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THE MARKS OF BODILY BEING:

A Written Report about the Meaning of Marks of Bodies,
Bodies and Their Characteristics, and The World not Divine.
Bro. Albert Gallogo
Sem. Gred Matthew Viñalon
https://prezi.com/p/bd0bsqctu2j8/?present=1

This article will serve as the discussion of Article 1 of Paul Glenn’s Cosmology Chapter 1
entitled “The Marks of Bodily Being”. It will discuss the meaning of the marks, the bodies
and their characteristics, and the world being not Divine. Then, in order to grasp this
topic easier, the author will relate this article to the author’s previous studies most
specifically in Metaphysics and Theodicy, also to his personal insights.

A. Meaning of the Marks

The introduction of the book discussed Cosmology’s objective of the study, i.e., Bodily
beings. Thus, as the objective of the study, it will be used frequently throughout the
book. As defined, Bodily beings are beings that exists or can exist in the physical world
or realities around us. With that being stated, the author will now delve into the
discussion of the marks of those Bodily beings.

In the world, marks were frequently connotated in the form of tattoo, scars, pimples,
moles, and what not. Properly speaking, Marks are as those realities which are
constantly manifested by the bodily world in which people find themselves. Simply
speaking, these are properties that the bodies present in our notice. From these, it is
important first to recognize Paul Glenn’s Postulate 1, the world which constitutes
substances having accidents are REAL.2

Substance exists itself. This is not a determinant of something. What determines

something are called Accidents. The author will use Paul Glenn’s example for further
understanding. Water is a substance, it may differ in terms of its temperature, quantity,
quality, color, and many others. The different appearances, temperatures, and quantities
of water are called Accidents. From the varying accidents, there are necessary properties
that made us identify something to be called as a water, these constant things which is a
natural necessity are called Proper Accidents or simply Properties. But how one really
knows that it is indeed water?

1
Postulate is a thing suggested or assumed as true as the basis for reasoning, discussion, or belief; See
Google Dictionary; See the unpublished article of Rev. Fr. Maxell Lowell C. Aranilla, Ph.D.
2
Substance will be used interchangeably with Bodily beings; Bodily beings would mean Substance.

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In epistemology, knowledge starts from sensation. 3 Thus, a person came to have the
knowledge of substances after that person came to sense the accidents present during
sensation. But, by modernity, the sense-data that one gets from a substance having
accidents can already be deceived. Now there are cakes that is in the form of a table,
sand art in a form of a pencil, and many others. Here enters the power of the Intellect.
The Intellect helps every perceiver to go beyond the unsatisfied sense-data gathered
from a substance. It helps to know the reality behind varying and shifting accidents.
Thus, it acts to recognize the actuality in a substance, the truth that one cannot doubt. It
is also important to note that doubting one’s Intellect may be self-defeating as one may
also lead to doubt one’s ‘doubt’.

In line with these, one may simply say that the Accidents are the marks of Bodily Beings,
the accidents may shift or vary, but one can still identify those substances with the help
of the Intellect.

B. Bodies and their Characteristics

After discussing the marks, the author will now delve more into Bodily beings by
expounding it’s characteristics. The author will try to answer the question, “what is
constant from the Bodily beings?”.

According to the book, “the first [constant] thing that we can notice is the fact that every
bodily substance is extended in space; it has quantity”. But, aside from quantity, there
are four constant characteristics of substance: Composition, Mutability, Contingency,
and Finiteness.

Composition comes from the Latin word “componere” which can be translated as “to
put together”. Thus, when one speaks of Composition, one points to compoundedness.
In relation substance, when one says that a body is composed or a composition, it is put
together; it is a conjoined or assembled reality; that this thing is a thing made of
elements, principles, part, members. There are 5 types of Composition:

1. Entitative Composition
It is the union or composition of essence and existence in an actual creature. In
ontology, existence speaks of “anything that now exists, or that has existed in the past,
or that will exist in the future, or that can be thought of as existing even though it never
actually existed and never will”. 4 Bodily beings exist in the world as rooted in its quantity.

3
Cf. Vincent G. Potter, On Understanding Understanding: A Philosophy of Knowledge (United States:
Fordham University Press, 1994), p.42.
4
See Paul Glenn, Ontology (Binghamton and New York: Vail Ballou, 1937), p.2.

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On the other hand, essence “makes the thing precisely what it is in its specific kind”. 5
Bodily beings exist not just by quantity, they have essence that gives them identification.
Therefore, Bodily beings are a composition of essence and existence. Meanwhile, God is
different from creatures. God is Absolutely Simple, and not a composition. 6

2. Essential Composition
This is sometime called substantial composition. It is a composition that is concerned
with the union of principles, members, elements or parts which come together to make
up an essence. As the title suggests, it speaks of the essence. Essence itself is composed
of prime matter (primary matter) and substantial form, that is the material thing cast in a
definite kind or mold or form which gives actuality as such a specific Bodily being. 7
There are 2 kinds of Essential Composition: Physical, and Metaphysical.

a. Physical
This is concerned with the sum or union of those physical parts or elements which come
together to constitute the essence as a physis. Physis is usually translated as nature. 8 The
Greeks understood nature to be that which creates itself, that which emerges from out
of itself. But there are other things in the world, things which depend on something else
to come into being.9 By means of composition, all natural bodies are physically
compounded. Since it is a composite of that which it has in common with other bodies,
and that which it has in special to make it the actual and precise kind of body that it is. A
good example for this is man as Embodied Spirit.

b. Metaphysical
This kind is concerned with the sum or union of those realities in it which explain it to be
understanding mind, even though these realities be not distinct things in order of
nature outside the mind. Hence, all natural bodies are metaphysically compounded or
composed since each of them is a thing of a certain kind, and the mind, in knowing such
a reality naturally compounds the ideas or notes of “thing” and “of this thing”. An
example of this could be the sum of inferiors, i.e., being a rational animal. 10

3. Accidental Composition

5
See Paul Glenn, op. cit., p.4.
6
See Theodicy, an unpublished article of Rev. Fr. Maxell Lowell C. Aranilla, Ph.D.
7
Prime Matter is the underlying substantial substrate of all bodies, then Substantial Form actualizes
the Prime Matter; See Paul Glenn, op. cit., p. 12.
8
See Philosophy of Science and Technology, an unpublished article of Rev. Fr. Noel B. Magtaas, OSJ.
9
See Ibid.
10
Denotation is the sum-total of the inferiors of an idea; See Paul Glenn, op. cit., p. 5.

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Bodily beings are composed of essence and accidents. After having the idea of essential
composition. In this part, the author will now focus on the accidental composition. If
essence is composed, accidents too.

This kind of composition is concerned with accidents. Bodily beings are composed of
accidents. As such, one may find it difficult to think of a substance that doesn’t have
accidents. But one should be careful to think that substance and accidents are one, they
are not. A natural body evidences in itself an accidental composition of substance and
accidents. An example of this could be the temperature of a water.

4. Integral Composition
The word “Integral” comes from the Latin word “integrtalis” which means “untouched,
unhurt, having lost nothing, not defective”; therefore, this word connotes “rounded
perfection”. The parts or elements (mainly quantitative) which belongs to the rounded
completeness of a reality, but do not constitute that reality in its essence are called
integral parts and are said to be united with the reality which they perfect or
complement by integral union or integral composition. This indicates that bodily beings
are marked with integral composition. All bodily beings have quantity, ergo their integral
parts are extended in space. Furthermore, these parts may change or be destroyed, but
one should remember that even if a change or destruction occurred the body losses
only it’s quantitative parts and not its essential or substantial character. Hence, if one
loses their teeth, become amputated, or whatnot, they are still the same Bodily being as
they were before.
5. Numerical Composition
This is concerned with the union or assembling of the items or elements to constitute a
sum, or a totality, or collective unity. Everything can be numbered, this may sound like
Pythagoras, but this connotes that the bodily world is characterized by numerical
composition.11 This is a variety of accidental composition. Thus, numerical composition
does not affect the distinctiveness of the items that have come together to make a total,
rather this only includes the association or collection of numerable items, elements,
parts; nothing more. And such association or collection is in itself an accidental
composition. An example of this could be crowd, herd of birds, school of fish, wall, and
whatnot.

After discussing Composition and it’s kinds, one may indeed recognize that Bodily
beings are indeed composed not merely of essence and existence, but in many other
ways as stated above. Now, the author will delve into the second characteristic of Bodily
Beings which is Mutability or Changeability.

11
Cf. Carl Huffman, “Pythagoras,” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2018 Edition), ed.
Edward N. Zalta, https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2018/entries/pythagoras/.

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Mutability or Changeability speaks simply of change. All Bodily beings Change. In fact,
change is constant according to Heraclitus. 12 Change or mutation can be defined as the
passing from one state or condition to another. Metaphysically speaking, it is a
characteristic that portrays a change from potentiality to actuality. Potentiality speaks of
“a real thing that can exist is, in so far, potential; it has potentiality (becoming); it is
called ens in potentia, that is, ‘a being in potentiality”. 13 Meanwhile, Actuality speaks of “a
real being that exists is actual; it has actuality; it is called ens in actu, that is, ‘a being in
actuality”.14 There are 2 classifications of change: Substantial, and Accidental change.

1. Substantial Change
This kind of change is concerned with the transformation of a Bodily beings into a
different substantial reality. Simply speaking a change in substance, e.g., food into flesh,
living into corpse, Hydrogen and Oxygen into Water, and whatnot. This instantaneous
event requires corruption of a substance/s in order to generate a new substance. In the
case of food into flesh, a simple food may not physical look like into a flesh, but by
means of transubstantiation it happens in the Holy Eucharist. All natural bodies are
subject to substantial change; substantial mutability is their constant mark or
characteristic.

2. Accidental Change
This is concerned with non-substantial realities, simply the accidents. As stated on
previous part of the article, accidents may change. This change can be of 3 kinds:
Quantitative, Qualitative, and Local.
a. Quantitative Change
This is a change in amount of quantity. An example of this could be a soda that is half
consumed, the remaining pint is still the substance called soda, no change in substance
but there is a change in accident particularly the quantity.

b. Qualitative Change
This is a concerned with the change in quality. An example of this could be a hot water
that into turns cold water, there is a change in quality.

c. Local Change
This is a change in location or place. An example of this could be a man sleeping in the
bed then going to the restroom, there is a change in location. This is very evident in the

12
Cf. Daniel W. Graham, “Heraclitus,” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2021 Edition),
ed. Edward N. Zalta, https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2021/entries/heraclitus/.
13
See Paul Glenn, op. cit., p. 9.
14
See Paul Glenn, op. cit., p. 9.

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world of bodies since everything is “on the move”, everything is subject to motion. This
clearly states that the world of bodies is subject to constant accidental change.

From all these, Bodily beings are subject to change. Substantial change can be
instantaneous unlike accidental change. Change is indeed a mark of Bodily beings.

After discussing Change and Mutability, the author will now discuss another
characteristic, and that is Contingency.

Contingency speaks of Bodily beings that exist with absolute necessity or requirements
for existing, and it is dependent upon the causes that produce and sustain it. It is in
contrast with the Necessary Beings. A Necessary Being is being that necessarily exists.
Furthermore, it is self-sufficing, and thus, it is uncaused.

Creatures are designated as Contingent beings as they are caused, and they exist
without absolute necessity. “I can be here or not”. These kind of being exists being
dependent on the cause other than himself or herself, its proper term could be ens ab
alio. Meanwhile, God is the only Necessary Being. God exists without a cause and does
not depend on others because God need not to, ens a se.15

Substantial change is evident in the world of bodily beings. Substances have their exits
and their entrances. With this fact, one can conclude that bodily beings depend on
causes; contingency in this bodily world is inescapably interrupted upon notice; it is a
certain or universal fact. There is not in the world a single natural body that can be
called necessary, for what is necessary cannot be clearly conceived of, or accurately
imagined as non-existent. Non-existence means there is no complete and adequate
concept of any such being does not involve an actual existence. Therefore, one is certain
that all natural bodies, without exception are marked and characterized by contingency
as they have actual existence.

After the third characteristic, Bodily beings indeed have not just their entrances in the
world but also exits. The author will now focus on the exits by discussing another
important characteristic of Bodily beings, and that is Limitation and Finiteness.

Limitation and Finiteness speaks of the end or the boundary of Bodily beings.
Finiteness can be measured as to content, place, power or activity. But, not everything
ends. “May forever”. There is an Infinite reality. It has no limits nor limitations, no
boundaries nor borders; it is boundless in all perfection, non-material, non-composed,
and necessary.
15
See the unpublished article of Rev. Fr. Maxell Lowell C. Aranilla, Ph.D.

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God as discussed on the previous characteristic was said to be Necessary. Being a

Necessary Being also indicates that God is the only Being that is Infinite. God does not
end nor is finite. God has this infinite attribute. Meanwhile, every creature is a Finite
being. This may be questionable as creatures tends to use infinity in their daily lives. In
fact, there is this famous saying in the movie Toy Story, “to infinity and beyond”.
Creatures tends to use infinity not to denote infinity per se, but to connote infinity as
indefinitely. But to illustrate that there are indeed limitations, here are the 4 proofs it: 1.)
Individual things, 2.) Differences of Kind, 3.) Different Composition, and 4.) Limitation to
Existence perceived.

On the first proof, Paul Glenn began with a statement that material universe is made up
of many finite beings or bodies. The individual finite bodies that make up the universe
is distinct with one another; ergo things are so really distinct that one is not the other in
any sense, then there must be a limitation on the part of at least one of the two things
concerned. The distinction should be made between the Contingent being and the
Necessary Being. Previously, the author concluded that the Necessary Being who is God
is infinite, therefore the contingent being is finite or has limitations. This proves that the
natural bodies are finite being.

On the second proof, Paul Glenn now focuses on differences between Bodily beings. in
the world of bodies, it is noticeable that more than individual differences among single
bodily beings; another noticeable facts are the differences of kind, species, and genera
of natural bodies. The bodies differ in essential constitution so that they are known as
different kinds of bodies. these bodies are different in kind because each of the kinds is
contained, it is within its own definitely determined character; each is limited to its class
or kind. Therefore, all natural bodies are finite.

On the third proof, Paul Glenn added on the differences between the compositions of
Bodily beings. The world is marked and characterized by composition as said on the
previous characteristic. Natural bodies are made up of distinct elements, parts,
members, one of which is not another. Each element or part is finite or limited thing,
and a body made up of limited parts itself is limited, it is by that, that one can again
conclude that the bodies are finite realities.

On the last proof, Paul Glenn looked at the limitations with regard to differences in
existence that one receives. In every contingent reality it is a mark that there is a clean
distinction between the actual existence and the physical essence of existing thing. Every
contingent reality receives existence, and every receiver limits it’s what it receives.

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Therefore, existence in contingent reality is limited to this thing which exists, and this
received and limited existence is what accounts for the thing being actually here.

In line with these, through the proofs presented above, it is proven by Paul Glenn that
Bodily beings indeed has a mark of being limited or in other words, finite.

After gaining learning the characteristics of Bodily beings, Cosmology does not end with
the characteristics. The readers perhaps already grasped that the Bodily beings are
composed, changing, contingent, and limited. Furthermore, they also learned that these
are in contrast with God’s Attributes who is Absolutely Simple, Immutable, Necessary,
and Eternal which made God’s Perfection unparalleled. 16 Now, here rises then question,
“if God is perfect by His attributes, is the world Perfect given that God’s attributes are in
contrast with the Bodily beings or rather the world?”

Cosmological Optimism and Cosmological Pessimism

Is the world Perfect? This is the question that swivels after learning the characteristics of
Bodily beings. With that, 2 contrasting views showed-up as they wanted to provide an
answer to the question.

First is the Cosmological Optimist. As their name suggests, they have this optimistic
view that the world is perfect. This doctrine states that the world is the best of all
possible worlds. The world is an imperfection in contrast with the notion of the best of
all possible worlds which is a perfect world. With that one can say that the world is not
the best of all possible worlds, but one must not leave the point with such dull assertion.
Perfection can be seen in two ways; absolute perfection and relative perfection.
Absolute perfection would mean that no further perfection can be added to it, it is
eternally and wholly self-sufficing; when it is boundlessly perfect so that it involves in
itself the actual fullness of being. In this case only the Infinite Being who is God that is
absolutely perfect. On the other hand, Relative Perfection would mean perfection in
relation to, or relative to the purpose it serves or nature it bears. In this sense, the world
is the best world, but only for its sense. This world may not to be called the best or the
best possible, but relatively speaking, it may be called so. The imperfection of the bodies
can help to the perfection or the perfective action of others.

Another view comes from the Cosmological Pessimists. For them the world is wholly
evil. One can conclude that this doctrine is absurd. Although there are imperfections to
the bodies, it is not right to conclude that the world is evil. The definition of evil is
absence of reality that is supposedly present; it is a lack. Now, in the face of the actual

16
See the unpublished article of Rev. Fr. Maxell Lowell C. Aranilla, Ph.D.

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world, an actual world, a world that is here it is not a lack. Thus, pessimism is a mere
denial of world.

C. The World not Divine

When people speak of Divinity, it connotes a manifestation of heavenly bodies and most
specifically God. After the author discussed the marks, characteristic of the bodies, and
these characteristics in contrast to God, the author will now examine if the world is
Divine.

In order to answer this, just like Paul Glenn, the author will look into the arguments
posted by the Pantheists.

Pantheism comes from the Latin words “pan” and “theos” which mean “all” and “God”
respectively. It is a theory that identified God and the universe in one way or another. In
addition to that, it stands that the world is Divine. It is of two kinds: 1.) Idealistic
pantheism, and 2.) Real Pantheism.

Idealistic Pantheism states that the bodily world is only a skein of images or ideas in
the mind of God and has no real existence of its own. This can be seen in the philosophy
of Immanuel Kant and was developed openly by his followers. The error of this form of
pantheism is shown in the science of criteriology or the philosophy of true and certain
knowledge and we do not need to delve on that. Our concern is cosmology which
accepts that the bodily universe as transubjective and real.

Another kind of Pantheism is called Real Pantheism. Real Pantheism has two parts: a.)
Emanationism, and b.) Phenomenalism.

Emanationism comes from the Latin word “emanare” which means “to pour out”. It is a
doctrine that asserts that the bodily world is an actual part of the substance of God, that
is an extension or an “outpouring” of God’s real being and substance. Emanationism
cannot be true. In ontology and theodicy, it is clear that God is All-perfect, Necessary,
Non-composed, Changeless, and an Infinite Being. While, Bodily beings are undeniably
and universally marked as imperfect, contingent, composed, changing and finite.
Therefore, to identify God and the material world is a contradiction in thought and in
terms. Thus, Emanationism is impossible.

Another type of Real Pantheism is Phenomenalism. It comes from the Greek word
“phaino” which means “to show or manifest”. This pantheism asserts that the world is a
real manifestation rather than a real part of God. This type of pantheism is monistic
since it believes that there exists a single substance namely the divine substance. Just

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like Emanationism this form of pantheism is erroneous in several ways. First, for one
infinite substance which the phenomenalists admit is said to manifest itself in the bodily
world, to show itself in what we mistakenly call bodily being, but which is really a series
of divine modes, moments, determinations and aspects. Such a series is limited,
changeable, and a complexity of various things. Second, the pantheism of manifestation
conflicts with the findings of consciousness which are the elements and basis of all
knowledge. Phenomenalism is in conflict with reason and what is in conflict with reason
must be rejected as false by all men, and first of all by the scientist and philosophers.
Lastly, pantheism (both Emanationism and Phenomenalism) would lead to impossible
consequences. If the world and God is one, then all the activities of the world are divine;
all are therefore equally good. Sin is a kind of action that happens in the world, can this
be good? On the principle of causality which may be expressed as “by their fruits you
shall know them”, we must conclude that a doctrine productive of such impossible
“fruits” is itself impossible.

From all these, Pantheism seems to be in a state of error regardless of its kind and this
proves that the World is not Divine. God is immensed 17 in the world, but it is improper
to connote that indeed God’s parts or actions are in this world. Pantheism’s stand can
be paralleled with Theosophy.

Theosophy acknowledges the existence of real finite worldly realities but makes them
immanently divine; this means that God is indwelling in every creature in such a way as
to make all creatural activity directly exercised activity of God. This is indeed another
similar error because God does not directly involve Himself to the Bodily World.

Reference
Glenn, Paul. 1951. Cosmology: A Class Manual in the Philosophy of Bodily Being. London:
B. Herder Book Co.

17
See the unpublished article of Rev. Fr. Maxell Lowell C. Aranilla, Ph.D.

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