilization, weed control, tillage, plant protections, etc. The crop coefficient
is fixed for a given crop but the values differ at different stage of growth. It is
low at the early stage of growth and increases as it approaches to grand growth
stage and remains almost constant during this stage and then decline gradually
(Fig.7.2). For selecting the crop coefficient, information is required for date of
sowing of the crop, the length of the growing season, the duration of the initial
stage (germination to 10% ground cover) , duration of the crop development
stage (from 10% to 80% ground cover), the duration of the mid-- season stage
(from 80% ground cover to start of ripening) and duration of late season stage
(from start of ripening to harvest). The crop coefficient values for important
field and vegetable crops are given in Table (Table 7 .1-7 .5).

'!
I
 - e Engineering
. . & Agricultural Dra1nag
Irngat1on
292

.._. 111
C
(1)
·u
E(I)
0
u
0..
0
,._ I Initial stage
()
11 Developmental stage
Ill Mi ct-season stage
IV Late season stage

r I I I I
Crop stage
Fig 7.2 Crop coefficient at different stage of plant growth

Table 7.1 Crop coefficient values for important field crops aat different stage of development

Crop Crop developmental stage Total period

Initial Development Mid-season Late season

Rice 1.10-1.15 1.1-1.5 1.1 - 1.3 0.95-1.05 1.05-1.2

Wheat 0.3-0.4 0.7-0.8 1.05- 1.2 0.65-0 .76 08 .-0 .9
Maize 0.3-0.5 0.7-0.85 1.05--1.2 0.8-0.95 0.75-0 .9
Sorghum 0.3-0.4 0.7-0.87 1.00- 1.15 0.75-0.8 0.75-0.85
Cotton 0.4-0.5 0.7-. 8 1.05- 1.25 0.8-0.9 0.8-0.0.9
Groundnut 0.4-0.5 0.7-0.8 0.95- 1.10 0.75-0.85 0.75-0 .8
Soybean 0.3-0.4 0.7-0.8 1.00- 1.15 0.7-0.8 0.75-0.85
Sunflower 0.3-0.4 0.7-0.8 1.00- 1.20 0.7-0.8 0.75-0 .85
Sugarcane 0.4-0.5 0.7-1.0 1.0- 1.2 0.75-0.8 0.85- 1.05
Tobacco 0.3-0.4 0.7-0.8 1.0- 1.2 0.9-1.0 0.85-0.95
Source: Reddi & Reddy(!995)
Note: First figure is for high humidity (RH min>70% and low wind velocity (U<5 mis) conditions
and the second figure refers to low humidity (RH min<20 % and strong wind (U>5 mis)
conditions
 •·.•..·.",\."·"
294 ••
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Irrigation & Agricultural Drainage Engineering Com

I

Ta_b le 7 -4 Values of monthly crop coefficient (K) to compute consumptive use by Blanney-
Cnddle formula c

Month Sugarcane Rice Maize Berseem vegetables Citrus

Cotton wheat
January 0 .75 0 .50 0 .50 0 .50 0 .50
February 0 .80 0 .70 0.55 0 .55 0.55
March 0 .85 0 .75 0.60 0 .60 0.55
April 0 .85 0 .85 0 .50 0.50 0 .70 0 .65 0 .65 0.60
May 0.90 1.00 0.60 0 .60 0.70 0.70 0 .60
June 0.95 1.15 0.70 0 .75 0 .75 0 .75 0 .65
July 1.00 1.30 0 .80 0 .90 0 .80 0 .80 0 .70 'i
August t
0 .95 1.25 0 .80 0.85 0 .80 0 .870 0 .70
September 0 .90 1.10 0 .60 0 .75 0 .70 0 .70 0 .65
October 0 .85 0 .90 0 .50 0 .55 0 .70 0 .60 0.60 0 .60 "\r
November 0 .85 0 .50 0 .65 0 .55 0 .55 0 .55 I
December 0 .75 0 .50 0 .60 0 .50 0 .50 0 .55 \1
Source : Dastane (1972) (Majumdar, 2000) \
_\

Daily consumptive use: It is the amount of water consumptively used by the \

l
plants during a day of 24-hr. It is required to estimate the peak period demand
of water by the crops for formulating the cropping pattern and decide upon the \
I

need of water supply. \

Seasonal consumptive use: It is the amount of water consumptively used by
the plants during the entire period of growing season of a crop. The seasonal
consumptive use is important in selecting cropping pattern and sequence and \ \
to evaluate and decide upon to seasonal irrigation water requirements.
Peak period consumptive use: This is the average of the highest consumptive
use rates of few days (usually 6 to 10 days) in a season. If the days are taken
more the peak period consumptive use will be less leading to less cost for
irrigation system but increases chances of experiencing water constraint by
I
the plants during the peak period. Thus, the peak period consumptive use is
important in designing the irrigation system capacity.
The number of days is selected on the basis of designed compromise to reduction
on crop yield due to water deficit and cost of irrigation system. The peak period
I I
j
I
consumptive use occurs when the vegetation is abundant, temperature is high
and crops are in flowering stage. The peak period is usually shorter in shallow
rooted crops cultivated in soils of low water holding capacity.
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7.4 Measurement of Evapotranspiration

The me'.ho_ds of measuring evapotranspiration may be rou ed in . .

methods, (n) pan evaporation method d c··.- ) . . g p to (1) direct
an lll emp1ncal methods.
Direct Methods
The direct methods of
C. . . . me~~~rement of evapotranspiration are: (i) lysimeter,
u) field expenmentation, (m) soil moisture depletion studies and (iv) inflow
- ou_tflow methods. These methods are costly, laborious, time consuming,
requtre elaborate mstallation and precise measurement, however give suitable
results. '

Lysimeter method

L:simeter consists of growing of crops in an isolated tank filled with either

disturbed or undisturbed large soil block. The tank (lysimeter) is isolated from
the surrounding but as identical as possible with the surrounding soil and
vegetation and study the change of soil moisture. Lysirneters are non-weighing
and weighing type. Weighing type lysimeter measures directly the change of
mass and provides more accurate results than non-weighing type. In non-
weighing lysimeter the ET is determined over a given period by deducting the
drainage water collected at the bottom of the lysimeter from the total water
input. The most accurate lysimeters may detect ET rates over time periods
shorter than one hour. Other lysimeters can record the changes occur over a
day or more. Lysimeter directly measures the water fluxes from the vegetative
surface, therefore, provides the basis of measurement for other methods.
There are so many designs available for weighing and non - weighing type
lysimeters. Among these weighing type lysimeter suggested by Pruitt and Angus
(1960) and non - weighing oil drum type suggested by Gilbert and Van Bevel
(1954) is proved to be more useful (Majumdar, 2000). A lysimeter should have
(i) the soil moisture relationship inside the lysimeters very close to soil under
natural conditions, (ii) sufficient deep to extend well below the root zone ~~-d
maintain same level of moisture at the bottom as the surrounding areas, (111)
crop cultivated in the lysimeter exactly similar manner to surrounding cropped
area, and (iv) the ratio of wall surface area to the enclosed lysimeter area should
be minimum to avoid the influence of advection from the uncropped ar~as.
Non- weighing type lysimeters work following the soil moistu~e de~letwn
method. Using neutron scattenng . met h o d t o mo nitor the soil. m01sture.
.
. . d
Gravimetric method reqmres rephcate soi samp mo.·1 1· er Non - we1ghmg type
lysimeters are cheap and can be installed easily.

~
 Consumptive Use of Water
~
313
C
~

., ·- . . ,
. .,

,. ·- .
·- ,.
. .
·- . . . . Soil

Metalic tank
,.
~

Passage for removal of . . . . . " . ,

C
. ·.. .
,I' . · - ••••

percolated water
... . ...
,,, . . . . .. .
. ' ·.
. .,.
. .
_.:.· .. . . . .'· ..~- .... ..
Weighing load cell

Fig. 7 .5 Schematic diagram of a weighing type lysimeter

In a weighing type lysimeter the operator can study the water balance by
regularly noting the water added, water retained in the soil and the losses of (
water in the form of evapotranspiration and deep percolation (Fig.7 .5) . These
process requires weighing which may be made by weigh bridge with continuous
recording of weight change or by floating the lysimeter inside a tank in suitable
liquid (water or Zncl2 solution )in which case the change in liquid displacement
computes the water loss frmn the tank. A continuous record of such liquid
displacement gives the total field water loss providing the tank is permanently
buried in ground and surrounded by the large area of crop of same height. The
measured amount of water is applied in the lysimeter from the supply tank.
The water level in the lysimeter tank is maintained of a predetermined level.
Float mechanism is provided to receive the excess water that tends to builds up
in the tank. The records of overflow, deep percolation, rainfall, etc. give the
calculation of evapotranspiration following the expression.

ET=P+IR n +~SW-(R+DP) (7 .24)

= ER+IR It
+~SW
Where, P= precipitation

IR n = net irrigation requirement of crop

~SW= soil water contribution (the difference between soil water contents at
! sowing and at harvest of crop).
R= surface runoff
DP = deep percolation

l
' tti·
?
 . ge Engineering
. t 1·on & Agricultural Drama
314 /rnga

ER= effective rainfall

=P-(R+DP) h W'=tter losses in crop.

The Iysimeter direly and most p~eciseTyh 1·mitationsearec of reprod uc (on
· 1 measures t J
of
1
· I ·mi·tat1ons · 1
However there are certam ed d ity water ta bl e temperature,
.
the physi~al condition such as soil texture an en~in~ field. It is difficult to
etc. within the lysimeter comparable to_surrounl way. The soil temperature
.
maintain the dramage 1 ewi·se it . occurs aro-e
·fk m natura
extent.
in the lysimeters sometime also nses to 1 o

Field experimentation method . - . d out to estimate the

p·eld experiments at different Ieve1' o1r .In·io-at1on
o
are carr1e
ds of effective rain . f.a 11 ,
1 . f . · o- . t d crops. The recor . .
seasonal consm11pt1ve use o IITio~ e . . ·de the basis for est1mat1ng
f
irrio-ation and change o proEle I
sod moisture d ·t+·p1.ov1t level of 1n·1gat1on,
. . . w h.1ch
o f Amono- the I 1e1en k
the consumptive use o crop. . . o . ld . rl thP water use, is ta. en as
gives the n1aximum prof1t . cons1 der•nrrH ··- y1e
o thP an_ ---~
the consumptive use.

CU= ER+IRn +L1SW

f-, Mbi -Mei AD

= ER+ .lR,1 + ~ 100 i l (7.25)
l=I

Where, Mbi=soil moisture percentage at the beginning of the season in the i1h
layer.

M e1.= soil moisture percentage at the end of season in the jth layer of these soil.
~- = apparent specific gravity of the layer
~ -= depth of the layer

This method requires the accurate 1neasurement of inigation water supplied to

the field on the basis of soil moisture depletion and excess application is avoided
to prevent deep percolation. The method is satisfactory for computing seasonal
water require1nents but does not provide the information regarding the short
period or peak use rate of the crop and deep percolation.
Soil moisture depletion studies

The soil moisture depletion method is employed in fairly uniform soil of ground
water table at such depth (at least Jm deep) that it cannot influence the soil !

moisture fluctuation in root zone. Soil moisture content in different lay e rs of I

i
 Consumptive Use of Water 315

the root zone are measured just be- fore and after the irrigation or rainfall as
early as sampling is possible and in between the two successive irrigation as
frequently as possible depending on the level of accuracy desired. The irrigation
is given at a predetermined level of soil moisture depletion. The soil moisture
depletion between two successive soil sampling considered to be the
consumptive use (CU) of that period. The water losses during the short pedod(s)
just after irrigation (s) and soil sampling may be taken at a rate of potential
evapotrans piration (PET).
The expressions for consumptive use may be expressed as

CU=Su

- ~ Mu - A .D.
and u - fi' 100
M2 i
s, , (7.26)

Where, u= consumptive use between the period of two successive soil sampling
M1i= soil moisture percent at the time of first sampling in i th layer
M2i= soil moisture percent at the time of second soil sampling in ith layer
A .= apparent specific gravity of the soil in i 1h layer
SI

D.=
I
depth of i th layer of soil, cm
N= number of soil layer in root depth, D

PET= potential evapotmspiration

= Ep x KCxKp
E p= pan evapotmspiration
KC= crop factor, Kp = pan factor
In estimating seasonal consumptive use the inflow and outflow to subsurface
water and the change of moisture in soil profile assumed negligible.

Inflow-outflow method
This method is also called as water balance method and used for estimating
consumptive use for large area. It may be expressed as
(7.27)
CU = P +I+ ~GW - R
Where, CU= consumptive use
 316
Irrigation & Agricultural Drainage Engineering
C

P = seasonal or yearly consumptive use, ha-m

I= surface water that flows in to the area, ha-m
~GW =change in the ground water storage, ha-m
R = run-off from the area, ha-m
Pan evaporimeter method
The close relations?ip is observed between the rate of consumptive use and
the.rate of evaporation from a pan evaporimeter. The evaporation from a pan is
entirely dependent on atmospheric factors and independent to plant and soil
factors . Therefore, pan evaporation data are very useful in estimating the short-
term evapotranspiration, which are not possible by the empirical formulae -]
employed to estimate it.
The evapotranspiration (ET) is estimated by multiplying the pan evaporation
(E pa) to the crop factor (K ) and pan factor (K/
ET c =E pan xKxK
p c (7.28)
The crop factor varies with the stage of plant growth, extent of cover by the
foliage, climate, location, etc. Evapotranspiration is required for each crop for
each agro - climatic region to fix up the values of crop factors. The experiment
may be set up by installing the lysimeter and pan evaporation side by side. The
available data for ETc provided by the lysimeter and evaporation from the
evaporation pan will give the relation for different stage of plant growth. The
values of crop factors for some selected location are given in Table 7.1-7.5.
USWB Class A Pan: The USWB Class A pan is widely used for determining
the evaporation from free water surface (Fig.7.6). It consists of 120cm diameter
and 25cm deep pan made of 22 gauge galvanized iron sheet with a stilling well
in it, covered by wire net and exposed on the wooden frame in such a way that
air may circulate freely beneath the pan. The pan and stilling well are painted
white. There is a pointer in the stilling well, the tip of which indicates the level
of water constantly maintained in the pan. The loss of water and thereby the
lowering of water level in the pan due to evaporation may be measured by
using a point gauge in the stilling well or by noting the amount of water added
to bring the water to its original level. The depth of water level measured by
the point gauge from the tip of the pointer is the evaporation. The volum~ of
water added to be divided by the pan area to determine the rate of evapora~wn.
Usually the evaporation readings are taken once every day at a ~-xed time.
I
t.
t
After each reading water is added to bring its level to original positwn.
I
t
f
!
l
"f,,
lr
 Consumptive Use of Water ,:
317
r:
,r:
Hook gaug~....._ _.._
~~
Stilling well ~~f~=f$6~t!!d:-i~- Wire net

Wooden platform
"r;
C
C

C
Fig. 7.6 USWB Class-A pan evaporimeter e-
~
Sunken screen pan evaporimeter
The sunken screen pan evaporimeter was developed by Sharma & Dastane
C
(1968) which provides more close evaporation values then USWB Class-A e::
pan evaporimeter (Majumdar, 2000). The pan evaporation to evapotranspiration
ratio (ET/EP) in sunken pan screen diameter was 0.95 to 1.05 in comparison to
1.2 to 1.5 in USWB class-A pan.
The sunken screen pan evapoirmeter consists of 60 cm diameter and 45cm
deep pan made of 20 gauge galvanized sheet and a stilling basin of diameter
15cm connected to pan by a 15cm length in tube. The pan and the stilling well
C
are painted white and screened at the top by wire net of 6/20 meshes. The
C
stilling well is provided by a pointer. The pan and the stilling basin are buried
in the soil leaving 10cm only above the ground. Similar to USWB class A pan C
the rate of evaporation in determined by measuring the lowering of water level
by the point gauge or by dividing the volume of water level to the marked C
position by the pan area (Fig.7.7).
 ~
Consumptive Use of Water 365
C
Ans. 7.09mml day ~
7.19 Calculate the ET0 by FAO Penman-Monteith method by using the
following data of an arbitrary chosen location.
&
Latitude= 15°N C
Month =July C:
Monthly average daily maximum temperature (Tmax ) = 35°C
C:
Monthly average daily minimum temperature (Tmm. ) = 25°C
Monthly average daily vapor pressure (e)=2.90kPa C
Monthly average daily wind speed measured at 2m height (u 2) = 2.5m/s C
Monthly average sunshine duration (n) = 8.0 hours/day
C
"fl$)

Mean monthly average temperature for July (Tmonth) = 30°C

Mean monthly average temperature for June (Tmonth- 1) = 29°C
e-
Potential extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) ~

Ans. 6.0mm/day ~
7.20 Select the appropriate answer from the following multiple-choice C
questions.
1. Potential evapotranspiration is more or equal to evapotranspiration ~
(d) pan evaporation
(a) crop evapotranspiration (b) actual crp evapotranspiration
c-
(c) unadjusted
c-
2. At the early stage of crop maximum contribution to evapotranspiration is
(a) Transpiration (b) evaporation (c) percolation (cl) leaching....,
,-
3. Peak period consumptive consumptive use is the average of the highest ~
consumptive use rates of few days usually
~
(a) 2-1 0 days (b) 6-10 days (c) 5-15days (d) 10-15days
4. Inigation system capacity depends on ~
(a) daily consumptive use rate (b) seasonal consumptive use rate (c) peak
~
period consumptive use rate (d) mid-season consumptive use rate
5. l.0MJm-2 day-'is equivalent to ~
 - - - - - - - -- --·- - --
2
(a) 0.104mm/m 2/day (b) 0 .208mm/m 2/day (c) 0.306mm/m /day
(d) 0.408mm!m2/day
6· Hypothetical crop in the process of estimating evapotranspiration has a
fixed surface resistance of
(a) 30s/m (b) 50s/m (c) 60s/m (d) 70s/m
7· Latent heat of 5kg water at an air temperature of 20°C is
(a) 1.55 MJm-2 day- 1(b) 2.45MJm-2 day-I (c)4.10 MJm-2 day-'
(d) 12.25MJm-2 day-I
8. Psychrometric constant at atmospheric pressure 102.5kPa is
(a) 0.066 (b) 0.067 (c) 0.068 (d) 0.069
Anso 1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6 . (d) 7. (d) 8. (c)
7.21 State True or False of the following statements.
1. Crop factor and crop coefficient is synonymous.
2. Plant population is a factor of crop coefficient.
3. Crop factor is always less than the reference crop evapotranspiration.
4. The duration of initial stage of a crop is germination to 15% of ground
cover.
5. Soil heat flux is considered negligible.
6. The specific heat at constant pressure on average atmospheric condition
is 1.013xI0-3 MJm-2 day-.
7. Relative humidity varies much more than the actual vapor pressure in
different time of a day.
8. Actual vapor pressure is the saturated vapor pressure at the dew point
temperature.
9. The Penman methods require local calibration of the wind to achieve
satisfactory results.
10. The radiation methods show good results in arid conditions.
Ans. l. True 2. True 3. False 4. False 5. T1ue 6. True 7. True 8. True 9. True
10. False