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Operation & Maintenance of Air Brake Systems for Railways

Research Proposal · July 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.10562.99527

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Gargi memorial institute of technology

A PROJECT REPORT ON AIR BRAKE SYSTEM & OTHERS DONE

BY-
SAMRIDDHA SHIL
ACKNOWLEDGEMEnT
Before going into the report, we would sincerely like to thank
and acknowledge the following people for their assistance,
guidance and support throughout the duration of this
Industrial Training.
First of all, we would like to thank Mr. Mrityunjay Saha
(Head-HR & Admin), Mr. Soumen Sengupta (General
Manager-Operations) and Mr. Arup Dandapat (Head-
Quality Control), Department of Production of Stone
India Limited for providing us the opportunity to do the
Industrial training at their manufacturing company of Air
brake system (Railway) from 17th June 2015 to 17th July
2015.
We are highly thankful to all the officers and workers of the
Stone India Limited who gave us kind attention and shared
their valuable experiences and time with us during this period.
In this training, we also got the opportunity to understand the
process and overall view of Air-Brake system, Pantograph,
Panel Braking System and also about its Maintenance and
Quality Assurance and Control, which will help us greatly in
the future.

SAMRIDDHA SHIL
 CONTENTS
 INTRODUCTION
 Air-brake system
 Panel brake system
 A-9 & sa-9 valves
 C3w DISTRIBUTOR valve
 TRIPLE VALVE
 C.n.c. machine shop
 Pantograph
 Quality CONTROL
 Maintenance
 Conclusion
 bibliography
 INTRODUCTION
AIR BRAKE SYSTEM:
The vast majority of the world's trains are equipped with
braking systems which use compressed air as the force to push
blocks on to wheels or pads on to discs.
These systems are known as "AIR BRAKES" or
"PNEUMATIC BRAKES". The compressed air is
transmitted along the train through a "BRAKE PIPE".
Changing the level of air pressure in the pipe causes a change
in the stage of the brake on each vehicle. It can apply the
brake, release it or hold it "on" after a partial application. The
system is in widespread use throughout the world.
AIR BRAKE SYSTEM:
CLASSIFICATION OF AIR BRAKE SYSTEM:
On the basis of type of release, air brake system is classified
as:
1.Direct release air brake system
2.Graduated release air brake system
Both Direct and Graduated release are further available in two
forms viz.
1.Single pipe and
2.Twin pipe
The diagram of air brake system shown below which
illustrates the schematic layout of air brake equipment on the
under frame of freight stock. As shown in figure, the single
pipe graduated release air brake system consist of following
components:-
i) Distributor valve
ii) Common pipe bracket with control reservoir.
iii) Auxiliary reservoir.(100 Lits)
iv) Three way centrifugal dirt collector.
v) Isolating cock.
vi) Brake cylinder (355mm diameter).
vii) Cut off angle cock (32mm size on either ends of brake
pipe).
viii) Air brake hose coupling (32mm for brake pipe)..
ix) Brake pipe (32mm dia).
x) Branch pipes from BP to brake equipment (20mm bore).
xi) Guard emergency brake valve.
xii) Pressure gauges for BP.
FLOW CHART:

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF SINGLE PIPE

GRADUATED
RELEASE AIR BRAKE SYSTEM:
The Air Brake goods stock on IR is at present fitted with
single pipe graduated release air brake system. In single pipe,
brake pipes of all wagons are connected. Also all the cut off
angle cocks are kept open except the front cut off angle cocks
of BP of leading loco and rear end cut off angle cock of BP of
last vehicle. Isolating cock on all wagons are also kept in open
condition. Auxiliary reservoir is charged through distributor
valve at 5kg/cm2.
A.Charging stage:

During this stage, brake pipe is charged to 5kg/cm2 pressure

which in turn charges control reservoir and auxiliary reservoir
to 5 kg/cm2 pressure via distributor
valve. At this stage, brake cylinder gets vented to atmosphere
through passage in Distributor Valve.
B.Application Stage:
For application of brakes, the pressure in brake pipe has to be
dropped. This is done by venting air from driver’s brake
valve. Reduction in brake pipe pressure positions the
distributor valve in such a way that the control reservoir gets
disconnected from brake pipe and auxiliary reservoir gets
connected to brake cylinder. This results in increase in air
pressure in brake cylinder resulting in application of brakes.
The magnitude of braking force is proportional to reduction in
brake pipe pressure.
1. Brake Application takes places when Brake pipe pressure is
dropped.
2. The drop of pressure may be a) Intentional and
b) Accidental.
C) Release stage:

For releasing brakes, the brake pipe is again charged to 5

kg/cm2 pressure by compressor through driver’s brake valve.
This action positions distributor valve in such a away that
auxiliary reservoir gets isolated from brake cylinder and brake
cylinder is vented to atmosphere through distributor valve and
thus brakes are released.
MAIN PRODUCTS OF AIR BRAKE SYSTEM:
C3W Distributor Valve As Per SAB WABCO Design
(Aluminium Type/Cast Iron Type):
C3W Distributor Valve is a graduated release UIC approved
Distributor Valve for application in the coach brake system
used for initiating the brake application.
These valves are supplied in aluminium version/cast iron
version as far as body, top covers and bottom covers are
concerned.

C3W2 Distributor Valve As Per SAB WABCO Design

(Cast Iron Type):
C3W2 distributor valve as per SAB WABCO design is used
for graduated release brake system for wagons meeting the
requirement of UIC specifications. These are used for
application on freight, wagons where pneumatic automatic
two stage load sensing devices are also used.
These are also supplied in cast iron version.
Brake Cylinders With Integral Slack Adjusters:
These are manufatured in 8' dia (203 mm) with 3.3/4" stroke
(95 mm). This is a brake cylinder with integral Slack Adjuster
for application in indian railways coaching brake system
which eleminates use of separate Slack Adjuster and reduces
rigging and levers to a considerable extent.
Each vehicle has at leastone brake cylinder. Sometimes two or
more are provided. The movement of the piston contained
inside the cylinder operates the brakes through links called
"Rigging". The rigging applies the blocks to the wheels.
On every wagon fitted with air brake system one brake
cylinder is provided for
actuating the brake rigging for the application and release of
brakes.
A. Function of Brake Cylinder:
During application stage the brake cylinder receives
pneumatic pressure from the auxiliary reservoir after being
regulated by the distributor valve. There after the brake
cylinder develops mechanical brake power by outward
movement of its piston assembly. To transmit this power to
the brake shoe, the push rod of piston assembly is connected
to the brake shoe through a system of levers to amplify and
transmit the brake power. During release action of brakes the
compression spring provided in the brake cylinder brings back
the rigging to its original position.
B. Salient Features:
The cylinder body is made out of sheet metal or cast iron and
carries the mounting bracket, air inlet connection, ribs and
flange. To the cylinder body,a dome cover is fitted with the
help of bolts and nuts. The dome cover encloses the spring
and the passage for the piston trunk, which is connected to the
piston by screws. The piston is of cast iron having a groove in
which piston packing is seated. Piston packing of rubber
material which is of oil and abrasion resistant and unaffected
by climatic changes. It is snap fit to the piston head and has
self lubricating characteristic which ensures adequate
lubrication over a long service period and extends seal life
considerably. The piston packing also seals the air-flow from
the pressure side to the other side and is guided by the wear
ring. The wear ring prevents the friction between cylinder
body and the piston head. The piston sub assembly
incorporates a push rod, which can articulate and take minor
variations in alignment during fitment/operation.

Auxiliary Reservoir:
Auxiliary Reservoir feeds brake cylinder through Distributor
Valve in brake application position. 200 lts capacity is
reservoir used for coach brake system.
The operation of the air brake on each vehicle relies on the
difference in pressure between one side of the triple valve
piston and the other. In order to ensure there is always a
source of air available to operate the brake , an "auxiliary
reservoir" is connected one side of the piston by way of the
triple valve. The flow of air into and out of the auxiliary
reservoir is controlled by the triple valve.

A. Function of Auxiliary Reservoir:

Auxiliary reservoir is actually a pressure vessel and its
function is to feed dry compressed air to the brake cylinder for
application of brakes.
B. Salient Features:
The auxiliary reservoir is a cylindrical vessel made of sheet
metal. On both the ends of the reservoir, flanges are provided
for pipe connection. One end of the auxiliary reservoir is
connected to the brake pipe through the distributor valve.
Auxiliary reservoir is charged through the brake pipe. The
auxiliary reservoir is charged to 5kg/cm2 pressure, charging
from the brake pipe through Distributor valve.
At the bottom of the auxiliary reservoir, drain plug (or drain
cock) is provided for draining out the condensate/moisture.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF AIR BRAKE SYSTEM IN

APPLICATION POSITION:

Air Brake Hose Coupling (Brake Pipe And Feed Pipe):

Air brake hose couplings are used in between two adjacent
vehicles for continuation of air flow between brake pipe as
well as in feed pipe lines.
DIAGRAM OF AIR BRAKE HOSE COUPLING:

Passenger Alarm Relay Valve:

The passenger alarm relay valve is a diaphragm operate high
capacity vent valve,which magnifies and relays pneumatic
braking signal generated through operation of passenger
alarm signal device.

Passenger Emergency Alarm Signal Device:

The passenger emergency alarm signal device is provided in
passenger coach equipped with graduated release automatic
air brake system to enable passenger to apply brakes from the
vehicle in case of any emergency.

Centrifugal Dirt Collector:

Centrifugal dirt collector is provided for removal of dirt as
well as heavy dust particles prior to the entry of air in the
system by centrifuge action.
Function of Centrifugal dirt collector:
Dirt Collector is placed in the brake pipe line at a point from
where a branch is taken off to the distributor valve. As the
name indicates the purpose of the dirt collector is to protect
the distributor valve and the auxiliary reservoir by trapping
dust and other foreign matters from the compressed air before
it enters into the distributor valve and the auxiliary reservoir.
This action is achieved by centrifugal action. Hence it is also
known as centrifugal dirt collector. The dirt collector ensures
inter vehicular full flow of dirt free compressed air to the
auxiliary reservoir and the distributor valve through the
branch pipes. When the air enters into the body of the dirt
collector tangentially through port `A’ it passes down through
inverted case in a spiral path. Due to the velocity of air
flow, dirt particles get flung outwards. There after they slide
down & collect at the bottom.

Isolating Cock:
Ball type isolating cocks are used to provide facility for
cutting-off of air supply to auxiliary reservoir from feed pipe
as well as isolation of brake cylinder.

Cut Off Angle Cock:

Cut off angle cocks are provided at the end of brake pipe and
feed pipe on each vehicle to maintain flow of air in the air
brake system during the run of vehicle. These cocks are
closed while isolating the vehicle from the train for any
reason. Cut off angle cock are supplied either in 1.1/4" (32
mm) or 1" (25 mm) sizes.

Check Valve With Choke:

Check valves are used between feed pipe and auxiliary
reservoir to permit flow of air from feed pipe to auxiliary
reservoir in one direction only.

Direct Admission Valve (DA Valve):

Direct admission valves are used in vaccum brake system for
coaches for direct application of brakes when vaccum is
destroyed.
PANEL BRAKE SYSTEM:
The Tri-Plate Panel Mounted Brake System is mainly made
out of Aluminium alloy plates specially machined and then
sandwiched. These are used for compact assembly of brake
valves thus saving the space as well as reduction of large
number of pneumatic fittings. This is modular in concept as
well as maintenance friendly.
Vacuum Console Panel is a compact unit housing the Vacuum
Valves as well as the Filters and also a small panel comprising
of other associated Valves related to Vacuum Brake System in
the Locomotive. This eliminates dispersed fitment of Vacuum
Valves in the Locomotive Brake System thus eliminating
leakages as well as saving of space in the Locomotive.
 8" x 8" UAH Brake Cylinder:
UAH Brake Cylinder is used for Locomotive Brake
application. It develops forces due to outward movement of
Piston due to air pressure. The Brake Cylinder includes a
Piston and Push Rod so designed that when it is connected to
suitable brake rigging it will provide brake force through the
rigging. This can be supplied in 9" and 10" dia version
depending on customer's requirement.

A-9 Automatic Brake Valve:

The A-9 Automatic Brake Valve is a compact self lapping,
pressure maintaining Brake Valve which is capable of
graduating the application or release of locomotive and train
brakes. A-9 Automatic Brake Valve has five positions:
Release, minimum Reduction, Full Service, Over Reduction
and Emergency.
 SA-9 Independent Brake Valve:
SA-9 Independent Brake Valve is a compact self lapping,
pressure maintaining Brake Valve which is capable of
graduating the application or release of Locomotive Air
Brakes independent of Automatic Brake. The SA-9
Independent Brake Valve is also capable of releasing an
automatic brake application on the Locomotive without
affecting the train brake application. The SA-9 Brake Valve
has three positions : quick release,release and application.

VA-1 Release Valve:

The VA-1 Release Valve without choke is used as a remote
controlled cut out cock. It is installed in the Vacuum Brake
pipe line between the VA-1B Control Valve and the Train
Vacuum Brake pipe.
 H-5 Relay Air Valve:
The H-5 relay air valve is an air operated three way valve that
changes the air passage through it when the control air
pressure is vented to atmosphere.

HB-5 relay Air Valve:

The HB-5 relay Air Valve is a pneumatic, double piloted,
three way valve that changes the air passages through it when
air pressure of a predetermined amount or more is in the
control chamber.
 HS-4 Control Air Valve:
The HS-4 Control Air Valve delivers a regulated, uniform,
predetermined air pressure, which usually serves to regulate
the operation of another device in the brake System.

F-1 Selector Valve:

The F-1 Selector Valve performs the function of commanding
the brake equipment on the locomotive to lead or trail position
of the adjacent locomotive and ensures operation of brakes in
the trail locomotives when initiated from the lead locomotive.

A-1 Differential Pilot Air Valve:

The A-1 Differential Pilot Air Valve is designed to activate a
number of pneumatic devices for a predetermined length of
time even though it's control air supply is maintained for a
considerably long period.

C2W Relay Air Valve:

The C2W Relay Air Valve is a diaphragm cooperated self
lapping valve having higher capacity which is used as a
remote controlled pneumatic device to relay a large quantity
of main air reservoir pressure to the operating system for
brake application.

MU-2B valve:
The MU-2B Valve is a manually operated, two position and
multi-ported valve arranged with a pipe bracket and is
normally used for locomotive brake equipment for multiple
unit service between locomotives equipped with similar
system in conjunction with F-1 Selector Valve.

VA-1B Control Valve:

The VA-1B Control Valve proportions the amount of vacuum
in the vacuum brake pipe to the air pressure in the compressed
air brake pipe on the locomotive and acts as a pilot valve to
operate the train vacuum brake, thus securing an application
simultaneously with, and in proportion to the locomotive air
brake application.

D-1 Emergency Brake Valve:

The D-1 Emergency Brake Valve is a manually operated
device which provides a means of initiating an emergency
brake application.
 J-1 Safety Valve:
The J-1 Safety Valve installed vertically in the main reservoir
system vents pressure at a predetermined setting to
atmosphere in order to prevent excessive main reservoir
pressure buildup.

D-1 Automatic Drain Valve:

The D-1 Automatic Drain Valve automatically discharges
precipitated moisture from reservoir with each operating cycle
of the control device. The drain valve may be installed on
main reservoir with a sump.
 D-24 B Feed Valve:
The D-24 B Feed Valve is a large capacity highly sensitive
relay valve which is designed to direct the flow of air under
pressure to various devices in air brake equipment
arrangement at a predetermined pressure.

N-1 Reducing Valve:

The N-1 Reducing Valve reduces the pressure of compressed
air supply to a constant predetermined value and delivers the
same usually for operation of auxiliary devices.

24-A Double Check valve:

The 24-A Double Check Valve is used to permit a device to
be controlled by either of two other devices.
 AB Test Rack:
This is a composite test rack where all the WABCO Brake
Valves can be tested by using separate test plates for
individual Brake Valves.

C3W Distributor Valve as per SAB WABCO Design:

C3W Distributor Valve is a graduated release UIC approved
Distributor Valve for application in the Coach Brake System
used for initiating the brake application. These valves are
supplied in Aluminium version as well as Cast Iron version as
far as Body, Top covers and Bottom Covers are concerned.
 D-1 Pilot Air Valve:
The D-1 Pilot Air Valve is a spool type directional control
valve with three-way operation and built with open exhaust
port and is normally used as an electro-pneumatic, remote
control device for controlling the function of a device or
system.
The D-1 Pilot Air Valve is fitted with a solenoid controlled
operator at one end. The operator has a spring to return the
valve stem or spool to its normal position when the operating
force is removed. The nominal operating voltage of the
solenoid is 72 volts DC for Diesel Locomotives and 110 volt
DC for Electric Locomotives. The D-1 pilot Air Valve has
two tapped ports - one is supply and the other delivery. The
third port is an open exhaust at the end cover.
A-9 VALVE:
A-9 Valve is a compact self-lapping, pressure maintaining
valve, which is capable of graduating the application or
release of locomotive and train brake. It has five position:-
 Release
 Minimum reduction
 Full service
 Over-reduction
 Emergency
This consists of self-lapping regulation portion, which
supplies or exhaust the brake valve pressure, and a vent
valve, which is actuated only when the brake valve handle
is placed in an emergency position for venting the brake
pipe pressure at emergency rate. The self-lapping portion is
actuated by regulating the Cam Dog on the Brake valve
handle shaft, which controls the supply or exhaust of the
brake pipe pressure. The vent valve is actuated by special
cam dog attached to the brake valve handle which is
operated only is Emergency Position of the brake valve
handle.
This A-9 is provided with an adjusting handle or set
screw to permit the proper adjustment of the automatic
brake valve to supply brake pipe air to the required
operating pressure.
 SA-9 VALVE:
The SA-9 Independent Brake valve is a compact self-lapping,
pressure maintaining brake valve, which is capable of
graduating the application of the automatic brake. The SA-9
Independent Brake valve is also capable of releasing an
automatic brake application on the locomotive without
affecting the train brake application. The Brake Valve has
three position:-
 Quick Release
 Release
 Application
The Quick Release position is the farthest lift handle position
of the brake valve and serves to release an automatic brake
application on the locomotive. The application position
consists of zone in which regulated air pressures supplier or
exhaust in proportion to brake valve handle movement
through this zone thus piloting and graduating the brake
cylinder pressure during an independent application or
release.
The SA-9 Independent Brake Valve consists of a self-locking
portion, which supplies or exhaust the air pressure for piloting
the graduated application and release of brake cylinder
pressure on locomotive. This brake valve also include a quick
release valve, which serves to release an automatic brake
application of the loco brakes, independent of train brake
valve handle is placed in the Quick release position. The
brake valve handle stem actuates both the self-lapping
regulating portion and the quick release valves of the SA-9
Independent Brake Valve.
The SA-9 Independent Brake Valve is provided with an
adjusting handle or set screw which serves to permit the
proper adjustment of the maximum compressed air for
locomotive independent brake system.
C3W DISTRIBUTOR
VALVE:
This invention relates to an improved "Distributor Valve"
(Type C3W) which is most critical controlled valve. In the
entire brake systems and governs the very "braking function"
in a particular vehicle, be it a locomotive, a wagon or a coach.
These valves are applicable in the coach brake system used
for initiating the brake application.

A distribution valve performs same function as the triple

valve. It is a just a sophisticated version. Distributors have the
ability to connet an emergency reservoir to the brake system
on the vehicle and to recharge it.
Distributor may also have a partial release facility something
not usually available with triple valve.
These valves are supplied in aluminium version as far as
body, top covers and bottom covers are concerned, these
valves are used in two positions-goods and passenger,
directed by change over valve system. Another version is cast
iron which is applied in only goods position.
FUNCTION OF DISTRIBUTOR VALVE:
For application and release of brakes the brake pipe pressure
has to be reduced and increased respectively with the help of
driver's brake valve. During these operations the distributor
valve mainly performs the following function.
(i) Charges the air brake system to regime pressure during
normal running condition.
(ii) Helps in graduated brake application, when pressure in
brake pipe is reduced in steps.
(iii) Helps in graduated brake release, when pressure in brake
pipe is increased in steps.
(iv) Quickly propagates reduction of pressure in brake pipe
throughout the length of the train by arranging additional air
pressure reduction locally inside the
distributor valve.
(v) Limits maximum brake cylinder pressure for full service
application/ emergency application.
(vi) Controls the time for brake application and brake release
depending on service conditions
(vii) Facilitates complete discharge of air from the air brake
system manually with the help of operating lever.
(viii) Protects overcharging of control reservoir when the
brake pipe pressure is quickly increased for releasing the
brakes.
A MODERN DISTRIBUTOR WILL HAVE:
A quick service feature - Where a small chamber inside the
distributor is used to accept brake pipe air to assist in the
transmission of pressure reduction down the train.
A reapplication feature- Allowing the brake to be quickly
re-applied after a partial release.
A graduated release feature- Allowing a partial release
followed by a holding of the application rate.
A connection for a varible load valve- Allowing brake
cylinder pressure to adjust to the weight of the vehicle.
Chokes (which can be changed)- To allow variations in
brake application and release times.
Inshot feature: To give an initial quick application to get the
blocks on the wheels.
Brake cylinder pressure limiting.
Auxiliary reservoir overchanging prevention.
All of these features are achieved with no electrical control.
The control systems comprise diaphragms and springs
arranged in a series of complex valves and passages within
the steel valve block. Distributors with all these features will
normally be provided on passenger trains or high-speed
freight vehicles.
DIAGRAM OF C3W DISTRIBUTOR VALVE:

MAIN VALVE:The main valve consists of two diaphragms

i.e. large and small. The top face of the large diaphragm,
which is situated at the lower position of the stem assembly, is
subjected to brake pipe pressure where as the bottom face is
subjected to control reservoir pressure. The small diaphragm
is situated at the upper position of the stem. The top face of
small diaphragm is subjected to brake cylinder pressure and
bottom face to atmosphere. At the top of hollow stem the
check valve is situated which controls connection of auxiliary
reservoir and brake cylinder. The main valve is also some
times referred to as three pressure valve. Fig. of the main
valve shows various parts of the main valve. The function of
main valve is to supply requisite amount of pressure into the
brake cylinder when BP pressure is reduced. Also it provides
passage for brake cylinder pressure to exhaust to atmosphere,
when brake pipe pressure is raised.
DIAGRAM OF MAIN VALVE:
SECTIONAL VIEW OF MAIN VALVE:

CUT OFF VALVE:The cut off valve has two diaphragms,

upper and lower. The top face of lower diaphragm is subjected
to control reservoir pressure and the bottom face to the brake
pipe pressure. The bottom face of upper diaphragm is
subjected to brake cylinder pressure, and the top face is
subjected to atmosphere and compressed spring pressure. The
cut off valve connects the brake pipe to control reservoir
during charging and cuts off the connection with control
reservoir when brake pipe pressure is dropped for application
of brakes. This valve also provides a way to BP pressure from
its chamber to auxiliary reservoir check valve.
DIAGRAM OF CUT OFF VALVE:
SECTIONAL VIEW OF CUT OFF VALVE:

AUXILIARY RESERVOIR CHECK VALVE:Auxiliary

Reservoir Check Valve helps in charging the auxiliary
reservoir. In addition to charging it also checks back flow of
auxiliary reservoir pressure when brake pipe pressure is
dropped for application of brakes.
DIAGRAM OF AUXILIARY RESERVOIR CHECK
VALVE:
QUICK SERVICE VALVE:The quick service valve has two
diaphragms i.e. upper and lower. The top face of upper
diaphragm is subjected to control reservoir pressure and
bottom face to brake pipe pressure. Where as at lower
diaphragm, the bottom face is subjected to brake pipe pressure
when brakes are applied. The function of quick service valve
is to create an initial pressure drop in brake pipe pressure by
allowing a sudden entry of brake pipe pressure into the large
volume bulb at the start of brake application. This ensures
rapid propagation of pressurereduction in brake pipe through
out the length of train.
DIAGRAM OF QUICK SERVICE VALVE:
SECTIONAL VIEW OF QUICK SERVICE VALVE:

INSHOT VALVE:The limiting device has one diaphragm.

The bottom face of the diaphragm is subjected to brake
cylinder pressure during applied brake condition and top face
is under pressure of compressed spring and atmosphere. The
function of limiting device is to restrict the maximum brake
cylinder pressure to 3.8 + 0.1 Kg/cm2 irrespective of the drop
in brake pipe pressure or auxiliary reservoir pressure.
DIAGRAM OF INSHOT VALVE:

SECTIONAL VIEW OF INSHOT VALVE:

DOUBLE RELEASE VALVE:The function of double
release valve is to release the brakes manually when a single
brief pull is given to the lever. However with a continuous
pull to the release lever it also vents auxiliary reservoir
pressure.
DIAGRAM OF DOUBLE RELEASE VALVE:

DIFFERENT STAGES IN OPERATION OF C3W

DISTRIBUTOR
VALVE:
For effective functioning of the air brake system, the
distributor valve has to
operate effectively during :
a) Charging stage
b) Application stage and
c) Release stage
(a) CHARGING STAGE: During charging stage the
compressed air flows from the brake pipe and enters into the
brake pipe chamber of the main valve, cut off valve and quick
service valve. Due to this pressure the various valves get
activated and perform as under.
Main Valve: Due to brake pipe pressure acting on top face of
the large diaphragm, differential pressure acts on the main
valve. As a result the hollow stem moves downwards there by
connecting brake cylinder to atmosphere. In addition, because
of BP pressure at the top, large diaphragm presses the ring and
trigger. This action unlocks the CR release valve by raising
the locking rod upwards.
Cut Off Valve: As brake pipe pressure enters into the cut off
valve, it flows through the solexjet and valve (which is held
open due to action of BP pressure on bottom side of the lower
diaphragm) to the control reservoir. As the CR & BP pressure
equalises, diaphragm assembly comes down and valve reaches
the lap position. The control reservoir pressure now also
reaches the upper portion of top diaphragm of quick service
valve and the bottom portion of large diaphragm of main
valve. Simultaneously, the auxiliary reservoir is charged with
BP pressure reaching from cut off valve chamber via auxiliary
reservoir check valve.
b) APPLICATION STAGE: During emergency application,
the brake pipe pressure is reduced rapidly to 0 kg/cm2 by the
driver's brake valve. Because of this drop, the position of the
various valves will be as described below.
(i) Main valve: With drop in BP pressure to zero, the
differential pressure acts across the large diaphragm. As a
result, the hollow stem is moved in upward direction and
pushes the check valve thereby opening the passage for entry
of auxiliary reservoir pressure at the top portion of main
valve. This pressure then gets a way to brake cylinder through
limiting device. The brake cylinder thus gets charged with the
compressed air. This pressure is known as “BC pressure”.
(ii) Limiting Device: The auxiliary reservoir pressure which
entered into the top position of main valve now enters the
limiting device through the valve which is held open. From
limiting device air pressure now enters the brake cylinder.
When the BC pressure rises to 3.8 kg/cm2, the upward force
on the diaphragm lifts the guide and the valve at the bottom of
the limiting device gets closed. Thus further entry of air into
the brake cylinder stops. When the brake cylinder pressure
reaches 3.8 kg/cm2, this pressure i.e. BC pressure acts on :
1. Top face of small diaphragm of main valve.
2. Bottom face of upper diaphragm of cut off valve.
3. Top (small chamber) of quick service valve.
Now because of BC pressure acting at main valve small
diaphragm, the hollow stem is pulled down. As a result, the
check valve at top comes down to “close” stage and assumes
lap position with the hollow stem closing further entry of AR
pressure.
(iii)Cut off valve: In cut off valve, the bottom face of the
upper diaphragm is subjected to BC pressure. As a result, the
guide is lifted. Also the upper portion of lower diaphragm is
subjected to CR pressure, which pushes the total assembly
downwards. This action closes the valve of cut off valve,
thereby isolating it from control reservoir pressure.
(iv) Quick Service Valve: In quick service valve, BC
pressure acts at the top of valve and control reservoir pressure
acts at the top face of upper diaphragm. As a result, the stem
is pushed down and the valve at the bottom gets opened. Now
as the BP pressure inside DV is at zero, the residual BP
pressure from the bulb of quick service valve will flow back
and vent to the atmosphere.
(v) GRADUATED APPLICATION: During graduated
brake application the brake pipe pressure is dropped in steps
by driver's brake valve. The movement of various valve
assemblies is almost in the same direction as during
emergency application, but their movement is comparatively
less. In the main valve however after each application the
hollow stem assumes the lap position with the check valve. In
addition to this during graduated application the bottom valve
of limiting device is held open to allow compressed air to
enter into brake cylinder.When BC pressure reaches 3.8
kg/cm2 the bottom valve in limiting device gets closed.
Similarly at the time of full service application as the BC
pressure reaches 3.8 + 0.1 kg/cm2 within specified time, the
position of various valve assemblies will be the same as
described above.
(c) RELEASE STAGE: When the brake pipe pressure is
increased in steps for graduated release of brakes, the position
of the different valves is as described below.
(i) Main valve: At the top face of large diaphragm, as the BP
pressure increases, the hollow stem moves downwards leaving
its lap position with the check valve. The BC pressure thus
finds a passage from top of hollow stem to exhaust to the
atmosphere. This action reduces pressure on the top of upper
diaphragm and the hollow stem again lifts up to lap position.
It closes the hollow stem top portion. The same cycle is
repeated when BP is increased during nextstages. In this way
graduated release effect is obtained.
(ii) Cut off valve: As the BP pressure increases the position
of cut off valve remains similar as in graduated application i.e.
the cut off valve will remain closed, isolating CR pressure
from brake pipe pressure.
(iii) Quick service valve: When the BP pressure is increased,
then as explained above for the main valve, the BC pressure
gets exhausted to atmosphere. This action gradually reduces
the BC pressure. When BC pressure reduces to 0.8 kg/cm2
during brake release, the force at the top of the quick service
valve becomes comparatively less than BP pressure present in
Quick Service Valve. As a result, the valve at the top gets
lifted thereby giving passage to blocked BP pressure to
atmosphere. With the exhaust of BP pressure, the Quick
Service Valve of the Distributor Valve again gets ready for
next brake application.
(iv) Manual release: Double release valve provides for
accelerated manual brake release, which is particularly useful
during shunting operation. A short pull on the lever of double
release valve is all that is needed. This action opens the
control reservoir release check valve, which is then held open
by the locking rod. Venting of control reservoir through the
open control reservoir release check valve brings the main
valve to release position and exhausts the brake cylinder
pressure through the hollow stem.
TRIPLE VALVE:
The operation of the brake on each vehicle is controlled by
the "TRIPLE VALVE", so called because originally it has
three functions-
1. To release the brake.
2. To apply the brake.
3. To hold it at current level of application.
Typically a triple valve contains a slides valve which detects
the changes in the brake pressure and rearrenges, the
connections inside the value accordingly.
It either recharges the auxiliary reservoir and opens the brake
cylinder exhaust and allows the auxiliary reservoir air to feed
into the brake cylinder or holds the air pressure in the
auxiliary pressure and brake cylinder at the current level.
The triple valve is now usually replaced by a distributor- a
more sophisticated version with built-in refinements like
graduated release.
cnc machine shop:
INTRODUCTION:
The term numerical control is a widely accepted and
commonly used term in the machine tool industry. Numerical
control (NC) enables an operator to communicate with
machine tools through a series of numbers and symbols. NC
which quickly became Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
has brought tremendous changes to the metalworking
industry. New machine tools in CNC have enabled industry to
consistently produce parts to accuracies undreamed of only a
few years ago. The same part can be reproduced to the same
degree of accuracy any number of times if the CNC program
has been properly prepared and the computer properly
programmed. The operating commands which control the
machine tool are executed automatically with amazing speed,
accuracy, efficiency, and repeatability.
NC PROGRAME:
A part program is simply an NC program used to manufacture
a part. Part programming for NC may be performed manually
(manual part programming) or by the aid of a computer
(Computer-aided part programming).
Many programming languages have been developed for part
programming. The first that used English like statements and
one of the most popular languages is called APT (for
Automatically Programmed Tools). Many variations of APT
have been developed, including ADAPT (Adaptation of
APT), EXAPT
(a European flavor of APT), UNIAPT (APT controller for
smaller computer systems), etc. NC programming for
complex parts are generated using advanced computer
programs (CAD/CAM programs), which create automatically
the machine code (so called G-code) in a graphic
environment. Machine code is also largely used for manual
part programming of simple shapes and is covered in the
present section.
NC program block consists of a number of program words.
The NC program is executed block by block: each next block
is entered in the system and executed only after entirely
completing the current block. Each program word is an
ordered set of characteristics, letters and numbers, to specify a
single action of the machine tool. Program words fall into two
categories,
Œ1. modal, which are active in the block in which they are
specified and remain active in the
subsequent blocks until another program word overrides
them;
•2. non-modal, which are only active in the block in which
they are specified.

MACHINE USING CNC:

Machine Types:
Lathe:
The engine lathe, one of the most productive machine tools,
has always been an efficient means of producing round parts
(Fig.).
Most lathes are programmed on two axes.
• The X axis controls the cross motion of the cutting tool.
Negative X (X-) moves the tool towards the spindle
centerline; positive X moves the tool away from the spindle
centerline.
• The Z axis controls the carriage travel toward or away from
the headstock.
Milling Machine:
The milling machine has always been one of the most
versatile machine tools used in industry (Fig.).
Operations such as milling, contouring, gear cutting,
drilling, boring, and reaming are only a few of the many
operations which can be performed on a milling
machine. The milling machine can be programmed on
three axes:
• The X axis controls the table movement left or right.
• The Y axis controls the table movement toward or
away from the column.
• The Z axis controls the vertical (up or down) movement
of the knee or spindle.
CNC POSITIONING SYSTEM:

Point-to-Point Positioning:
Point-to-point positioning is used when it is necessary to
accurately locate the spindle, or the work piece mounted on
the machine table, at one or more specific locations to perform
such operations as drilling, reaming, boring, tapping, and
punching(Fig.).

In above fig. point 1 to point 2 is a straight line, and the

machine moves only along the X axis; but points 2 and 3
require that motion along both the X and Y axes takes place.
As the distance in the X direction is greater than in the Y
direction, Y will reach its 15 position first, leaving X to travel
in a straight line for the remaining distance. A similar motion
takes place between points 3 and 4.
Continuous Path (Contouring):
Contouring, or continuous path machining, involves work
such as that produced on a lathe or milling machine, where the
cutting tool is in contact with the work piece as it travels from
one programmed point to the next. Continuous path
positioning is the ability to control motions on two or more
machine axes simultaneously to keep a constant cutter-work
piece relationship.
Fig A- Simple, Fig B-Complex:

Interpolation:
The method by which contouring machine tools move from
one programmed point to the next is called interpolation.
There are five methods of interpolation: linear, circular,
helical, parabolic, and cubic. All contouring controls provide
linear interpolation, and most controls are capable of both
linear and circular interpolation. Helical, parabolic, and cubic
interpolation are used by industries that manufacture parts
which have complex shapes, such as aerospace parts and dies
for car bodies.
Linear Interpolation:
Linear Interpolation consists of any programmed points linked
together by straight lines, whether the points are close
together or far apart (Fig). Curves can be produced with linear
interpolation by breaking them into short, straight-line
segments. This method has limitations, because a very large
number of points
would have to be programmed to describe the curve in order
to produce a contour shape.

Circular Interpolation:
The development of MCUs capable of circular interpolation
has greatly simplified the process of programming arcs and
circles. To program an arc (Fig.), the MCU requires only the
coordinate positions (the XY axes) of the circle center, the
radius of the circle, the start point and end point of the arc
being cut, and the direction in which the arc is to be cut
(clockwise or counterclockwise) See. The information
required may vary with different MCUs.
MACHINE CODE:
The structure of a NC program written in machine code is
standardized and for a two-axis NC system has the following
format:
Some of the most important program words are as follows:
Sequence numbers (N****):
Sequence numbers are a means of identifying program blocks.
In some systems they are not required although sequence
numbers are needed in most canned cycles (covered later in
this section);
Preparatory functions (also G-codes) (G**):
Preparatory functions are used to set up the mode in which the
rest of the operation is to be executed.
Some of examples of G-codes are given in the table:
Dimension words (D****.***),
where D stands for X, Z, U, or W
Dimension words specify the coordinate positions of the
programmed path. X and Z specify the absolute coordinates,
and U and W specify the incremental coordinates (absolute
and incremental programming are explained later in this
section);
Arc center coordinates (D****.***),
where D stands for I, or K
Arc center coordinates specify the incremental coordinate
position of the arc center (I in the direction of X-axis, and K
in the direction of Z-axis), measured from the arc starting
point;
Feed function (F**.**):
Specifies the velocity of feed motion;
Spindle control function (S****):
Specifies spindle rotational speed in revolutions per minute,
or cutting velocity in meter per minute depending on the type
of NC system and machine tool;
Tool calls (F**.**):
The tool call word is used to access the required tool. It also
gives the information for the radial compensation of tool
corner wear for each new run of the program (and each new
part);
Miscellaneous functions (M**):
The M-function perform miscellaneous machine actions such
as these listed in the table:

Structure of a NC program:
AT STONE INDIA:
pantograph
introduction:
A pantograph is a device for collecting an electrical current to
power an electric locomotive, or EMU. The system is
employed to make contact with an electrified overhead wire
(cable). Pantographs in all shapes and sizes depending on the
speed of the loco/trainset, power requirements, power supply
system etc. The basic parts of a pantograph is a lower arm(s)
that pivot against the roof,of a carriage/loco, and is attached to
upper arm(s) that is in-turn attached to a collector 'head' or
'pan'.
The head is the only part of the pantograph to touch the wire
pick up. The current is collected via metalized carbon strips
on the head.

LOW-SPEED PANTOGRAPHS:
Low-speed pantographs operate below 125 mph (200km/h).
These system use springs and air-pressure to do most of the
operations. When folded down to the roof of the carriage/loco
the 'up' springs are in the stretched positions. The method of
raising the pantograph starts with letting air into a cylinder,
this moves a piston forward, and pulls the control rod and
moving a slotted link to control the process. Then the springs
take over and lift the head (via leverage) to contact with the
wire. The reason for having the air cylinder, is to compress
the 'down' spring. To lower the pantograph, air is exhausted
from the cylinder and the 'down' spring acts on the device to
lower the head to the roof the carriage /loco.

HIGH-SPEED PANTOGRAPHS:
For locomotives or trainsets that have a top-speed above
approximately 125mph (200km/h) a different system is used.
These have no springs (since bouncing is a problem), and
raised by pressurized-air via a regulator. This is set to
maintain a constant force on the overhead wire.
When the height of the overhead wire falls, (such as entering a
tunnel), air is bled from the system, and air is added when the
the train leaves the tunnel and the height of the overhead wire
raises.
STONE INDIA COMPANY MAKES THREE TYPES OF
PANTOGRAPH AND APPLIED LIFTING FORCE IS 18 kg
TO CONTACT THE CATENARY WIRE.
 AM-12
 AM-92
 HIGH-SPEED PANTOGRAPH
Quality
control:
A. Introduction
The pressure from globalization has made manufacturing
organizations moving towards three major competitive arenas:
quality, cost, and responsiveness.
Quality is a universal value and has became a global issue. In
order to survive and be able to provide customers with good
products, manufacturing organizations are required to ensure
that their processes are continuously monitored and product
quality are improved. Manufacturing organization applies
various quality control techniques to improve the quality of
the process by reducing its variability. A range of techniques
is available to control product or process quality. These
include seven statistical process control (SPC) tools,
acceptance sampling, quality function deployment (QFD),
failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA), six sigma, and
design of experiments (DOE).
The purpose of this chapter is to present the implementation
of quality control in four manufacturing companies and
identify the factors that influence the selection of quality
control techniques in these companies. The paper discusses
the reasons for applying quality control techniques, the
techniques used, and problems faced by them during the
implementation.. The application of quality control in each
company is then presented. The motivating factors for
the companies to apply quality control and challenges faced
by companies in implementing quality control are discussed.
B. Quality control
Quality can be defined as fulfilling specification or customer
requirement, without any defect. A product is said to be high
in quality if it is functioning as expected and reliable. Quality
control refers to activities to ensure that produced items are
fulfilling the highest possible quality. Most of tools and
techniques to control quality are statistical techniques. Quality
control techniques can be classified into basic, intermediate,
and advance level, but there is no consensus among
researchers in the classification. The process through which
the standards are established and met with standards is called
control. This process consists of observing our activity
performance, comparing the performance with some standard
and then taking action if the observed performance is
significantly too different from the standards.
The control process involves a universal sequence of steps as
follows:
1. Choose the control object
2. Choose a unit of measure
3. Set the standard value
4. Choose a sensing device which can measure
5. Measure actual performance
6. Interpret the difference between actual and standard
7. Taking action.

C. Need for Controlling Quality

In the absence of quality, the following will result:
1. No yardstick for comparing the quality of goods/services.
2. Difficulty in maintaining consistency in quality.
3. Dissatisfied customers due to increased maintenance and
operating costs of products/services.
4. Increased rework cost while manufacturing
products/providing services.
5. Reduced lifetime of the products/services.
6. Reduced flexibility with respect to usage of standard spare
parts.
7. Hence, controlling quality is an essential activity.

D. Types of Quality Control

QC is not a function of any single department or a person. It is
the primary responsibility of any supervisor to turn out work
of acceptable quality. Quality control can be divided into three
main sub-areas, those are:
1. Off-line quality control: Its procedure deal with measures
to select and choose controllable product and process
parameters in such a way that the deviation between the
product or process output and the standard will be minimized.
Much of this task is accomplished through product and
process design.
Example: Taguchi method, principles of experimental design
etc.
2. Statistical process control: SPC involves comparing the
output of a process or a service with a standard and taking
remedial actions in case of a discrepancy between the two. It
also involves determining whether a process can produce a
product that meets desired specification or requirements. On-
line SPC means that information is gathered about the
product, process, or service while it is functional. The
corrective action is taken in that operational phase.
This is real-time basis.
3. Acceptance sampling plans: A plan that determines the
number of items to sample and the acceptance criteria of the
lot, based on meeting certain stipulated conditions (such as the
risk of rejecting a good lot or accepting a bad lot) is known as
an acceptance sampling plan.
E. Steps in Quality Control
Following are the steps in quality control process:
1. Formulate quality policy.
2. Set the standards or specifications on the basis of
customer’s preference, cost and profit.
3. Select inspection plan and set up procedure for checking.
4. Detect deviations from set standards of specifications.
5. Take corrective actions or necessary changes to achieve
standards.
6. Decide on salvage method i.e., to decide how the defective
parts are disposed of, entire
scrap or rework.
7. Coordination of quality problems.
8. Developing quality consciousness both within and outside
the organization.
9. Developing procedures for good vendor-vendee relations.

F. Objectives of Quality Control

Following are the objectives of quality control:
1. To improve the companies income by making the
production more acceptable to the customers, i.e., by
providing long life, greater usefulness, maintainability etc.
2. To reduce companies cost through reduction of losses due
to defects.
3. To achieve interchangeability of manufacture in large scale
production.
4. To produce optimal quality at reduced price.
5. To ensure satisfaction of customers with productions or
services or high quality level, to build customer goodwill,
confidence and reputation of manufacturer.
6. To make inspection prompt to ensure quality control.
7. To check the variation during manufacturing.
The broad areas of application of quality control are incoming
material control, process control and product control.

G. Benefits of Quality Control

1. Improving the quality of products and services.
2. Increasing the productivity of manufacturing processes,
commercial business, corporations.
3. Reducing manufacturing and corporate costs.
4. Determining and improving the marketability of products
and services.
5. Reducing consumer prices of products and services.
6. Improving and/or assuring on time deliveries and
availability.
7. Assisting in the management of an enterprise.

H. Seven Tools for Quality Control

To make rational decisions using data obtained on the
product, or process, or from the consumer, organizations use
certain graphical tools. These methods help us learn about the
characteristics of a process, its operating state of affairs and
the kind of output we may expect from it. Graphical methods
are easy to understand and provide comprehensive
information; they are a viable tool for the analysis of product
and process data. These tools are effect on quality
improvement. The seven quality control tools are:
1. Pareto charts 2. Check sheets 3. Cause and effect
diagram
4. Scatter diagrams 5. Histogram 6. Graphs or flow charts
7. Control charts

1. PARETO CHARTS
Pareto charts help prioritize by arranging them in decreasing
order of importance. In an environment of limited resources
these diagrams help companies to decide on the order in
which they should address problems. The Pareto analysis can
be used to identify the problem in a number of forms.
(a) Analysis of losses by material (number or past number).
(b) Analysis of losses by process i.e., classification of defects
or lot rejections in terms of the process.
(c) Analysis of losses by product family.
(d) Analysis by supplier across the entire spectrum of
purchases.
(e) Analysis by cost of the parts.
(f) Analysis by failure mode.

2. CHECK SHEETS
Check sheets facilitate systematic record keeping or data
collection observations are recorded as they happen which
reveals patterns or trends. Data collection through the use of a
checklist is often the first step in analysis of quality problem.
A checklist is a form used to record the frequency of
occurrence of certain product or service characteristics related
to quality. The characteristics may be measurable on a
continuous scale such as weight, diameter, time or length.
3. CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM:

It is sometimes called as Fish-bone diagram. It is first

developed by Kaorv Ishikawa in 1943 and is sometimes called
as Ishikawa diagram. The diameter helps the management
trace customer complaints directly to the operations involved.
The main quality problem is referred to Fish-head; the major
categories of potential cause structural bones and the likely
specific causes to ribs. It explores possible causes of
problems, with the intention being to discover the root causes.
This diagram helps identify possible reasons for a process to
go out of control as well as possible
effects on the process.

Fishbone Diagrarm

4. SCATTER DIAGRAM (SCATTER PLOTS):

It often indicates the relationship between two variables. They

are often used as follow-ups to a cause and effect analysis to
determine whether a stated cause truly does impact the quality
characteristics.
5. HISTOGRAM (OR) BAR CHARTS:

It displays the large amounts of data that are difficult to

interpret in their raw form. A histogram summarizes data
measured on a continuous scale showing the frequency
distribution of some quality characteristics (in statistical terms
the central tendency and the dispersion of the data).

Histogram
Often the mean of the data is indicated on the histogram. A
bar chart is a series of bare representing the frequency of
occurrence of data characteristics, the bar height indicates the
number of times a particular quality characteristic was
observed.

6. FLOW CHARTS (OR) GRAPHS:

It shows the sequence of events in a process. They are used

for manufacturing and service operations. Flow charts are
often used to diagram operational procedures to simplify the
system. They can identify bottlenecks, redundant steps and
non-value added activities. A realistic flow chart can be
constructed by using the knowledge of the person who are
directly involved in the particular process. The flow chart can
be identifies where delays can occur.

Flowchart
7. CONTROL CHARTS:

It distinguish special causes of variations from common

causes of variation. They are used to monitor and control
process on an ongoing basis. A typical control chart plots a
selected quality characteristic found from sub-group of
observations as a function of sample number. Characteristics
such as sample average, sample range and sample proportion
of non-conforming units are plotted.
The center line on a control chart represents the average value
of characteristics being plotted. Two limits know as the upper
control limit (UCL) and lower control limit (LCL) are also
shown on control charts. These limits are constructed so that
if the process is operating under a stable system of chance
causes, the problem of an observation falling outside these
limits is quite small. Figure shows a generalized
representation of a control chart. Control chart shows the
performance of a process from two points of view. First, they
show a snapshot of the process at the moment the data are
collected. Second, they show the process trend as time
progresses. Process trends are important because they help in
identifying the outof- control status if it actually exists. Also,
they help to detect variations outside the normal operational
limits, and to identify the cause of variations. Fig. shows a
generalised representation of a control chart.

Control Charts
I. CAUSES OF VARIATION IN QUALITY:

The variation in the quality of product in any manufacturing

process is broadly classified as:
(a) Chance causes
(b) Assignable causes.

(A)Chance Causes:

The chance causes are those causes which are inherit in

manufacturing process by virtue of
operational and constructional features of the equipments
involved in a manufacturing process.
This is because of—
1. Machine vibrations
2. Voltage variations
3. Composition variation of material, etc.
They are difficult to trace and difficult to control, even under
best condition of production. Even though, it is possible to
trace out, it is not economical to eliminate. The chance causes
results in only a minute amount of variation in process.
Variation in chance causes is due to internal factors only the
general pattern of variation under chance causes will follow a
stable statistical distribution (normal distribution). Variation
within the control limits means only random causes are
present.

(B) Assignable Causes:

These are the causes which creates ordinary variation in the

production quality.
Assignable cause’s variation can always be traced to a specific
quality. They occur due to—
1. Lack of skill in operation
2. Wrong maintenance practice
3. New vendors
4. Error in setting jigs and fixtures
5. Raw material defects
Variation due to these causes can be controlled before the
defective items are produced. Any one assignable cause can
result in a large amount of variation in process. If the
assignable causes are present, the system will not follow a
stable statistical distribution. When the actual variation
exceeds the control limits, it is a signal that assignable causes
extend the process and process should be investigated.

J. BENEFITS OF QC:

The most important benefit of quality circles is their effect on

people’s attitudes fall into three categories:
1. Quality Circles Effect on Individual Characteristics
(a) Quality circles enable the individual to improve personal
capabilities—group participation and learning specific
problem-solving tools.
(b) Quality circles increase the individual’s self-respect.
(c) Quality circles help worker change certain personality
characteristics—shy person become as active.
2. Quality Circles Effect on Individuals Relations with
Other
(a) Quality circles increase the respect of the supervisor for
the worker.
(b) Quality circles increase workers understanding of the
difficulties faced by supervisors— problem selection, solving
and implementations.
(c) Quality circle increase management’s respect for worker.
3. Quality Circles Effect on Workers and Their Attributes
(a) Quality circles change some workers negative attitudes.
(b) Quality circle reduces conflict stemming from the working
environment.
(c) Quality circles help workers to understand better the
reasons while many problems solved quickly. Quality circles,
as a management tool, are based on the following basic
principles of people:
(a) People want to do a good job.
(b) People want to be recognized as intelligent, interested
employees and to participate in decisions affecting their work.
(c) People want information to better understand goals and
problems of their organization and make informed decisions.
(d) Employees want recognition and responsibility and a
feeling of self-esteem.
Motivational methods are not enough for successful quality
circle programs. Management support, technical knowledge,
and statistical procedures are essential.

K. TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT:

Now-a-days, customers demand products/services with

greater durability and reliability at the most economic price.
This forces producers to strictly follow quality procedures
right from design till shipment and installation of the
products. So that goal of any competitive industry is to
provide a product or service at the most economical costs,
ensuring full customer satisfaction. This can be achieved
through Total Quality Management (TQM), because, quality
is not a technical function, but a systemic process extending
throughout all phases of the business, e.g., marketing, design,
development, engineering, purchasing, production/operations.
As per Feigebaum, “Total Quality Management is an effective
system of integrating the quality development, quality
maintenance and quality improvement efforts of various
groups in an organization so as to enable marketing,
engineering, production and service at the most economical
levels which allow for full customer satisfaction”.

Benefits of TQM:

The benefits of TQM can be classified into the following two

categories:
1. Customer satisfaction oriented benefits.
2. Economic improvements oriented benefits.
1. Customer satisfaction oriented benefits: The benefits
under this category are listed below:
(a) Improvement in product quality.
(b) Improvement in product design.
(c) Improvement in production flow.
(d) Improvement in employee morale and quality
consciousness.
(e) Improvement of product service.
(f) Improvement in market place acceptance.
2. Economic improvements oriented benefits: The benefits
under this category are as follows:
(a) Reductions in operating costs.
(b) Reductions in operating losses.
(c) Reductions in field service costs.
(d) Reductions in liability exposure.

L. ISO 9000 SERIES:

ISO stands for International Organization for Standardization.

It is an international body, which consists of representatives
from more than 90 countries. The national standard bodies of
these countries are the members of this organization. Bureau
of Indian Standards (BIS) are the Indian representative to ISO,
ISO and International Electro Technical Commission (IEC))
operate jointly as a single system. These are non-
governmental organizations, which exist to provide common
standards on international trade of goods and services.
ISO 9000 standards expect firms to have a quality manual that
meets ISO guidelines, documents, quality procedures and job
instructions, and verification of compliance by third-party
auditors. ISO 9000 series has five international standards on
quality managements. They are:
1. ISO 9000 — Quality management and Quality assurance
standards
2. ISO 9001 — Quality systems: Quality in design
3. ISO 9002 — Quality systems: Production and Installation
4. ISO 9003 — Quality systems: Final inspection and test
5. ISO 9004 — Quality management and systems

Objectives of ISO 9000 Series:

The objectives of ISO 9000 series is listed in Table

Benefits of ISO 9000 Series

ISO 9000 series provides several tangible and intangible

benefits which are listed below:
1. This gives competitive advantage in the global market.
2. Consistency in quality, since ISO helps in detecting non-
conformity early which makes it possible to take corrective
action.
3. Documentation of quality procedures adds clarity to quality
system.
4. ISO 9000 ensures adequate and regular quality training for
all members of the organization.
5. ISO helps the customers to have cost effective purchase
procedure.
6. The customers while making purchases from companies
with ISO certificate need not spend much on inspection and
testing. This will reduce the quality cost and lead-time.
7. This will help in increasing productivity.
8. This will aid to improved morale and involvement of
workers.
9. The level of job satisfaction would be more.

M.APPLICATION ISO 9000: ISO 14000 SERIES

OVERVIEW

The ISO 14000 series of environmental management

standards are intended to assist organizations manage the
environmental effect of their business practices. The ISO
14000 series is similar to the ISO 9000 series published in
1987. The purpose of the ISO 9000 series is to encourage
organizations to institute quality assurance management
programs. Although ISO 9000 deals with the overall
management of an organization and ISO 14000 deals with the
management of the environmental effects of an organization,
both standards are concerned with processes, and there is talk
of combining the two series into one.
 The environmental standards of ISO 14000 deal with
how a company manages the environment inside its facilities
and the immediate outside environment. However, the
standards also call for analysis of the entire life cycle of a
product, from raw material to eventual disposal. These
standards do not mandate a particular level of pollution or
performance, but focus on awareness of the processes and
procedures that can effect the environment. It should
be noted that adherence to the ISO 14000 standards does not
in anyway release a company from any national or local
regulations regarding specific performance issues regarding
the environment.
Some of the standards in the ISO 14000 series are:
_ ISO 14001—Specification of Environmental Management
Systems
_ ISO 14004—Guideline Standard
_ ISO 14010 through ISO 14015—Environmental Auditing
and Related Activities
_ ISO 14020 through ISO 14024—Environmental Labelling
_ ISO 14031 through ISO 14032—Environmental
Performance Evaluation
_ ISO 14040 through ISO 14043—Life Cycle Assessment
_ ISO 14050—Terms and Definitions
Although the ISO 14000 standards are similar to the ISO 9000
standards, the nature of the Environmental standards creates a
need for people who are technical environment professionals
in addition to those required to maintain the documentation
necessary for certification.
Maintenance
Introduction:
What is maintenance and why is it performed? Past and
current maintenance practices in both the private and
government sectors would imply that maintenance is the
actions associated with equipment repair after it is broken.
The dictionary defines maintenance as follows: “the work of
keeping something in proper condition; upkeep.” This would
imply that maintenance should be actions taken to prevent a
device or component from failing or to repair normal
equipment degradation experienced with the operation of the
device to keep it in proper working order. Unfortunately, data
obtained in many studies over the past decade indicates that
most private and government facilities do not expend the
necessary resources to maintain equipment in proper working
order. Rather, they wait for equipment failure to occur and
then take whatever actions are necessary to repair or replace
the equipment. Nothing lasts forever and all equipment has
associated with it some predefined life expectancy or
operational life. For example, equipment may be designed to
operate at full design load for 5,000 hours and may be
designed to go through 15,000 start and stop cycles.
The need for maintenance is predicated on actual or
impending failure – ideally, maintenance is performed to
keep equipment and systems running efficiently for at least
design life of the component(s). As such, the practical
operation of a component is time-based function. If one were
to graph the failure rate a component population versus time,
it is likely the graph would take the “bathtub” shape shown
in Figure. In the figure the Y axis represents the failure rate
and the X axis is time. From its shape, the curve can be
divided into three distinct: infant mortality, useful life, and
wear-out periods.
The initial infant mortality period of bathtub curve is
characterized by high failure rate followed by a period of
decreasing failure. Many of the failures associated with this
region are linked to poor design, poor installation, or
misapplication. The infant mortality period is followed by a
nearly constant failure rate period known as useful life. There
are many theories on why components fail in this region, most
acknowledge that poor O&M often plays significant role. It is
also generally agreed that exceptional maintenance practices
encompassing preventive and predictive elements can extend
this period. The wear-out period is characterized by a rapid
increasing failure rate with time. In most cases this period
encompasses the normal distribution of design life failures.
The design life of most equipment requires periodic
maintenance. Belts need adjustment, alignment needs to be
maintained, proper lubrication on rotating equipment is
required, and so on. In some cases, certain components need
replacement, (e.g., a wheel bearing on a motor vehicle) to
ensure the main piece of equipment (in this case a car) last for
its design life. Anytime we fail to perform maintenance
activities intended by the equipment’s designer, we shorten
the operating life of the equipment. But what options do we
have? Over the last 30 years, different approaches to how
maintenance can be performed to ensure equipment reaches or
exceeds its design life have been developed in the United
States. In addition to waiting for a piece of equipment to fail
(reactive maintenance), we can utilize preventive
maintenance, predictive maintenance, or reliability centered
maintenance.
Component failure rate over time for component
population

A. Reactive Maintenance
Reactive maintenance is basically the “run it till it breaks”
maintenance mode. No actions or efforts are taken to maintain
the equipment as the designer originally intended to ensure
design life is reached. Studies as recent as the winter of 2000
indicate this is still the predominant mode of maintenance in
the United States. The referenced study breaks down the
average maintenance program as follows:
 >55% Reactive
 31% Preventive
 12% Predictive
 2% Other.
Advantages • Low cost. • Less staff.
Disadvantages • Increased cost due to unplanned downtime
of equipment. • Increased labor cost, especially if overtime is
needed. • Cost involved with repair or replacement of
equipment. • Possible secondary equipment or process
damage from equipment failure. • Inefficient use of staff
resources.
Note that more than 55% of maintenance resources and
activities of an average facility are still reactive.
Advantages to reactive maintenance can be viewed as a
double-edged sword. If we are dealing with new equipment,
we can expect minimal incidents of failure. If our
maintenance program is purely reactive, we will not expend
manpower dollars or incur capital cost until something breaks.
Since we do not see any associated maintenance cost, we
could view this period as saving money. The downside is
reality. In reality, during the time we believe we are saving
maintenance and capital cost, we are really spending more
dollars than we would have under a different maintenance
approach. We are spending more dollars associated with
capital cost because, while waiting for the equipment to break,
we are shortening the life of the equipment resulting in more
frequent replacement. We may incur cost upon failure of the
primary device associated with its failure causing the failure
of a secondary device. This is an increased cost we would not
have experienced if our maintenance program was more
proactive. Our labor cost associated with repair will probably
be higher than normal because the failure will most likely
require more extensive repairs than would have been required
if the piece of equipment had not been run to failure. Chances
are the piece of equipment will fail during off hours or close
to the end of the normal workday. If it is a critical piece of
equipment that needs to be back on-line quickly, we will have
to pay maintenance overtime cost. Since we expect to run
equipment to failure, we will require a large material
inventory of repair parts. This is a cost we could minimize
under a different maintenance strategy.
B. Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance can be defined as follows: Actions
performed on a time- or machine-run-based schedule that
detect, preclude, or mitigate degradation of a component or
system with the aim of sustaining or extending its useful life
through controlling degradation to an acceptable level. The
U.S. Navy pioneered preventive maintenance as a means to
increase the reliability of their vessels. By simply expending
the necessary resources to conduct maintenance activities
intended by the equipment designer, equipment life is
extended and its reliability is increased. In addition to an
increase in reliability, dollars are saved over that of a program
just using reactive maintenance. Studies indicate that this
savings can amount to as much as 12% to 18% on the
average. Depending on the facilities current maintenance
practices, present equipment reliability, and facility
downtime, there is little doubt that many facilities purely
reliant on reactive maintenance could save much more than
18% by instituting a proper preventive maintenance program.
While preventive maintenance is not the optimum
maintenance program, it does have several advantages over
that of a purely reactive program. By performing the
preventive maintenance as the equipment designer envisioned,
we will extend the life of the equipment closer to design. This
translates into dollar savings. Preventive maintenance
(lubrication, filter change, etc.) will generally run the
equipment more efficiently resulting in dollar savings. While
we will not prevent equipment catastrophic failures, we will
decrease the number of failures. Minimizing failures translate
into maintenance and capital cost savings.
Advantages • Cost effective in many capital-intensive
processes.
 • Flexibility allows for the adjustment of maintenance
periodicity.
• Increased component life cycle.
• Energy savings.
• Reduced equipment or process failure.
• Estimated 12% to 18% cost savings over reactive
maintenance program.
Disadvantages • Catastrophic failures still likely to occur.
• Labor intensive.
• Includes performance of unneeded maintenance.
• Potential for incidental damage to components in conducting
unneeded maintenance.

C. Predictive Maintenance
Predictive maintenance can be defined as follows:
Measurements that detect the onset of system degradation
(lower functional state), thereby allowing causal stressors to
be eliminated or controlled prior to any significant
deterioration in the component physical state. Results indicate
current and future functional capability. Basically, predictive
maintenance differs from preventive maintenance by basing
maintenance need on the actual condition of the machine
rather than on some preset schedule. You will recall that
preventive maintenance is time-based. Activities such as
changing lubricant are based on time, like calendar time or
equipment run time. For example, most people change the oil
in their vehicles every 3,000 to 5,000 miles traveled. This is
effectively basing the oil change needs on equipment run
time. No concern is given to the actual condition and
performance capability of the oil. It is changed because it is
time. This methodology would be analogous to a preventive
maintenance task. If, on the other hand, the operator of the car
discounted the vehicle run time and had the oil analyzed at
some periodicity to determine its actual condition and
lubrication properties, he/she may be able to extend the oil
change until the vehicle had traveled 10,000 miles. This is the
fundamental difference between predictive maintenance and
preventive maintenance, whereby predictive maintenance is
used to define needed maintenance task based on quantified
material/equipment condition.
The advantages of predictive maintenance are many. A well-
orchestrated predictive maintenance program will all but
eliminate catastrophic equipment failures. We will be able to
schedule maintenance activities to minimize or delete
overtime cost. We will be able to minimize inventory and
order parts, as required, well ahead of time to support the
downstream maintenance needs. We can optimize the
operation of the equipment, saving energy cost and increasing
plant reliability. Past studies have estimated that a properly
functioning predictive maintenance program can provide a
savings of 8% to 12% over a program utilizing preventive
maintenance alone. Depending on a facility’s reliance on
reactive maintenance and material condition, it could easily
recognize savings opportunities exceeding 30% to 40%. In
fact, independent surveys indicate the following industrial
average savings resultant from initiation of a functional
predictive maintenance program:
 Return on investment: 10 times
 Reduction in maintenance costs: 25% to 30%
 Elimination of breakdowns: 70% to 75%
 Reduction in downtime: 35% to 45%
 Increase in production: 20% to 25%.
On the down side, to initially start into the predictive
maintenance world is not inexpensive. Much of the equipment
requires cost in excess of $50,000. Training of in-plant
personnel to effectively utilize predictive maintenance
technologies will require considerable funding. Program
development will require an understanding of predictive
maintenance and a firm commitment to make the program
work by all facility organizations and management.

Advantages
 Increased component operational life/availability.
 Allows for preemptive corrective actions.
 Decrease in equipment or process downtime.
 Decrease in costs for parts and labor.
 Better product quality.
 Improved worker and environmental safety.
 Improved worker morale.
 Energy savings.
 Estimated 8% to 12% cost savings over preventive
maintenance program.
Disadvantages
 Increased investment in diagnostic equipment.
 Increased investment in staff training.
 Savings potential not readily seen by management.
Reliability centered maintenance element applications:
 CONCLUSION
Brake is an essential feature in order to retard and stop the
railway vehicle within minimum possible time. That's why
Air Brake is used which is very effective and advantage
operating system in the railway vehicle. So many employees
are working and attach to this Air Brake system. The Air
Brake system itself does new project for up gradation of
technology. Its truly inspiring to watch the work of the
employees every day.
Being a technical course student of Mechanical Engineering,
I have tried to correlate my theoretical knowledge and all that
I have viewed practically. My project contains the articles
which are taken from my daily observation notebook.
It is really wonderful experience to do the training in the
manufacturing company of Air Brake system (Railway) at
STONE INDIA.
This industrial training is very helpful in understanding basic
concept and theory of Air Brake system (function &
operation).
I also understand its setup and its working principle of
indivudual valves like A-9, SA-9,C3W Distributor valve etc.
All in all the experience will be very helpful in my future if I
work in a core field or a core company.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 www.stoneindia.co.in
 WIKIPEDIA
 GOOGLE

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