Running head: 7117 WRITING ASSIGNMENT 1

The Life Cycle

Cameron Smith

The University of Memphis

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Title of Your Paper Goes Here

Infancy and Toddlerhood

Infancy is defined as the first year of life and is the period of most rapid growth after

birth. As a toddler, humans develop motor skills, such as the ability to walk, and communication

skills. Researchers have given this part of the lifespan more attention than any other period,

perhaps because changes during this time are so dramatic and so noticeable. We have also

assumed that what happens during these years provides a foundation for one’s life to come.

However, it has been argued that the significance of development during these years has been

overstated (Bruer, 1999). There are many changes that a human goes through during this period

including, overall physical growth and body proportions. The average newborn in the United

States weighs about 7.5 pounds (between 5 and 10 pounds) and is about 20 inches in length. For

the first few days of life, infants typically lose about 5 percent of their body weight as they

eliminate waste and get used to feeding. By age 2, the weight has quadrupled, so we can expect

that a 2-year-old should weigh between 20 and 40 pounds. The average length at one year is

about 29.5 inches and at two years it is around 34.4 inches (Bloem, 2007). Another dramatic

physical change that takes place in the first several years of life is the change in body

proportions. For example, the head initially makes up about 50 percent of our entire length when

we are developing in the womb. At birth, the head makes up about 25 percent of our length.

The most dramatic physical change that occurs during this period is in the brain. We are

born with most of the brain cells that we will ever have; that is, about 85 billion neurons whose

function is to store and transformation (Huttenlocher&Dabholkar, 1997). The infant brain grows

very fast. At birth the brain is about 250 grams (half a pound) and by one year it is already 750
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grams (Eliot, 1999). Comparing to adult size, the newborn brain is approximately 33% of adult

size at birth, and in just 90 days, it is already at 55% of adult size (Holland et al., 2014).

Early Childhood

Early childhood represents a time period of continued rapid growth, especially in the areas of

language and cognitive development. Those in early childhood have more control over their

emotions and begin to pursue a variety of activities that reflect their personal interests. Parents

continue to be very important in the child’s development, but now teachers and peers exert an

influence not seen with infants and toddlers. Early childhood is the time period when most

children acquire the basic skills for locomotion, such as running, jumping, and skipping, and

object control skills, such as throwing, catching, and kicking (Clark, 1994). Children continue to

improve their gross motor skills as they run and jump. Fine motor skills are also being refined in

activities, such as pouring water into a container, drawing, coloring, and buttoning coats and

using scissors. Early childhood is a time of forming an initial sense of self. Self-concept is our

self-description according to various categories, such as our external and internal qualities. In

contrast, self-esteem is an evaluative judgment about who we are. Young children tend to have a

generally positive self-image. This optimism is often the result of a lack of social comparison

when making self-evaluations (Ruble, Boggiano, Feldman, & Loeble, 1980), and with

comparison between what the child once could do to what they can do now (Kemple, 1995).

Another important dimension of the self is the sense of self as male or female. Preschool aged

children become increasingly interested in finding out the differences between boys and girls,

both physically and in terms of what activities are acceptable for each.

Middle and Late Childhood

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Middle and late childhood spans the ages between early childhood and adolescence,

approximately ages 6 to 11. Children gain greater control over the movement of their bodies,

mastering many gross and fine motor skills that eluded the younger child. Changes in the brain

during this age enable not only physical development but contributes to greater reasoning and

flexibility of thought. School becomes a big part of middle and late childhood, and it expands

their world beyond the boundaries of their own family. Peers start to take center-stage, often

prompting changes in the parent-child relationship. Peer acceptance also influences children’s

perception of self and may have consequences for emotional development beyond these years.

Middle childhood seems to be a great time to introduce children to organized sports, and in fact,

many parents do. Sports are important for children. Children’s participation in sports has been

mlinked to: higher levels of satisfaction with family and overall quality of life in children,

improved physical and emotional development, and better academic performance. The child can

use logic to solve problems tied to their own direct experience, but has trouble solving

hypothetical problems or considering more abstract problems. The child uses inductive

reasoning, which is a logical process in which multiple premises believed to be true are

combined to obtain a specific conclusion. During these ages, the child can use logic to solve

problems tied to their own direct experience, but has trouble solving hypothetical problems or

considering more abstract problems. The child uses inductive reasoning, which is a logical

process in which multiple premises believed to be true are combined to obtain a specific

conclusion. Children may experience three deficiencies in their use of memory strategies. A

mediation deficiency occurs when a child does not grasp the strategy being taught, and thus, does

not benefit from its use. Next, a production deficiency, meaning the child does not spontaneously
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use a memory strategy and must be prompted to do so. Lastly, a utilization deficiency refers to

children using an appropriate strategy, but it fails to aid their performance.

Adolescence

Adolescence is a period that begins with puberty and ends with the transition to adulthood

(approximately ages 10–18). Physical changes associated with puberty are triggered by

hormones. Changes happen at different rates in distinct parts of the brain and increase

adolescents’ propensity for risky behavior. Cognitive changes include improvements in complex

and abstract thought. Adolescents’ relationships with parents go through a period of redefinition

in which adolescents become more autonomous. Peer relationships are important sources of

support, but companionship during adolescence can also promote problem behaviors. Identity

formation occurs as adolescents explore and commit to different roles and ideological positions.

Because so much is happening in these years, psychologists have focused a great deal of

attention on the period of adolescence. Puberty is a period of rapid growth and sexual

maturation. These changes begin sometime between eight and fourteen. Girls begin puberty at

around ten years of age and boys begin approximately two years later. Pubertal changes take

around three to four years to complete. In early adolescence, the transition from elementary

school to middle school can be difficult for many students, both academically and socially.

Crosnoe and Benner (2015) found that some students became disengaged and alienated during

this transition which resulted in negative long-term consequences in academic performance and

mental health. Similarly, the transition to high school can be difficult. For example, high schools

are larger, more bureaucratic, less personal, and there are less opportunities for teachers to get to

know their students (Eccles & Roeser, 2016).

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Young and Emerging Adulthood

Historically, early adulthood spanned from approximately 18 (the end of adolescence) until 40 to

45 (beginning of middle adulthood). More recently, developmentalists have divided this age

period into two separate stages: Emerging adulthood followed by early adulthood. Although

these age periods differ in their physical, cognitive, and social development, overall the age

period from 18 to 45 is a time of peak physical capabilities and the emergence of more mature

cognitive development, financial independence, and intimate relationships. Arnett identified five

characteristics of emerging adulthood that distinguished it from adolescence and young

adulthood (Arnett, 2006). First, it is the age of identity exploration. Most identity development

occurs during the late teens and early twenties rather than adolescence. It is during emerging

adulthood that people are exploring their career choices and ideas about intimate relationships,

setting the foundation for adulthood. Second, it is described as the age of instability. Emerging

adults change jobs, relationships, and residences more frequently than other age groups. Third, it

is the age of self-focus. Merging adults focus more on themselves, as they realize that they have

few obligations to others and that this is the time where they can do what they want with their

life. Fourth, it is the age of feeling in-between. Most emerging adults have gone through the

changes of puberty, are typically no longer in high school, and many have also moved out of

their parents’ home. Thus, they no longer feel as dependent as they did as teenagers. Yet, they

may still be financially dependent on their parents to some degree, and they have not completely

attained some of the indicators of adulthood, such as finishing their education, obtaining a good

full-time job, being in a committed relationship, or being responsible for others. Finally,

Emerging adulthood is the age of possibilities. It is a time period of optimism as more 18 to 25-
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year-olds feel that they will someday get to where they want to be in life. Arnett (2000, 2006)

suggests that this optimism is because these dreams have yet to be tested.

Middle Adulthood

Middle adulthood, or midlife, refers to the period of the lifespan between early adulthood and

late adulthood. Although ages and tasks are culturally defined, the most common age definition

is from 40-45 to 60-65. This may be the least studied time of the lifespan, and research on this

developmental period is relatively new as many aspects of midlife are still being explored. In the

United States, the large Baby Boom cohort (those born between 1946 and 1964) are now midlife

adults (and some even late adults) and this has led to increased interest in this developmental

stage. We do know that this stage reflects both developmental gains and losses and that there are

considerable individual differences, but there is still much to learn about this age group.

Late Adulthood

Late adulthood spans the time when we reach our mid-sixties until death. This is the longest

developmental stage across the lifespan. In this chapter, we will consider the growth in numbers

for those in late adulthood, how that number is expected to change in the future, and the

implications this will bring to both the United States and worldwide. We will also examine

several theories of human aging, the physical, cognitive, and socioemotional changes that occur

with this population, and the vast diversity among those in this developmental stage. Further,

ageism and many of the myths associated with those in late adulthood will be explored.
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References

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