Operation and Protection of 380V DC Distribution
Systems
Julia Niewind, Nasser G.A. Hemdan,
Christoph Klosinski, Dirk Bösche, Michael Kurrat
Institute of High Voltage Technology and Electric Power
Systems (elenia), Technische Universität Braunschweig
Braunschweig, Germany
n.hemdan@tu-braunschweig.de
c.klosinski@tu-braunschweig.de
Abstract— The demand of a reliable, sustainable, and resilient
electrical energy grid motivates the integration of renewable
energy-based resources based on different technologies. New
network structures are essential in approaching these goals. Low
and medium voltage DC grids could introduce a key answer in
this context. In this paper, the operation of 380 V DC
distribution grids for different applications is reviewed and
evaluated. Furthermore, a new efficient protection scheme based
on credit point concept was proposed to detect, allocate and
isolate faults in such DC grids. The new technique was designed
in order to be implemented in the laboratory. The proposed
protection scheme was tested using PSCAD software based on
radial DC distribution system. The concept for experimental
implementation was established and will be presented. The new
approach has been found to be robust and effective in detecting,
allocating, and isolating faults in DC grids.
Index Terms—DC systems; system operation; protection
coordination; credit point; fault isolation; fault detection
I. INTRODUCTION
Ever since the introduction of electricity in the late 19th
century, AC and DC power technologies have coexisted for
different applications. While DC can primarily be found in
small-scale island systems, AC plays the predominant role in
extensive power grids. The invention of the transformer was
the key to efficiency in early stage power transmission
because of its ability to adjust the voltage level. The electrical
infrastructure, therefore, grew on the basis of AC technology
[1], [2]. Today, DC is being reconsidered for complex power
systems for two main reasons: the semiconductor industry
allows for changing DC voltage levels, even with a better
efficiency than AC provides, and photovoltaic and other
decentralized power generation produce on DC basis.
Integrating both DC component types into the traditional AC
environment requires several conversion steps, each of which
negatively affecting the overall efficiency. There are several
topologies that show potential to be implemented in the
framework of DC technology in the near future. This paper
This work is financially supported by the German Federal Ministry of
Education and Research
Frank Gerdinand1, Johann Meisner2 and Stephan Passon2
1
E-T-A Elektrotechnische Apparate GmbH, Altdorf, Germany
2
Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB)
Braunschweig, Germany
f.gerdinand@eta.de
johann.meisner@ptb.de
stephan.passon@ptb.de
focuses on an operating voltage of 380V DC and the proposed
topologies will be reviewed and evaluated accordingly.
Operation aspects of data centers, DC Microgrids, DC house
will be discussed.
Besides all positive factors comparing DC to AC, the
immaturity of DC protection coordination mechanisms
impedes the DC implementation as state of the art technology.
Sophisticated AC fault interrupting devices are not applicable
in DC grids. The arc extinction is based on the zero-crossing
principle which is inherent in AC, while DC offers constant
current values. Moreover, no frequency distractions can
indicate a fault status. Changes in the magnitude of current
and voltage represent the factors which need to be observed in
DC grids. Furthermore, DC fault currents show very short rise
times. This phenomenon can be traced back to the fact that in
the instant of a fault, all capacitors immediately discharge and
feed the low-resistance fault. Therefore, DC systems require
faster detection and isolation than AC protection equipment
provides [2]–[4]. A proper allocation of the fault can be
achieved by implementing proper measurement in the DC
grid.
The most common DC protection methods are overcurrent
and differential detection. The former represents a fast method
but lacks selectivity in multi-terminal DC systems.
Differential protection uses the principle of Kirchhoff’s law
and is considered to be a capable detection method as it is
insensitive to variable fault current levels and the fault
resistance. This protection technique has been introduced in
[5]. Two slave controllers measure the current magnitude at
each end of a segment. In a fault situation, their values differ.
Isolation of the branch is executed as soon as a threshold for
the difference is exceeded. It ignores the fact that normal
operation mode bears oscillations that may lead to
misinterpretation.
The authors of [6] proposed re-energization and de-
energization of the system by using controllable converters.
The faulted branch was being isolated by simple contactors
when the voltage falls below a certain limit. It is questionable AC power such as a washing machine is tied to the DC grid
if such short voltage outage can sufficiently supply and protect through an inverter [11].
sensitive loads without affecting the power quality standards.
A protection scheme of low voltage DC systems based on
measurements, communications, and solid state circuit
breakers was presented in [7].

II. 380V DC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

In this section operation aspects and perspective topologies
of data centers, DC-Microgrids, DC house will be introduced.
A. Data Centers
One possible data center topology connects several server (a)
racks directly to the 380V DC system is shown in Fig. 1(a).
This topology can only be implemented with rather large
servers so that no additional DC/DC converter is needed for
the attachment to the line. The other end of the line is tied to
the AC grid [4]. The presence of decentralized energy
resources (e.g. photovoltaic and battery), enable the data
center to be operated in islanded mode. The less number of
converters implies smaller system size, higher efficiency, and
easier integration of distributed energy resources. A second
data center topology is given in Fig. 1(b). One server rack is
(b)
directly connected to the voltage level of the bus. A second
rack is connected to 48V DC through DC/DC converter.
Lighting and ventilation both run on 48V DC [8].

B. DC Microgrids
Figure 1(c) presents a DC Microgrid topology which
incorporates several smart homes along a ring which has
additional access to two AC grid connections. All houses are
equipped with PV panels on their roofs as well as batteries and
combined heat and power units (CHP) in the basements. They
are connected to the ring via DC/DC converters. It is a
(c)
possible system layout for new housing developments that are
located outside of cities or for pooling and supply of small
houses in rural areas in less developed countries [9]. The
topology which is given in Fig. 1(d) replaces the ring by a
radial system. The few agglomerated homes are inherently AC
and need an inverter to get connected to the DC Microgrid
which is supplied by an AC grid through a rectifier. The
houses supply themselves with PV power [10].

C. DC House
(d)
Figure 1(e) shows a DC house. In order to minimize
converter losses, this house incorporates three buses of
different DC voltage levels to serve different power demands
of the loads within an ordinary house. The buses are
interconnected via DC/DC converters instead of each load
having its own converter. Especially on the lower level more
specific converters are required and may be embedded into the
load itself as the voltage range needed for electronic devices
spans from about 5V for the wireless routers or mobile phones
to 12V for electrical razors to 24V for LED lighting [3]. As
depicted in the Fig. 1(e), battery stacks can be integrated for
any of the voltage levels to ensure the supply stability. A PV
array is connected to the 380V bus. Together with the storage
elements, it can serve as redundancy to the AC grid (e)
connection and operates in island mode. A load that requires
Figure 1. 380V DC different applications’ topologies (a, b) Data center,
(b, c) DC-Microgrid, (e) DC house
 III. SMART MODULAR SWITCHGEAR (SMS) RESARCH One of the loads needs an inverter because it represents AC
PROJECT ventilation. The parameters of all elements in the system are
given in Table I.
In collaboration with PTB (National Metrology Institute of
Germany) and E-T-A (Circuit breakers manufacturer),
a research project with the aim of developing modular TABLE I. SYSTEM PARAMETERS
switchgear with voltage and current sensors for different DC
AC Grid Connection
voltage levels, e.g. 24V, 380V and medium voltage, has been
Element Parameter Element Parameter
set up. Elaborate control units are implemented to perform
30 kVA Capacitor 300 mF
protection coordination [12], [13]. The developing process of Transformer
(400/190V) Dd DC-Link 256.59 V
the protection coordination is started by performing the Boost 100 mF 400 µF
adequate modeling and simulation of the system and the LC-Filter
Converter 150 µH 1 mH
protection coordination concept and then implementing the Battery
concept in the laboratory. In this paper, a new protection LBZ = 0.2 µH Output
299 V at 1p.u.
coordination scheme for 380V DC distribution systems based Battery Cell
UnB = 2.0 V Voltage
on credit point concept will be presented. Furthermore, RB =0.067 mΩ Capacity 800 Ah
N = 130 cells Current 61 A
simulation results will be discussed. The concept of the
Boost 200 mF 400 µF
experimental implementation will be introduced. Converter 40 µH
LC-Filter
50 µH
PV Module
IV. CASE STUDY Shunt
Current 41.05 A 415.405 Ω
Resistance
Series
0.221 Ω
Resistance
Boost 40 mF 300 µF
LC-Filter
Converter 10 µH 50 µH
Loads and Cables
Load 1 18.65 A 6.77 A
Load 3
Load 2 35 A 10 mH
R = 1.07 mΩ/m
Cable
L = 0.33×10-6 Cable Length 20 m
Segments
H/m

Figure 2. Case study
Figure 2 shows the case study of a data center which is
operated with 380V DC. The AC-grid connection is
represented by a transformer, followed by a six pulse bridge
rectifier. A boost converter increases the DC voltage
to a stable 380V voltage. A PV module is interconnected in
the form of the equivalent circuit for a one-diode PV cell. The
current source has been designed based on Eq. (1) [14]:
 
N   
  V ph + Rs  ser  I   V ph + Rs  ser
  N 
 par  − 1 −
I = I ph N par − I o N par exp  
nVt N ser
   
   
   
Dimensions are extrapolated to depict a PV array. All
computations and parameters were considered at standard test
conditions (temperature of 25° C, irradiation of 1000 W/m²,
air mass of 1.5) and based on the Kyocera product KC200GT.
The modeling of the battery requires a voltage source
connected in series with its inner resistance and impedance.
DC/DC boost converters were designed for PV and battery
resources. All pulsing elements, i.e. the converters behind the
power sources, are equipped with LC-filters to smooth the
ripples and improve the steady state currents. Loads account
for the largest part of the resistance in the system. The cables
which are connecting different elements to the DC bus are
modeled with their resistances, inductances, and capacitances.
V. CREDIT POINT APPROACH FOR FAULT DETECTION AND
ISOLATION
The modular circuit breaker which was developed in SMS
project is equipped with one current and two voltage sensors.
The idea is to coordinate the switching tasks between the
existing breakers in the DC system. This allows for a
reduction of the individual breaker’s size.
The SMS approach has already shown its capability for
industrial 24V DC topologies [12], [13]. The learnings of that
N 
I

previous study were integrated into the 380V DC research on
 N par  hand. The sensors measure voltage and current and the
(1)
N  directions of the power flow which can be reversed in a fault
Rsh  ser 
 N sh  situation. Deviations from normal system behavior will hence
be recognized. All values are handed over to a software
interface. It includes the algorithm based on a fault matrix.
Once the algorithm identifies and locates a fault, it sends an
appropriate signal to the appropriate breaker to isolate the
faulty part from the system. Moreover, the SMS concept
allows building clusters which speed up fault detection. Each
breaker is allocated to a cluster. Certain parameter
combinations indicate the fault to be located within a cluster.
The switching decision can then be made locally.
It needs to be taken into account that it is difficult to define
threshold values which indicate a fault [12]. For the data
center layout (see Fig. 2), seven fault situations have been
defined, one at each of the six component branches and one at
the busbar. Each of those is unique concerning the threshold
values at all six breakers. This means that a slight topology
change such as adding sources or loads would disturb the fault
detection routine. The algorithm cannot be stable with varying
thresholds. Furthermore, a numerical threshold based
algorithm might misinterpret oscillations in normal operation
mode as faulty. To fill this gap, a concept was developed
which enhances the process of faults identification. A band
stop filter transforms current derivatives into the normalized
values -1, 0, and 1 which are named Credit Points (CP). Outer
limits are set above and below the mean value of a signal. For
any derivative signal, the mean is always zero in steady state
condition because current and voltage should be constant. The
upper and lower limits of the band stop filter give
consideration to the fact that there is no ideal signal. Small
variations in normal operation mode will output a signal
within the limits and be transformed into the CP zero. Values
above or below the limits provide outputs of 1 or -1,
respectively. The band stop filter is followed by a counter
which adds up the CPs.
Derivatives of current may show peaks exceeding the
limits due to larger variations in the initial signal. In steady
state, the result of the counter will, therefore, fluctuate around
zero. In a case of a fault, all outputs of the band stop filter will
be outside the limits and the counter will quickly add up to
large numbers. The fault behavior cannot only be observed at
the measuring device installed at the faulted branch. All
switches in the system clearly react to all kinds of faults tested
in the simulation. That means that it is possible to define a
certain combination of the six CP counter outputs for each
fault situation. The advantage of the credit point technique is
the ability to set uniform thresholds irrespective of type and
severity of the incident. It is sufficient to observe the current
derivatives as they best indicate a fault situation. A fault in DC
systems leads to immediate discharge of all capacitors, this
fast rising fault current result in very large derivative values.
Observing the system with short time steps allows for a quick
detection and allocation of the fault because all counters
deflect. It can be stated that according to the CP concept,
faults are identified once the counters of the switchgear rise or
fall noticeably. Locating faults takes place by checking on the
combination of the deflection of all counters (e.g. six counters
in the case study). Furthermore, it is possible to transfer the
CP concept to a test bed as will be given in the next section.
Figure 3 sums up the request which is performed during
each time step of the simulation. Except for the first block on
the left, all steps which are described in the coordination logic
below are executed by the software interface. In PSCAD a
new module was programmed to do so. The variable “Counter
Reset” also serves as input to the protection coordination
algorithm. Its task is to set all counters back to zero after a
fault has occurred or if the instantaneous values of the breaker
currents are lower compared to the rated currents. As can be
further read from Fig. 3, the current itself also feeds the
algorithm. This is necessary to distinguish oscillations in
normal operation from fault situations. In a case of fault
identification, the algorithm verifies if the current is outside its
normal operating range at the same time. If not, no action
signal is sent to one of the breakers. Additionally, all counters
are being reset after such incident [15]. In Fig. 3, B represents
the breaker; n is the number of breakers, iBK(t) are the
instantaneous currents of all breakers, iBKn(t) is the nominal
currents of all breakers. Moreover, iB1 is the current through
breaker B1, and B1 status is a digital input of 1 for switched
off and 0 for switched on. The output signals are the signals
which sent to the specified breakers to be switched off in the
case of a fault.

di B1 ( t )
iB1 ( t ) dt

diB 2 (t )
iB 2 ( t )
dt

diBk (t )
diB 3 (t )
iB 3 ( t ) dt
dt

diBn ( t )
i Bn ( t ) dt

iBk (t )
i Bkn (t )

Figure 3. Credit point protection coordination principle

 VI. CONCEPT FOR EXPERIMENTAL IMPLEMENTATION Substituting equation (6) into Eq. (3) results in:
As the aim is to implement the CP protection coordination 1 n
5 L max ( i k − i k − 1 )
concept in the laboratory, hence the concept should be
CPV =
n
k =1 2U n ( t k − t k − 1 )
(7)
enhanced to be more robust and more effective to protect the
In the first step, the current gradients will be calculated.
system in case of a fault. To ensure that the exceeding of the
For this purpose, the current gradients n are subdivided into
currents gradients over the predefined threshold is a fault, and
several subfields m. Accordingly, m and n resulting from the
prevent improper fault detection, the concept determines the
number of samples nS, the sampling rate fS of the I/O-module
average current gradient of a defined quantity of continually
and a predefined time interval Δt = 200 μs. Based on these
monitored current gradients compared to a di/dt-threshold.
parameters the number of subfields can be calculated as
The calculated value is called Credit Point Value (CPV) and it
follows:
is can be calculated based on Eq. (2). Where n is the number
of current measurements with the specified time step. ns 1 ns 1
m= × = × (8)
f A Δt f A 200μs
 di k 
 
1 n
CPV =  
dt  Assuming that
n k =1  di 
(2)
  (9)
 dt  Threshold tk − tk −1 = const.

Since the concept will be implemented on a digital real- The following simplification can be assumed:
time system, infinitesimal small time steps are technically
impossible. Hence, digital real-time systems operate with a
Δt = tk − tk −1 (10)
deterministic sampling frequency fS respectively sampling Equation (7) is simplified by Eq. (10), then:
interval ∆tS. Therefore, Eq. (2) has to be rewritten as follows:
1 n
5 L max ( i k − i k − 1 ) (11)
 ik − ik −1  CPV =
n
 2U n Δ t
  k =1
1 n  t k − t k −1 
CPV =  (3)
n k =1  di  If Eq. (8) is solved for ∆t and then added to Eq. (11) the
 
 dt  Threshold following equation can be obtained:
For the determination of the CPV, in a DC circuit the di/dt- 1 n
5 L max f A m ( i k − i k − 1 )
threshold is depending on the system voltage Un and the CPV =
n

k =1 2U n n s
(12)
inductance L which is seen in the event of a fault:
A defined quantity of current gradients p, which is
obtained from the quotient of sample quantity nS and the
number of subfields m (p = nS/m), is thus assigned to each
current gradient:
1 n
5 L max f A ( i k − i k − 1 )
CPV =
n

k =1 2U n p (13)

Figure 4. Equivalent network for a DC fault Therefore an index is available, which reflects the
di magnitude of a defined quantity of current gradients in relative
un = u R + uL = idc R + L (4) to the di/dt-threshold. A CPV < 1 means that the average of
dt
the current gradients is below the di/dt-threshold, whereas a
The inductance L limits the current rise rate and differs CPV > 1 is above the di/dt-threshold. The individual values of
depending on the fault location. The highest inductance Lmax in the CPVs serve as the input variable for the credit point (CP)
the event of a fault within the DC system is assumed; so that in addition to the quantity of CPVs. The quantity of CPVs is
lower fault circuit inductances can help in fault detection equal to the number of subfields and is calculated in Eq. (8).
(see Eq. 5).
1 m
 di 
  = = n
U U
(5)
CP= CPVj
m j=1 (13)
 dt  max L Lmax
The calculated CP will be compared with a predefined
At a sampling frequency of 50 kHz, the calculation error is constant H. If the CP is higher than the constant H, a critical
50% in the worst case, assuming a fault current rise time of current gradient is present and a 1 is stored. If the constant is
200 μs. The cause is the fixed time step. If a fault occurs, only not exceeded, a 0 is stored. The next step is to implement the
the half value of the current rise can be detected in the middle CP techniques on a 380V DC grid in the laboratory.
of the sampling interval (∆t =1/fS). In addition, a safety factor
of 20% needs to be taken into account. Thus the di/dt- VII. SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
threshold is calculated using Eq. (6).
Simulations were performed on the case study with a time
 di  U 2U n step of 5 µs. The detection time is directly linked to the chosen
  = 0.5(1 − 0.2) n =
 dt Threshold Lmax 5Lmax (6) time step. During each step the protection routine checks on
the system status and outputs the counter values which are
evaluated for each circuit breaker. As explained in section V
the credit point (CP) technique allows for selectivity and fast
fault identification. Irrespective of fault type and severity, a
uniform counter threshold of 10 and -10 is sufficient for
proper fault location. For example, if the fault occurs at DC
load 1, the associated counter Bz1 immediately deflects and
reaches the threshold of 10 after 50 µs and exceeds it after
55 µs, which is depicted in Fig. 5. In combination with the
five other counter values in the system, this particular fault can
be detected and allocated correctly after 65 µs.
Figure 5. Credit point counters of load breakers for fault at load 1 with
delayed time to reset all the counters
Table II summarizes the detection times of all faults tested
in the simulation. A fault at the branch of load 3 takes the
longest time to be detected; this branch incorporates the AC
ventilation which explains this behavior as AC faults develop
much slower than DC faults. Using larger time steps (i.e. 10
µs) would imply a longer detection time (i.e. double as long)
while the number of detection steps remains equal.
TABLE II. FAULT DETECTION TIME FOR DATA CENTER TOPLOGY
Fault Detection Time (µs)
F4 (Load 1-Server Rack) 65
F5 (Load 2-Server Rack) 65
F6 (Load 3-Ventilation) 350
F1 (AC grid) 75
F2 (Battery) 75
F3 (PV) 70
F7 (Busbar) 65
This fast detection routine can serve as a valuable 380V DC
protection basis when combined with capable breaking
technology. It can distinguish signal fluctuations from faults
and meets the demand to face short fault rise times in DC
systems which are most crucial to the system protection.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has started with a review of the operation of 380V
DC distribution systems for different applications.
Furthermore, a new protection coordination scheme for 380V
DC system based on CP concept was introduced. The new
approach was implemented on a case study represents a data
center. The concept of experimental implementation was also
presented. The results prove the robustness and effectiveness
of the proposed scheme. Fault cases are more clearly
distinguishable from regular oscillation in the CP concept
than observing the current derivatives only. In contrast to the
derivatives method, the CP concept observes the development
of derivatives over a certain time period and offers a more
profound decision. The counters of each topology can be
assigned to a cluster. Each counter only exchanges
information with its cluster and the clusters communicate
with each other. Switching decisions are made more local and
communication efforts can be reduced.
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