Geography of Odisha

Odisha (formerly known as Orissa) is one of the 28 states in the Republic of India. Odisha is
located in the eastern part of the Indian peninsula and the Bay of Bengal lies to its East while
Chhattisgarh shares its border in the west and north-west. The state also shares geographic
boundaries with West Bengal in the north-east, Jharkhand in the north and Andhra Pradesh in
the south. The state is spread over an area of 155,707 km2 and extends for 1030 km from north
to south and 500 kilometres from east to west. Its coastline is 480 km long. The state is divided
into 30 districts which are further subdivided into 314 blocks.

Map of the coastline around Chilka Lake

Satellite view of the Mahanadi River near Subarnapur, in Subarnapur district of Odisha. Here the Mahanadi curves around
the Garhjat Hills before entering the Utkal Plains.

View of the banks of the Daya River from a top Dhauli Hills, the presumed venue of the Kalinga War.

Physiographically, Odisha consists of coastal plains, central plateaus, central hilly regions, flood
plains, and uplands. About a third of the state has a green cover.

Mahanadi is the largest river of the state and its catchment area covers 42% of the state. There
are several other significant rivers that flow through the state such as the Subarnarekha, the
Brahmani, the Baitarani, and the Vansadhara.

Chilika Lake, located on the east coast of the state is one of the world's largest brackish water
lagoons. Besides that there are several other lakes in the state such as Anshupa, Tampara, and
Kanjia.

Geologically the state is home to some of the oldest rocks of the world. Odisha also consists of
two cratons (e.g. North Odisha Craton and Western Odisha Craton), which are sedimentary
formations from the Cretaceous period. They are found in many places and are home to coal
deposits. The coasts are made up predominantly of deltaic sediments of Mahanadi, Brahmani,
Baitarani, Subarnarekha rivers of Quaternary age.

Overview

Odisha topography consists of fertile coastal plains to the east bounded by Bay of Bengal.
Mountainous highlands and plateau regions occupy the center of the state. Western and
northwestern portions of the state consist of rolling uplands. The state also has some major
floodplains encompassing the river systems.

The western and northern portions of the state are part of the Chota Nagpur plateau. The coasts
composed of fertile alluvial plains and the valleys of the Mahanadi, Brahmani, and Baitarani
rivers, which empty into the Bay of Bengal.

31.41% of Odisha has forest cover. There are many wildlife sanctuaries in Odisha. The Simlipal
National Park is a national park and tiger reserve with a huge expanse of lush green forests with
waterfalls and is inhabited by tigers, elephants, and other wildlife. The Bhitarkanika Wildlife
Sanctuary has been protecting estuarine crocodiles since 1975.[1]

Chilka Lake, a brackish water coastal lake on the Bay of Bengal, south of the mouth of the
Mahanadi River, is the largest coastal lake in India. It is protected by the Chilka Lake Bird
Sanctuary, which harbors over 150 migratory and resident species of birds.

The highest mountain peak in the state is Deomali (1672 m), which is situated in Koraput district
in southern Odisha.[2] It is also one of the tallest peaks of the Eastern Ghats. Deomali is part of
the Chandragiri-Pottangi mountain subsystem.

Location

The state of Odisha extends from 17.31N latitude to 22.31N latitude and from 81.31E longitude
to 87.29E longitude.
 Physical divisions

Physiography

Odisha can be divided into five major Physiographic regions based on continuity, homogeneity
and other physiographical characteristics:

1. Utkal Plains or the coastal plains of the east

2. The central plateaus

3. The central mountainous and highlands region

4. The western rolling uplands,[3] and

5. The main flood plains

Odisha Coastal Plains

The Odisha Coastal Plains or Utkal Plains are the sedimentary landforms of recent origin.
Geologically they belong to the Paleogene and Neogene ages (approximately 65 to 2.6 million
years ago). Their western boundary is at around 250 feet eastern ghats and they have a nearly
straight shoreline in east. This region stretches from the Subarnarekha basin in the north to the
Rushikulya basin in the south.[4][5]

A major part of this region is formed by deltas of the six major rivers i.e. the Mahanadi, the
Brahmani, the Budhabalanga, the Subarnarekha, the Baitarani, and the Rushikulya. This has given
rise to the names such as the "Gift of Six Rivers" or the "Hexadeltaic region". It spans along the
coast of the Bay of Bengal with the maximum width near the Mahanadi Delta (the Middle
Coastal Plain).[6][7] It is narrower in the Northern Coastal Plain in Baleshwar District (also called
Balasore Plain) and narrowest in the Southern Coastal Plain in Ganjam District (called Ganjam
Plain).

The North Coastal Plain is made up of the deltas of the Budhabalanga and the Subarnarekha,
The widest and largest area is the Middle Coastal Plain which comprises the deltas of the
Mahanadi, Brahmani, and Baitarani rivers. This region hosts a number of lakes and there is
evidence of past 'back bays'. The South Coastal Plain consists of the lacustrine plain of Chilika
Lake and the Rushikulya River delta.[8]

Middle mountainous and highlands region

The middle mountainous and highlands region is the largest of the geographic regions and
covers about three-fourths of the state. The region mostly comprises the hills and mountains of
the Eastern Ghats which rise sharply in the east and slope gradually to the eroded plateaus in the
west running from north-west (Mayurbhanj) to the south-west (Malkangiri). Geologically the
formation is quite old. It is a part of the Indian Peninsula which was a part of the ancient
landmass of Gondwanaland.[9] The rivers of Odisha and their tributaries have cut deep and
narrow valleys in this region. The Odisha highlands are also known as the Garhjat Hills. This
region is well marked by a number of watersheds. A number of river valleys of varying width and
flood plains dissect the Eastern Ghats in this region. The average height of this region is about
900  meters above the mean sea level. The highest peak is Deomali.[2]

Central plateaus

The plateaus are part of the western slopes of the Eastern Ghats. They are mostly eroded
plateaus with elevation varying from 305 to 610  meters. There are two broad plateaus: (i) the
Panposh-Keonjhar-Pallahara plateau comprises the Upper Baitarani catchment basin in the
northern part of the state, and (ii) the Nabrangpur-Jeypore plateau comprises the Sabari basin in
the southern part of the state.[2]

Western rolling uplands

The western rolling uplands have heights varying from 153 metres to 305 metres. These are
lower in elevation than the plateaus.[10]

It consists of the following geographically distinct uplands.[2]

1. The Rairangpur rolling upland - This region encompasses the northern part of the
Mayurbhanj district. The uplands are a part of the Subarnarekha basin, and slopes towards
the north.

2. The Keonjhar rolling upland - This region is part of Kendujhar district and lies at the edge of
Keonjhar Plateau. It is part of the Baitarani River basin.

3. The Rourkela rolling upland - This is part of Sundergarh district and lies on the Upper
Brahmani basin.

4. The Bolangir-Bargarh-Rairkhol rolling upland - This is part of multiple districts and lies on
the Upper Mahanadi and its tributaries basin.

5. The Aska rolling upland - This is situated in Ganjam District on the Upper Rushikulya basin.
 6. The Rayagada rolling upland - This uplands is part of the Rayagada district and lies on the
Nagavali and the Vansadhara river basins.

7. The Malkangiri rolling upland - Located on the southern tip of Odisha, this upland is
situated on the Sabari-Machhkund basins of the Dandakaranya Region.
Major flood plains

These flood plains are formed due to major rivers in the highlands, uplands, and plateaus. The
height varies from 75 to 153m. The nine major flood plains of Odisha are:

1. Baripada flood plain

2. Anandapur flood plain

3. Talcher flood plain

4. Bhuban flood plain

5. Sonepur flood plain

6. Athagarh flood plain

7. Aska flood plain

8. Rayagada flood plain

9. Malkangiri flood plain

Geology

The geology of Odisha is complex and varied. The state is home to some of the oldest rock
formations on the planet. The second oldest rocks on the planet were found in Champua,
Kendujhar which are 4.2 billion years old.[11][12] Odisha is part of two cratonic blocks called North
Orissa Craton and the West Orissa Craton. There is a third block called the Eastern Ghats
Granulite Belt. It has been considered as a ‘mobile belt (https://www.quora.com/Geology-What-i
s-a-mobile-belt-What-is-its-relationship-to-an-orogenic-belt) ’ during the middle Proterozoic Era.
These formations are separated from each other by deep-seated regional fault boundaries.[13]
The fault boundaries are called the north Orissa boundary fault (running along Mahanadi Valley -
also called the 'Mahanadi Rift') and the west Orissa boundary fault.

The North Orissa Craton comprises extensive banded iron formations, granite intrusives, and
undeformed volcano-sedimentary assemblages belonging to the Archaean to-early Proterozoic
times. They are followed by folded limestone-bearing rock formations of the Proterozoic age.[14]
The West Orissa Craton is underlain by occurrences of granites of the Archaean age and
undeformed limestone-bearing platform sediments of the Proterozoic age. Small occurrences of
Archaean banded iron formations and greenstones can also be found.[14]

The Eastern Ghats Granulite Belt is mainly composed of Khondalite formations and moderately
extensive charnockites, granites, migmatites, and local pegmatites formations covering
approximately 52000 km2. Occurrences of anorthosites, alkaline rocks and chromite-bearing
ultramafic rocks are found close to the boundaries of the block.[14] The name Khondalite is
derived from the Khond tribe who inhabit Odisha.[15]

The similarity of lithology, tectono thermal events, and major rift features, e.g. the Mahanadi rift,
place Odisha close to Eastern Antarctica.

Later geological formations such as Gondwana basins are also found in Odisha. The Mahanadi
Master Basin holds a major part of the Gondwana basins of Odisha. Gondwana sediments are
exposed in sedimentary basins found in Ib River valley, Talcher, Katringia, Gaisilat, Athmallik,
Chhatrapur, and Athgarh. These deposits are estimated to be ranging from early Permian to Early
Cretaceous in age. Most of the coal deposits of Odisha are found in this region.[16]

The East Coast Odisha is made up predominantly of deltaic sediments of Mahanadi, Brahmani,
Baitarani, Subarnarekha rivers, besides aeolian and marine patches. The eastern coastline
Odisha originated in the post-Cretaceous era and was modified appreciably during the
Quaternary due to the growth of river deltas and the effects of glaciation and deglaciation. The
Quaternary sediments of the east coast of Odisha are composed of laterites and unconsolidated
clays, silts, sands, and gravels.[17]

Forests

Forest cover in Raghurajpur.

Almost one-third of Odisha is covered by forests which make up about 37.34% of the total land
area of the state. These forests cover most of southern and western Odisha. The eastern plains
adjacent to the coast are covered by farmlands. The forest cover of Odisha extends over an area
of 58,136.869 square kilometres out of which reserve forests make up an area of 26,329.12
square kilometres (10,165.73 square miles), demarcated protected forests make up 11,687.079
square kilometres (4,512.406 square miles)mi) and undemarcated protected forests make up
3,638.78 square kilometres (1,404.94 square miles)mi). Other types of forests make up
16,261.34 square kilometres (6,278.54 square miles)mi) while unclassed forests make up 20.55
square kilometres (7.93 square miles)mi) of the total forest cover.
The State Government of
Odisha also classifies forests based on their density. About 538 square kilometres (208 square
miles)mi) of land are classified as very dense forests with a canopy density of over 70 percent,
27,656 square kilometres (10,678 square miles)mi) of forests are classified as moderately dense
cover with a canopy density of 40 to 70 percent and 20,180 square kilometres (7,790 square
miles)mi) of land are classified as open forest with a canopy density of 10 to 40 percent.

Rivers

Mahanadi river

Most of the major rivers of Odisha flow eastwards and ultimately empty into the Bay of Bengal.
However, depending on the source they can be distinguished into four groups:

Rivers that originate outside Odisha (the Brahmani, the Subarnarekha, the Ib, and the
Mahanadi).
 Rivers originating in Odisha (the Baitarani, the Budhabalanga, the Salandi, and the Rushikulya).

Rivers which originate inside Odisha, but flow through other states (the Bahuda, the
Vamsadhara River, and the Nagavali River).

Rivers which originate inside Odisha, but are tributaries of rivers which flow through other
states (the Machkund, the Sileru River, the Kolab, and the Indravati River).

The Mahanadi

The Mahanadi is the biggest river of Odisha and the sixth largest in India. Its exact origin is not
known but the farthest headwater can be found on the Sihawa hills of the Bastar Plateau in
Dhamtari district of Chhattisgarh. It is about 851 km long (494 km in Odisha) and its catchment
area spreads over 141,600 km2,[18] out of which 65,580 km2 (42% of area of the state) lies in
Odisha. The river carries on an average about 92,600 million m of water.[19][20][21]
Inside Odisha
boundaries, Mahanadi's Tributaries include the Ib, The Ong, and the Tel.

Tel River is one of the largest rivers of Odisha. Originating near Jharigaon in Nabarangpur
district and flowing through Kalahandi, Balangir, Sonepur districts of Odisha and finally merging
with Mahanadi near Sonepur. It travels 296 km and has a catchment area of 22818 km2.[22] The
river Udanti is a tributary to Tel. It originates from Chhatishgarh and flows through Kalahandi and
Nuapada districts and merges with the Tel river.[23]

Ib River originates in the hills near Pandrapet at an elevation of 762 metres (2,500 ft). It passes
through the Raigarh and Jashpur districts of Chhattisgarh, Jharsuguda and Sundargarh districts
of Odisha, and finally meets Mahanadi at Hirakud. It travels 251 km and has a catchment area of
12,447 km2.[22]

Ong River flows across Odisha and joins Mahanadi 240 km upstream of Sonepur where Tel
merges. The river travels 204 km before it meets Mahanadi. It drains an area of about
5,128 km2.[22]

Besides these three rivers, the Mahanadi has tributaries in Chatishgarh, namely the Seonath, the
Hasdeo, the Jonk and the Mand.[22]
Mahanadi branches off around Naraj Bridge which is approx.
10 km from Cuttack City, creating River Kathajodi and Birupa. The Birupa merges with the
Brahmani and Kathajodi splits into multiple streams.[24][25]

The Brahmani
The Brahmani is the second largest river of the state. Two major rivers from the Chota Nagpur
Plateau of Jharkhand, the Sankh and the South Koel merge at Veda Vyasa near Rourkela in
Sundargarh district forming the Brahmani. It flows through the Eastern Ghats in Sundargarh,
Deogarh, Dhenkanal, and Jajpur districts. When it enters Jajpur, it creates a distributary, the
Kharasua, near Jenapur, and the Kelua near Barabati . Both distributaries re-emerge with the
Brahmani while it enters Kendrapara and into the Coastal Plains. Afterwards it enters into the
Bay of Bengal along with a combined mouth with the Baitarani near Dhamara, Bhadrak.[26] The
Brahmani is 799 km long (541 km in Odisha) and its catchment area spreads over 39,033 km2 in
Odisha.[27][28]

The Baitarani

The Baitarani originates from the Gonasika in the Guptaganga hills of the Kendujhar district.[29] It
is approximately 360 km long and its catchment area spread over 12,790 km2. It enters into the
Bay of Bengal after joining the Brahmani River at the Dhamara mouth near Chandbali,
Bhadrak.[30][29]

The Salandi is a major tributary of Baitarani. It originates from the Meghasani Hills of the
Similipal Mountain range in Mayurbhanj district. It is 144 km long with a catchment area of
1,793 km2.

The Subarnarekha

Subarnarekha is a rain-fed river that originates near Nagri village on the Chhotanagpur plateau of
Jharkhand. It has the smallest river basin of the major rivers among India. It flows through major
towns of Jharkhand and then enters Odisha. It is 433 km (70 km in Odisha) and has a catchment
area of 19,500 km (3,200 km in Odisha) with a mean annual flow of 7,900 million. It ultimately
joins the Bay of Bengal at Kirtania Port in Odisha.[31]

The Budhabalanga

It originates from the eastern slopes of the Similipal mountain range.

[32][33][34] It is about 164 km
[35] long having a total catchment area of 4,840 km2 with an annual flow of 2,177 million. Its
major tributaries are the Palapala, the Sunei, the Kalo, the Sanjo, the Deo, the Gangahari, and the
Katra. It flows through districts of Mayurbhanj and Balasore and ultimately drains into the Bay Of
Bengal near Balaramgadi.[36][37][38]
The Rushikulya

It originates from the Rushimala hills of the Eastern Ghats in the Kandhamal district. It is 165 km
long with 8,900 km2 of catchment areas. Its tributaries are the Baghua and the Dhanei Badanadi.
It has no delta at its mouth.[39]

The Bahuda

The Bahuda river originates near village Luba from the Singharaj hills the Eastern Ghats in
Gajapati district. It flows in a northeasterly direction up to 55 km. Then it changes direction to
south-east and flows for 17 km inside Odisha before entering Andhra Pradesh to flow for further
18 km. Then it again turns in a northeasterly direction for 6 km in Odisha before meeting the Bay
of Bengal near the village Sunapurapeta, Odisha.[38] Its total length is 96 km with 78 km inside
Odisha. It has a catchment area of 1118 km2, out of which 890 km2 lies inside Odisha.[21]

The Vanshadhara

The Vanshadhara originates in Kalahandi district from the Durgakangar hills of the Eastern
Ghats. It is 230 km long out of which 150 km flows in Odisha. It merges into the Bay of Bengal at
Kalingapatnam in Andhra Pradesh. It has a catchment area of 1,400 km2 in Odisha.[40] The main
tributaries of the Vansadhara are Pedagada, Bengigedda on the right and Chuladhua Nalla,
Pondaka Nalla, Harabhangi, Sananadi, and Mahendratanya situated on left.[41]

The Nagavali

It originates from the Bijipur hills of the Eastern Ghats in Kalahandi district. It is 217  km long out
of which 125  km is in Odisha and rest flows through Andhra Pradesh. It has a total catchment
area of about 9,410 km2. Its main tributaries are Pitadar Nalla, Datteibannda Nallah, Sananadi,
BarhaNadi, Baldiya Nadi, Sat Nallha, Sitagura Nallha, Ghora Nalla, Sitaghera Nalla, Srikona Nadi,
Bonamarha Nadi, Errigeda Nallha, and Jhanjhabati river.[38]

The Indravati

It originates from the Eastern Ghats in Kalahandi districts. It flows in a westerly direction and
enters Chhattisgarh and ultimately confluences with the Godavari. It is 530 km long with a
catchment area of 41,700 km2 as a tributary it flows into the Godavari river.[38]
The Kolab

It originates from the Sinkaran hills of the Eastern Ghats in Koraput districts. Thereafter it flows
through Andhra Pradesh and confluences with the Godavari. It has catchment areas of
20,400 km2.[38] kolab water project situated in this river

Springs

There are a number of mountain springs and hot springs in Odisha. The Badaghagara and
Sanaghagara in Keonjhar district, Saptasajya in Dhenkanal district, Chandikhole in Jajpur district,
Barunei in Khorda district, Taptapani, Narayani, Nirmalajhar in Ganjam district, the Patalaganga
in Kalahandi district, Nursinghanath in Bargarh district, and Harisankar of Balangir district of
Odisha. A few of the major springs are as per below.
 Name of the
Rivers / tributaries, etc. Type Location
springs

Chandikhole A tributary to Mahanadi Natural spring Chandikhole

Barunei Tributary to the Daya Natural spring Khurda

Narayani Draining to Chilika Natural spring Puri

Nirmal Jhar Draining to Chilika Natural spring Khalikot

Pradhanpat A tributary to the Brahmani Natural spring Deogarh

Phurligharan A tributary to the Indravati Natural spring Bhawanipatna

Khandadhar A tributary to the Brahmani Natural spring Bonei

Nurshingh Nath A tributary to the Tel Natural spring Balangir

Harishankar Jira river, a tributary to Tel Natural spring Bolangir

Kuaria Nala, a tributary to the

Gosinga Jhar Natural spring Kantilo
Mahanadi

Koiliharan A tributary to the Mahanadi Natural spring Jharsuguda

Mankada river a tributary to the Malaygiri,

Jharbada Natural spring
Brahmani Dhenkanal

Natural hot
Atri - Khurda
spring

Natural hot
Taptapani[42] - Ganjam
spring

Natural hot
Deulijhari[43] - Athamallik
spring

Waterfalls

Most of the rivers of Odisha traverse through mountainous terrain. So they have waterfalls either
at the point of origin or over the mountainous bed. Some major waterfalls of the state are:
 Name of Waterfall Rivers /tributary etc. Height Location

Putudi[44] River Salunki,a tributary to Mahanadi 60 ft (18 m) Phulbani

Machhakandana river, a tributary to the 200 ft

Bada Ghagra Kendujhar
Baitarani[45] (61 m)

Machhakandana river, a tributary to the 100 ft

San Ghagra Kendujhar
Baitarani[46] (30 m)

500 ft
Khandadhar A tributary to the Brahamani Kendujhar
(150 m)

Bhimkund[47] The Baitarani Kendujhar

1,309 ft
Barehipani[48] Budhabalanga Mayurbhanj
(399 m)

490 ft
Joranda [48] Budhabalanga Mayurbhanj
(150 m)

Debakunda[49] 50 ft (15 m) Mayurbhanj

30 ft
Pradhanpat[50] A tributary of the Brahamani Deogarh
(9.1 m)

Bhawanipatna,
Phurlijharan A tributary of the Indravati 49 ft (15 m)
Kalahandi

200 ft
Dokaridhara [51][52] Kalahandi
(61 m)

Bhanyaraghumara 150 ft
[51]
Kalahandi
(46 m)

Rabandhara[53] 45 ft (14 m) Kalahandi

Korapani Nala, a tributary of the 801 ft

Khandadhar[48] Bonei, Sundergarh
Brahamani (244 m)

Nrushingh
A tributary of the Tel Bargarh
Nath(Bhimdhar)

Harishankar Jira river, a tributary of the Tel Bolangir

200 ft
Koilighugar Ahiraj, a tributary of the Mahanadi Jharsuguda
(61 m)

Duduma Machakund river a tributary of the 574 ft Koraput

 Godavari (175 m)

Gandahati Mahendratanaya[54] 65 ft (20 m) Gajapati

Lakes

The Chilika Lake is brackish water lagoon located in the southern part of the Odisha coastal
plain. It is India's largest coastal lagoon and spread across the districts of Ganjam, Khurda and
Puri. Its area varies 900 km2 and 1165 km2;[55] during the two monsoon months it is 71 km
long and 32 km wide. Its salinity decreases to a minimum during the monsoon. However, in
winter, due to the overflow of the tidal water through the narrow opening from the Bay of
Bengal, the lake reaches its maximum height. It is a Ramsar Convention protected wetland
and hosts around 33 species of migratory and local birds.[56]

Anshupa is a fresh water horseshoe lake located at Athagarh in Cuttack district within the
alluvial plain of river Mahanadi. It is 3 km long and 1.5 km wide.[57][58]

Sara is a fresh water lake located near Puri. It is 5 km long and 3 km wide. Four distributaries
of Mahanadi River system, the Bhargavi, the Kushabhadra, the Mugei and the Dhanua drain
into the lake[59]

Kanjia lake is another fresh water lake with about 134 acres (0.54 km2) of area located in
Nandankanan of Cuttack district near Bhubaneswar.[60]

Tampara is another fresh water lake located alongside the town of Chatrapur. It is 4 km long
and 0.5 km wide. It is feed by the backwater of Rushikulya river in monsoon season.[61][62]

Artificial water reservoirs

Hirakud Dam: Artificial Lake in Sambalpur and Jharsuguda largest artificial lake in Asia.

Indravati Dam: Artificial Lake in Kalahandi and Nabarangpur.

Kolab Dam: Artificial Lake in Koraput.

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