DISTRICT MATHMETICS

Ankon Gopal Banik

According to the syllabus of Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Gono Bishwabidyalay
DISTRICT MATHMETICS

Without the help of our respective teacher

Malati Majumder this work was impossible

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Contents
Set Theory------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------03
Relations--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11
Function---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19
Counting---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------25
Proposition------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------32
Directed Graph-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37

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Set Theory

Sets: A set may be viewed as an unordered collection of distinct objects called as elements or members of set.
We ordinary use capital letters A, B, X, Y ...... to denotes sets and lowercase letters a, b, x, y ....... to denote
elements of sets.

Universal set: In any application of the theory of set, the members of all sets under investigation usually
belong to some fixed large set is called the universal set. It is denoted by U.

Null set: The set with no elements is called the empty set or null set and it is denoted by ∅ or { }.

Sub set: If every element of a set A is also an element of a set B then A is called a subset of B. We also say
that A is contained in B or that B contains A. This relationship is written as-
A⊆B or B⊇A

Union set: The union of two sets T and F, denoted by T∪F, is the set of all elements which belong to T or F.
That is-
T∪F = {x: x∈T or x∈F}
Here, "or" is used in the union set.

Intersection set: The intersection of two sets T and F, denoted by T∩F is the set of elements which belong to
both T and F. That is-
T∩F = {x: x∈T and x∈F}
Here, "and" is used in the intersection set.

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Complement set: The absolute complement or simply complement of a set A, denoted by Ac or A/, is the set
of elements which belong to U but which do not belong to A. That is-
Ac = {x: x∈U and x∉A}

Power set: The family of all subset of a set is called power set of that set. If S is any set, then the family of
all subset of S is called the power set of S and denoted by P(S).
Let, S = {a, b}
∴ P(S) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}

DeMorgan’s law: If A and B are two sets and their complements are A/ and B/, then according to DeMorgan’s
law-
I. (A∪B)/ = A/∩B/
II. (A∩B)/ = A/∪B/
Prove: I. Let, x ∈ (A∪B)/
=) x ∉ A∪B
=) x ∉ A and x ∉ B
=) x ∈ A/ and x ∈ B/
=) x ∈ A/∩B/
∴ (A∪B) / ⊆ A/∩B/ ……………………………………..(i)
Now, let, y ∈ A/∩B/
=) y ∈ A/ and y ∈ B/
=) y ∉ A and y ∉ B
=) y ∉ A∪B
=) y ∈ (A∪B) /

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∴ A/∩B/ ⊆ (A∪B) / ……………………………………..(ii)

From (i) and (ii), we get-
(A∪B) / = A/∩B/
II. Let, x ∈ (A∩B) /
=) x ∉ A∩B
=) x ∉ A or x ∉ B
=) x ∈ A/ or x ∈ B/
=) x ∈ A/∪B/
∴ (A∩B) / ⊆ A/∪B/ ……………………………………..(i)
Now, let, y ∈ A/∪B/
=) y ∈ A/ or y ∈ B/
=) y ∉ A or y ∉ B
=) y ∉ A∩B
=) y ∈ (A∩B) /
∴ A/∪B/ ⊆ (A∩B) / ……………………………………..(ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get-
(A∩B) / = A/∪B/

***Prove that-
I. A – (B∪C) = (A-B) ∩ (A-C)
II. A – (B∩C) = (A-B) ∪ (A-C)
III. A ∪ (B∩C) = (A∪B) ∩ (A∪C)
IV. A ∩ (B∪C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C)
V. (A-B) ∪ (B-A) = (A∪B) - (A∩B)
Solve: I. Let, x ∈ (A-B) ∩ (A-C)
=) x ∈ A-B and x ∈ A-C
=) x∈A, x∉B and x∈A, x∉C
=) x∈A and x ∉ B∪C
=) x ∈ A – (B∪C)
∴ (A-B) ∩ (A-C) ⊆ A – (B∪C) ……………………………………..(i)
Now, let, y ∈ A – (B∪C)
=) y∈A and y ∉ B∪C

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=) y∈A, y∉B and x∈A, y∉C

=) y ∈ A-B and y ∈ A-C
=) y ∈ (A-B) ∩ (A-C)
∴ A – (B∪C) ⊆ (A-B) ∩ (A-C) ……………………………………..(ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get-
A – (B∪C) = (A-B) ∩ (A-C)
II. Let, x ∈ (A-B) ∪ (A-C)
=) x ∈ A-B or x ∈ A-C
=) x∈A, x∉B or x∈A, x∉C
=) x∈A and x ∉ B∩C
=) x ∈ A – (B∩C)
∴ (A-B) ∪ (A-C) ⊆ A – (B∩C) ……………………………………..(i)
Now, let, y ∈ A – (B∩C)
=) y∈A and y ∉ B∩C
=) y∈A and y∉B or y∉C
=) y ∈ A-B or y ∈ A-C
=) y ∈ (A-B) ∪ (A-C)
∴ A – (B∪C) ⊆ (A-B) ∩ (A-C) ……………………………………..(ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get-
A – (B∪C) = (A-B) ∩ (A-C)
III. Let. x ∈ A ∪ (B∩C)
=) x ∈ A or x ∈ (B∩C)
=) x ∈ A or (x ∈ B and x ∈ C)
=) (x ∈ A or x ∈ B) and (x ∈ A or x ∈ B)
=) x ∈ (A∪B) and x ∈ (A∪C)
=) x ∈ (A∪B) ∩ (A∪C)
∴ A ∪ (B∩C) ⊆ (A∪B) ∩ (A∪C) ……………………………………..(i)
Now let, y ∈ (A∪B) ∩ (A∪C)
=) y ∈ (A∪B) and y ∈ (A∪C)
=) (y ∈ A or y ∈ B) and (y ∈ A or y ∈ B)
=) y ∈ A or (y ∈ B and y ∈ C)

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=) y ∈ A or y ∈ (B∩C)
=) y ∈ A ∪ (B∩C)
∴ (A∪B) ∩ (A∪C) ⊆ A ∪ (B∩C) ……………………………………..(ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get-
A ∪ (B∩C) = (A∪B) ∩ (A∪C)
IV. Let, x ∈ A ∩ (B∪C)
=) x ∈ A and x ∈ (B∪C)
=) x ∈ A and (x ∈ B or x ∈ C)
=) (x ∈ A and x ∈ B) or (x ∈ A and x ∈ C)
=) x ∈ (A∩B) or x ∈ (A∩C)
=) x ∈ (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C)
∴ A ∩ (B∪C) ⊆ (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C) ……………………………………..(i)
Now let, y ∈ (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C)
=) y ∈ (A∩B) or y ∈ (A∩C)
=) (y ∈ A and y ∈ B) or (y ∈ A and y ∈ C)
=) y ∈ A and (y ∈ B or y ∈ C)
=) y ∈ A and y ∈ (B∪C)
=) x ∈ A ∩ (B∪C)
∴ (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C) ⊆ A ∩ (B∪C) ……………………………………..(ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get-
A ∩ (B∪C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C)
V. Let, x ∈ (A-B) ∪ (B-A)
=) x ∈ (A-B) or x ∈ (B-A)
=) (x ∈ A and x ∉ B) or (x ∈ B and x ∉ A)
=) (x ∈ A or x ∈ B) and (x ∉ B or x ∉ A)
=) x ∈ (A∪B) and x ∉ (A∩B)
=) x ∈ (A∪B) - (A∩B)
∴ (A-B) ∪ (B-A) ⊆ (A∪B) - (A∩B) ……………………………………..(i)
Now let, y ∈ (A∪B) - (A∩B)
=) y ∈ (A∪B) and y ∉ (A∩B)
=) (y ∈ A or y ∈ B) and (y ∉ B or y ∉ A)

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=) (y ∈ A and y ∉ B) or (y ∈ B and y ∉ A)
=) y ∈ (A-B) or y ∈ (B-A)
=) y ∈ (A-B) ∪ (B-A)
∴ (A∪B) - (A∩B) ⊆ (A-B) ∪ (B-A) ……………………………………..(ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get-
(A-B) ∪ (B-A) = (A∪B) - (A∩B)

*** Solve the problems refers to the universal set-

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7}, C = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, D = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, E
= {2, 4, 6, 8}, F = {1, 5, 9}
1. a) A∪B and A∩B
b) B∪D and B∩D
c) D∪F and D∩F
d) E∪F and E∩F
2. a) Ac, Bc, Dc, Ec
b) A\B, B\A, D\E, F\D
3. a) A ∩ (B∪E)
b) (A\E)c
c) (A∩D)\B
d) (B∩F) ∪ (C∩E)
Solve: Given that,
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ,8, 9},
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
B = {4, 5, 6, 7},
C = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9},
D = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9},
E = {2, 4, 6, 8},
And, F = {1, 5, 9}
1. a) A∪B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∪ {4, 5, 6, 7} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
again, A∩B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∩ {4, 5, 6, 7} = {4, 5}
b) B∪D = {4, 5, 6, 7} ∪ {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9}
again B∩D = {4, 5, 6, 7} ∩ {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = {5, 7}
c) D∪F = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} ∪ {1, 5, 9} = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
again, D∩F = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} ∩ {1, 5, 9} = {1, 5, 9}

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d) E∪F = {2, 4, 6, 8} ∪ {1, 5, 9} = {1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9}

again, E∩F = {2, 4, 6, 8} ∩ {1, 5, 9} = ∅
2. a) Ac = U\A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} \ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = {6, 7 ,8, 9}
Bc = U\B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} \ {4, 5, 6, 7} = {1, 2, 3, 8, 9}
Dc = U\D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} \ {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = {2, 4, 6, 8}
Ec = U\E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} \ {2, 4, 6, 8} = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
b) A\B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} \ {4, 5, 6, 7} = {1, 2, 3}
B\A = {4, 5, 6, 7} \ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = {6, 7}
D\E = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} \ {2, 4, 6, 8} = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
F\D = {1, 5, 9} \ {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = ∅
3. a) B∪E = {4, 5, 6, 7} ∪ {2, 4, 6, 8} = {2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
∴ A ∩ (B∪E) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∩ {2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} = {2, 4, 5}
b) (A\E) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} \ {2, 4, 6, 8} = {1, 3, 5}
∴ (A\E)C = U \ (A\E) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} \ {1, 3, 5} = {2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9}
c) A∩D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∩ {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = {1, 3, 5}
∴ (A∩D) \ B = {1, 3, 5} \ {4, 5, 6, 7} = {1, 3}
d) B∩F = {4, 5, 6, 7} ∩ {1, 5, 9} = {5}
again, C∩E = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9} ∩ {2, 4, 6, 8} = {6, 8}
∴ (B∩F) ∪ (C∩E) = {5} ∪ {6, 8} = {5, 6, 8}

*** Prove that, A ∩ (B∪C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C) for the sets, A = {1, 2, 3, 5}, B = {2, 3, 4, 6} and C = {1, 2,
4, 5, 7}.
Solve: Given that,
A = {1, 2, 3, 5},
B = {2, 3, 4, 6}
and C = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7}
Now, B∪C = {2, 3, 4, 6} ∪ {1, 2, 4, 5, 7} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
∴ A ∩ (B∪C) = {1, 2, 3, 5} ∩ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} = {1, 2, 3, 5}
Again, A∩B = {1, 2, 3, 5} ∩ {2, 3, 4, 6} = {2, 3}
Again, A∩C = {1, 2, 3, 5} ∩ {1, 2, 4, 5, 7} = {1, 2, 5}
∴ (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C) = {2, 3} ∪ {1, 2, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 5}
∴ A ∩ (B∪C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C) [proved]

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*** Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and C = {3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12} show that-
a) (A∪B) ∪ C = A∪ (B∪C)
b) (A∩B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B∩C)
c) A ∩ (B∪C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C)
Solve: Given that,
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9},
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
And C = {3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12}
a) A∪B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} ∪ {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
∴ (A∪B) ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} ∪ {3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
Again, B∪C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} ∪ {3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12} = {2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12}
∴ A∪ (B∪C) = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} ∪ {2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
∴ (A∪B) ∪ C = A∪ (B∪C) [proved]
b) A∩B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} ∩ {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} = ∅
∴ (A∩B) ∩ C = ∅ ∩ {3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12} = ∅
Again, B∩C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} ∩ {3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12} = {4, 8}
∴ A∩ (B∩C) = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} ∩ {4, 8}= ∅
∴ (A∩B) ∩ C = A∩ (B∩C) [proved]
c) B∪C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} ∪ {3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12} = {2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12}
∴ A ∩ (B∪C) = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} ∩ {2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12} = {3, 7}
Again, A∩B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} ∩ {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} = ∅
Again, A∩C ={1, 3, 5, 7, 9} ∩ {3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12} = {3, 7}
∴ (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C) =∅ ∪ {3, 7} = {3, 7}
∴ A ∩ (B∪C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C) [proved]

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Relations
Order pairs: An order pairs consists of two elements say a and b in which one of them say a is designated
as the first element and other as the second element. An order pair is denoted by (a,b). Two ordered pairs (a,b)
(c,d) are equal if a = c and b = d.

Product list: If A and B are two non-empty sets, then the set of all ordered pairs (a,b) such that a ∈ A and b
∈ B is called the cartesian product of A and B, to be denoted by A×B.
Thus, A×B = {(a,b), a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
In general A×B ≠ B×A
Let, A = {1, 2, 3}
B = {a, b}
Then the product set in A×B = {(1,a), (1,b), (1,c), (2,a), (2,b), (2,c), (3,a), (3,b), (3,c)}

Relations: Let A and B be two non-empty sets. Then a relation R from A to B is subset of A×B. Thus, R is a
relation from A to B ⇔ R ⊆ A×B.
Let, A = {1, 2, 3}
B = {a, b}
Then R = {(1,a), (1,b), (3,a)}

Inverse relation: Let R ⊆ A×B be a relation from A to B. Then inverse relation of R to be denoted by 𝑅 −1,
is a relation from B to A, defined by,
𝑅 −1 = {(b,a), (a,b) ∈ R}
Let, A = {1, 2, 3}
B = {a, b}
Then R = {(1,a), (1,b), (3,a)}, is a relation from A to B. Then inverse relation of R is,
𝑅 −1 = {(a,2), (b,1), (a,3)}

Composite relation: Let A, B and C be any three non-empty set. Let R be a relation from A to B and S be a
relation from B to C then the composite relation RoS will be A×C. Then R ⊆ A×B and S ⊆ B×C, we define
RoS ⊆ A×C.
RoS = {(a,c): ∃ some b ∈ B such that (a,b) ∈ R and (b,c) ∈ S}
This relation RoS from A to C is known as the composite relation of R and S.
Thus, (a,b) ∈ R, (b,c) ∈ S ⇔ (a,c) ∈ RoS

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Let, A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {a, b, c, d}
C = {x, y, z}
And let, R = {(1,a), (2,d), (3,b), (3,d)}
S = {(b,x), (b,z), (c,y), (d,z)}
RoS = {(2,z), (3,x), (3,z)}

A B C

1 a x
2 b y
3 c z
4 d

Reflexive relation: Let R be a subset of A×A. Then R is called a reflexive if for every a ∈ A, (a,a) ∈ R.
In other words, R is called a reflexive if every element in A is related to itself.
Consider, A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R1 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (1,3), (4,4)}
R2 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)}
Then R1 is not reflexive and R2 is reflexive relation.

Symmetric relation: Let R be a subset of A×A i.e let R be a relation on A. The R is called a symmetric
relation if (a,b) ∈ R implies (b,a) ∈ R that is if a is related to b then b is also related to a.
Consider, A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R1 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (1,3), (4,4)}
R2 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)}
Then R1 is not symmetric and R2 is symmetric relation.

Anti-symmetric relation: A relation R on a set A i.e a subset of A×A is called an anti-symmetric relation if
(a,b) ∈ R and (b,a) ∈ R implies a = b.
Consider, A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

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R1 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (1,3), (4,4)}

R2 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)}
Then R1 is anti-symmetric and R2 is not anti-symmetric relation.
Because, (1,2) ∈ R2 and (2,1) ∈ R2 but 1 ≠ 2.

Transitive relation: A relation R on a set A is called transitive relation of (a,b) ∈ R and (b,c) ∈ R implies
(a,c) ∈ R. In other words, if a is related to b and b is related to c then a is related to c.
Consider, A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R1 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (1,3), (4,4)}
And, R2 = {(1,3), (2,1)}
Then R1 is transitive and R2 is not transitive relation.

Equivalence relation: A relation R on a set A is an equivalence relation if-

I. R is reflexive, i.e for every a ∈ A, (a,a) ∈ R.
II. R is symmetric, i.e for (a,b) ∈ R implies (b,a) ∈ R.
III. Ris transitive, i.e for (a,b) ∈ R and (b,c) ∈ R implies (a,c) ∈ R.
Consider, A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R1 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)}
And, R2 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (1,3), (4,4)}
Then R1 is equivalence and R2 is not equivalence relation.

Directed graphs of a relations on set: There is another way to picturing a relation R where R is a relation
from a finite set to it self. Fast we write down the elements of the set, and then we draw an arrow from each
element x to each element y; whenever x is related to y. this diagram is called directed graph of the relation.

*** Show the directed graph of the following relation R on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R = {(1,2), (2,2), (2,4), (3,2), (3,4), (4,1), (4,3)}
Solve:
1 2

3 4

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*** Show the directed graph of the following relation R on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
R = {(1,1), (2,2), (5,5), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,1), (4,2), (3,5), (3,4)}
Solve:
1

2 3 5

*** Given A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {x, y, z}

Let R be the following relation from A to be
R = {(1,y), (1,z), (3,y), (4,x), (4,z)}
a. Determine the matrix of relation.
b. Draw the arrow diagram of R.
c. Find the inverse relation 𝑹−𝟏 on R.
d. Determine the domain and range of R.
Solve: a. Matrix of the relation of R-
x y z

[ ]
1 0 1 1
2 0 0 0
3 0 1 0
4 0 0 1
b.

A B

1 x

2 Y

3 z
4

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c. 𝑅 −𝟏 = {(y,1), (z,1), (y,3), (x,4), (x,4)}

d. Domain of R: {1, 3, 4}
Range of R: {x, y, z}

***Let E = {1, 2, 3} consider the following relations in E.

R1 = {(1,2), (3,2), (2,2), (2,3)}
R2 = {(1,2), (2,3), (1,3)}
R3 = {(1,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,2), (3,3)}
R4 = {(1,2)}
R5 = E×E
State whether or not each of these relations is reflexive.
Solve: If relationship in E is reflexive, then (1,1), (2,2) and (3,3) must belong to the relation. Therefore, only
R3 and R5 are reflexive relations.

***Let E = {1, 2, 3} consider the following relations in E.

R1 = {(1,1), (2,1), (2,2), (3,2), (2,3)}
R2 = {(1,1)}
R3 = {(1,2)}
R4 = {(1,1), (3,2), (2,3)}
R5 = E×E
State whether or not each of these relations is symmetric.
Solve: R1 is not symmetric (2,1) ∈ R1 but (1,2) ∉ R1
R2 is symmetric
R3 is not symmetric (1,2) ∈ R1 but (2,1) ∉ R1
R4 is symmetric
R5 is symmetric

***Let E = {1, 2, 3} consider the following relations in E.

R1 = {(1,1), (2,1), (2,2), (3,2), (2,3)}
R2 = {(1,1)}
R3 = {(1,2)}

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

R4 = {(1,1), (3,2), (2,3)}

R5 = E×E
State whether or not each of these relations is anti-symmetric.
Solve: R1 is anti-symmetric
R2 is anti-symmetric
R3 is anti-symmetric
R4 is not anti-symmetric
R5 is not anti-symmetric

***Consider a set A = {a, b, c} and the relation R on A defined by-

R = {(a,a), (a,b), (b,c), (c,c)}
Find-
a. Reflexive (R)
b. Symmetric (R)
c. Transitive (R)
Solve: a. The reflexive closure of R is obtained by adding all diagonal measures of A×A to R which are not
currently in R. Hence-
Reflexive (R) = R ∪ {(b,b)} = {(a,a), (a,b), (b,c), (c,c)} ∪ {(b,b)} = {(a,a), (a,b), (b,c), (c,c), (b,b)}
b. The symmetric closure of R is obtained by adding all pairs 𝑅 −1 to R, which are not currently in R. Hence-
Symmetric (R) = R ∪ {(b,a), (c,b)} = {(a,a), (a,b), (b,c), (c,c)} ∪ {(b,a), (c,b)} = {(a,a), (a,b), (b,c),
(c,c), (b,a), (c,b)}
c. The transitive closure of R is obtained by adding (a,c)
Transitive (R) = R ∪ {(a,c)} = {(a,a), (a,b), (b,c), (c,c)} ∪ {(a,c)} = {(a,a), (a,b), (b,c), (c,c), (a,c)}

***Let A = {1,2,3}, B = {a,b,c} and C = {x,y,z}, consider the following relations R and S from A to B and
from B to C respectively-
R = {(1,b), (2,a), (2,c)} and S = {(a,y), (b,x), (c,y), (c,z)}
a. Find the composition relation ROS
b. Find the matrix MR, MS and 𝑴𝑹𝑶 𝑺 of the respective relations R, S and ROS and compare 𝑴𝑹𝑶 𝑺
to the product MRMS.

Solve: a. Given that, R = {(1,b), (2,a), (2,c)}

and S = {(a,y), (b,x), (c,y), (c,z)}

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

Composite relation ROS = {(1,x), (2,y), (2,y), (2,z)}

= {(1,x), (2,y), (2,z)}

A R B S c
S ROS
1 a x

2 b y

3 c z

a b c x y z x y z
1 0 1 0 a 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
b.MR = 2 [1 0 1] MS = b [1 0 0] 𝑀𝑅𝑂 𝑆 = 2 [0 2 1]
3 0 0 0 c 0 1 1 3 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
Multiplying MR and MS, we obtain, MRMS = [1 0 1] × [1 0 0]
0 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0
= [0 1+1 1]
0 0 0
1 0 0
= [0 2 1]
0 0 0
= 𝑀𝑅𝑂 𝑆

∴ MRMS = 𝑀𝑅𝑂 𝑆

***Let R and S be the following relation on A = {1,2,3}

R = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,3)}
S = {(1,2), (1,3), (1,1), (3,3)}
Find-
a. R∩S, R∪S, RC
b. ROS
c. SOS
Solve: Given that,
R = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,3)}
S = {(1,2), (1,3), (1,1), (3,3)}

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

a. R∩S = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,3)} ∩ {(1,2), (1,3), (1,1), (3,3)}
= {(1,1), (1,2), (3,3)}
Again, R∪S = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,3)} ∪ {(1,2), (1,3), (1,1), (3,3)}
= {(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,3), (1,3)}
Again, RC = U – R = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,3), (3,1), (3,2)} - {(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,3)}
= {(2,2), (1,3), (2,1), (3,3)}
b. ROS = {(1,2), (1,3), (1,1), (2,3), (3,2), (3,3), (3,1), (3,3)}
= {(1,2), (1,3), (1,1), (2,3), (3,2), (3,3), (3,1)}
c. SOS = {(1,3), (1,2), (1,3), (1,1), (3,3)}
= {(1,3), (1,2), (1,1), (3,3)}

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

Function
Suppose that to each element of a set A we assign a unique element of a set B, the collection of such assignment
is called function A into B. The set A is called domain of the function and the set B is called the co-domain.
If a∈A, then f(a) denotes the unique element of b which f assigns to a, it is called the image of a under f. The
set of all image values is called the range of f.

Many-one function: A mapping f:A→B defined in such way that two or more than two different elements in
A have the same image in B, it is known as many-one-mapping from A to B. Let A = {-4, -3, -2, -1, 1, 2, 3,
4} and B = {1, 4, 9, 16} and f:A→B, f(x) = 𝑥 2 ∀ x∈A

One-one function: A function f:A→B is said to be one if different elements in the domain A have district
image. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 4, 6} and f:A→B, f(x) = 2x ∀ x∈A

Onto function: A function f:A→B is said to be onto function if each element of B in the image of some
element of A. Let A = {-4, -3, -2, -1, 1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 4, 9, 16} and f:A→B, f(x) = 𝑥 2 ∀ x∈A

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

Into function: Let a f:A→B, if there exists even a single element in B having no pre-image at all in A. The
such a function is said to be an into function. Let A = {-3, -2, -1, 1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 4, 9, 16} and f:A→B,
f(x) = 𝑥 2 ∀ x∈A

Equal function: Two functions f and g are said to be equal if they have the same domain and they satisfy the
condition f(x) = g(x) ∀ x.
Example Let the function f be defined by the diagram

1
1 2
2 3
4

Let the function g be defined by the formula g(x) = 𝑥 2 , where the domain of g is the set {1, 2}. Then f = g
since they both have the same domain and since f and g assign the same image to each element in the domain.

Constant function: Let f:A→B, defined in such a way that all the elements in A have the same image in B,
then f is such to be a constant function. Let A = {x, y, u, v, 1} and B = {3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 15} and f:A→B, f(x) =
9 ∀ x∈A.

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

Product function or composition function: Consider a function f:A→B and g:B→C that is where the co-
domain of f in the domain in the g. Then we may defined a new function from A to C, called the composition
of f and written gof as follows-
(gof)(a) = g(f(a))
Let f:A→B and g:B→C defined by the diagram-
A B C
f g

a x r
b y s
c z t

(gof)(a) = g(f(a)) = g(y) = t

Invertible function: A function f:A→B is invertible if its inverse relation 𝑓 −1 is a function from B to A. i.e a
function f:A→B is invertible if and only if f is both one-one and onto. Let f:A→B and 𝑓 −1 :B→A be defined
by the diagram-

***Let V = {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2} and the function g:v→R# be defined by the formula g(x) = 𝒙𝟐 +1. Find the
range.
Solve: Given that,

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

V = {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2}
And, g(x) = 𝑥 2 +1
For every g:v→R# we find-
When x = -2; g(-2) = (−2)2 + 1= 5
When x = -1; g(-1) = (−1)2 + 1= 2
When x = 0; g(0) = 02 + 1= 1
When x = 1; g(1) = 12 + 1= 2
When x = 2; g(2) = 22 + 1= 5
∴ Range of V = {1, 2, 5}

***Let W = {a, b, c} and let f and g be the following real-valued function on W-

f(a) = 1, f(b) = -2, f(c) = 3
g(a) = -2, g(b) = 0, g(c) = 1
Find each of the following function-
I. f+2g
II. fg-2f
Solve: Given that,
W = {a, b, c}
f(a) = 1, f(b) = -2, f(c) = 3
g(a) = -2, g(b) = 0, g(c) = 1
I. (f+2g)(a) ≡ f(a) + 2g(a) = 1 – 4 = 3
(f+2g)(b) ≡ f(b) + 2g(b) = -2 + 0 = -2
(f+2g)(c) ≡ f(c) + 2g(c) = 3 + 2 = 5
II. (fg-2f)(a) ≡ f(a) g(a) – 2f(a) = -2 – 2 = -4
(fg-2f)(b) ≡ f(b) g(b) – 2f(b) = 0 + 4 = 4
(fg-2f)(c) ≡ f(c) g(c) – 2f(c) = 3 – 6 = -3

***Find the function f:R#→R# be defined by-

𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 > 𝟑
𝟐
f(x) = {𝒙 − 𝟐 𝒊𝒇 − 𝟐 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟑
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 < −𝟐
Find-

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

I. f(2)
II. f(4)
III. f(-1)
IV. f(-3)
Solve: I. When, x = 2
f(x) = 𝑥 2 - 2
∴ f(2) = 22 – 2 = 4 - 2 = 2
II. When, x = 4
f(x) = 3x - 1
∴ f(4) = 3×4 – 1 = 12 – 1 = 11
III. When, x = -1
f(x) = 𝑥 2 - 2
∴ f(-1) = (−1)2 – 2 = 1 - 2 = -1
IV. When, x = -3
f(x) = 2x + 3
∴ f(-3) = 2×(-3) + 3 = -6 + 3 = -3

*** Sketch the graph of-

I. f(x) = 𝒙𝟐 + x – 6
II. g(x) = 𝒙𝟑 - 3𝒙𝟐 – x + 3
Solve: Set up a table of values of x and then find the corresponding values of the function. Since the function
are polynomials, plot the points in a coordinate diagram and then draw a smooth continuous curve through the
points.
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
f(x) 6 0 -4 -6 -6 -4 0 6

x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
g(x) -15 0 3 0 -3 0 15

Graph of f Graph of g

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

***Let the functions f:A→B and g:B→C be defined by the following figure-

A B C
f g
a x r
b y s
c z t

Find the composition of gof.

Solve: We use the definition of the composite function of compute
(gof)(a) = g(f(a)) = g(y) = t
(gof)(b) = g(f(b)) = g(x) = s
(gof)(c) = g(f(c)) = g(y) = t

***Let the function f and h be defined by f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 𝒙𝟐 – 2. Find the formula defining the
composition function gof.
Solve: Given that,
f(x) = 2x + 1
and, g(x) = 𝑥 2 – 2
(gof)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(2x + 1) = (2x + 1)2 – 2
= 4𝑥 2 + 4x +1 -2
= 4𝑥 2 + 4x - 1

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

Counting
Sum rule principle: Suppose some event E can occur in m ways and a second event F can occur in n ways
and suppose both events cannot occur simultaneously then E and F can occur in m+n ways. More generally,
suppose an event E1 can occur in n1 ways and a second event E2 can occur in n2 ways and no two of the two
events can occur at the same time then one of the events can occur in n1+n2+n3…… ways.
Example: Suppose E is the event of choosing a prime number less than 10 and purpose F is the event of
choosing an even less than 10, then E occur in 4 ways (2, 3, 5, 7) and F can occur in 4 ways (2, 4, 6, 8).
However, E and F cannot occur in 4+4 = 8 ways since 2 is both a prime number less than 10 and an even less
than 10. In fact E or F can occur in only-
4 + 4-1 = 7

Product rule principle: Suppose there is an event E which can occur in m ways and independent of this
event, there is a second event F which occur in n ways then combination of E and F can occur in mn ways.
More generally suppose E1 can occur in n1 ways, a second event E2 can occur in n2 ways and following E3 can
occur in n3 ways and so on, then all can occur in the order indicated in n1.n2.n3…… ways.
Example: In how many ways can an organization containing 26 numbers elect a president, treasures and
secretary (assuming on person in elected more than one position)?
Solve: 26×25×24 = 15600 ways.

Factorial notation: The product of the positive integers from 1 to n inclusive is denoted by n!
n! = 1×2×3×…….(n-2) ×(n-1) ×n
In other words n! is defined by-
n! = n×(n-1) !

𝑛
Binomial coefficient: The symbol ( ), where r and n are positive integers with r≤n is defined as follows-
𝑟
𝑛 𝑛 (𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)…..(𝑛−𝑟+1)
( ) = 1×2×3×………×(𝑟−1)𝑟
𝑟
𝑛 𝑛!
We see that ( ) = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)!
𝑟
8 8×7 9 9×8×7×6
Example: ( ) = 2×1 = 28; ( ) = 4×3×2×1 = 126
2 4

Permutation: Any arrangement of a set of n object in a given order is called a permutation of that objects.
Any arrangement of any r≤n of this objects is a given order is called a r-permutation or a permutation of then
object taken r at a time. The number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time is denoted by-
𝑛!
𝑛𝑃𝑟 = (𝑛−𝑟)!

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

Example: Consider the set of letters a, b, c and d

i. bdca, dcba and acbd
ii. bad, abd, cbd and bca
iii. ad, ab, da and bd

Combination: Suppose we have a collection of n objects. A combination of this n objects taken r at a time is
any selection of r of the objects where order does not count. In other words, a r-combination of a set of n
objects is any subset of r elements. The number of combination of n objects r taken at a time is denoted by-
𝑛!
𝑛𝐶𝑟 = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)!

Example: Consider the combination of the letters a, b, c and d, taken three at a time are- abc, abd, acd, bcd.

𝒏+𝟏 𝒏 𝒏
***Prove theorem- ( )=( )+( )
𝒓 𝒓 − 𝟏 𝒓
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛! 𝑛!
Solve: ( ) + ( ) = (𝑟−1)!(𝑛−𝑟+1)! + 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)!
𝑟−1 𝑟
𝑟 𝑛−𝑟+1
Multiplying first fraction by 𝑟 and second fraction by 𝑛−𝑟+1 we get,
𝑛 𝑛 𝑟 .𝑛! (𝑛−𝑟+1)𝑛!
( ) + ( ) = 𝑟 (𝑟−1)!(𝑛−𝑟+1)! + 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟+1)(𝑛−𝑟)!
𝑟−1 𝑟
𝑟 .𝑛! (𝑛−𝑟+1)𝑛!
= 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟+1)! + 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟+1)!

𝑟 .𝑛!+ (𝑛−𝑟+1)𝑛!
= 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟+1)!

𝑛!(𝑟 +𝑛−𝑟+1)
= 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟+1)!

𝑛!(𝑛+1)
= 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟+1)!

(𝑛+1)!
= 𝑟! {(𝑛+1)−𝑟}!

𝑛+1
=( )
𝑟
(proved).

***Find the number of distinct permutations that can be formed from all the letters of each word-
I. RADAR
II. UNUSUAL
III. MISSISSIPPI
IV. PERMUTATION
V. COLLAGE
VI. ACCOUNTANT

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

VII. ARRANGEMENT
VIII. EXAMINATION
Solve: I. Given that,
RADAR
Total = 5
R=2
A=2
D=1
5!
∴ Permutation of RADAR = 2!2!1! = 30

II. Given that,

UNUSUSAL
Total = 8
U=3
N=1
S=2
A=1
L=1
8!
∴ Permutation of UNUSUSAL = 3!1!2!1!1! = 3360

III. Given that,

MISSISSIPPI
Total = 11
M=1
I=4
S=4
P=2
11!
∴ Permutation of MISSISSIPPI = 1!4!4!2! = 34650

IV. Given that,

PERMUTATION
Total = 11
P=1
E=1

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

R=1
M=1
U=1
T=2
A=1
I=1
O=1
N=1
11!
∴ Permutation of PERMUTATION = = 19958400
1!1!1!1!1!2!1!1!1!1!

V. Given that,
COLLAGE
Total = 7
C=1
O=1
L=2
A=1
G=1
E=1
7!
∴ Permutation of COLLAGE = 1!1!2!1!1!1! = 2520

VI. Given that,

ACCOUNTANT
Total = 10
A=2
C=2
O=1
U=1
N=2
T=2
10!
∴ Permutation of ACCOUNTANT = 2!2!1!1!2!2! = 22680

VII. Given that,

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

ARRANGEMENT
Total = 11
A=2
R=2
N=2
G=1
E=2
M=1
T=1
11!
∴ Permutation of ACCOUNTANT = 2!2!2!1!2!1!1! = 2494800

VIII. Given that,

EXAMINATION
Total = 11
E=1
X=1
A=2
M=1
I=2
N=2
T=1
O=1
11!
∴ Permutation of EXAMINATION = 1!1!2!1!2!2!1!1! = 4989600

***Establish relation between permutation and combination.

Solve: The number of permutations by taking r things at a time from n different things are-
𝑛!
𝑛𝑃𝑟 = (𝑛−𝑟)! -----------(1)

The number of combinations by taking r things at a time from n different things are-
𝑛!
𝑛𝐶𝑟 = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)! -----------(2)

From equation(2) we have,

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

𝑛!
𝑛𝐶𝑟 = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)!

1 𝑛!
= 𝑟! . (𝑛−𝑟)!
1
= 𝑟! 𝑛𝑃𝑟 [from equation(1)]

∴ 𝑛𝑃𝑟 = 𝑟! 𝑛𝐶𝑟

This is the required relation between permutation and combination.

***A cricket team of 11 plyers is to be formed from 16 players including 4 bowlers 2 wicket keepers. In
how many ways can a team be formed so that the team contains-
I. Exactly 3 bowlers and 1 wicket keeper.
II. At least 3 bowlers and at least 1 wicket keeper.
Solve: Given that,
Total plyers = 16
Wicket keepers = 2
Bowlers = 4
Other players = 16 – (4+2) = 10
I. The questions may be answered in the following ways-
Bowlers(4) Wicket keepers(2) Other players(10)
3 1 7
The total number of ways in which exactly 3 bowlers and 1 wicket keeper is-
4𝐶3 × 2𝐶1 × 10𝐶7 = 960

II. The questions may be answered in the following ways-

Bowlers(4) Wicket keepers(2) Other players(10)
4 1 6
4 2 5
3 1 7
3 2 6
The total number of ways in which at least 3 bowlers and at least 1 wicket keeper is-
(4𝐶4 × 2𝐶1 × 10𝐶6 ) + (4𝐶4 × 2𝐶2 × 10𝐶5 ) + (4𝐶3 × 2𝐶1 × 10𝐶7 ) + (4𝐶3 × 2𝐶2 × 10𝐶6 ) = 2472

***Out of 12 employees, a group of trainers is to be sent for “Software testing and QA” traning of one
month.

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

I. In how many ways can the four employees be selected?

II. What if there are two employees who refuse to go together for training?
12!
Solve: I. The ways of selecting 4 person of 12 = 12𝐶4 = 4!8! = 495

II. Let A and B the two employees who refers to go together. Total possible ways to select include-
1. Both A and B do not go = 10𝐶4
2. A is selected hence B is refuses = 10𝐶3
3. B is selected hence A is refuses = 10𝐶3

∴ Total way of selection with this contract = 10𝐶4 + 10𝐶3 + 10𝐶3 = 450

***For an examination, a candidate has selected 7 subjects from three different groups A, B and C. The three
groups contain 4, 5 and 6 subjects respectively. In How many ways can a candidate makes his selection if he has
to select at least 2 subjects from each group.

Solve: Given that,

Number of subjects of group A = 4

Number of subjects of group B = 5
Number of subjects of group C = 6
The questions may be answered in the following ways-
Group A(4) Group B(5) Group C(6)
3 2 2
2 3 2
2 2 3

∴ The total number of ways in which at least 2 subjects from each group is-

(4𝐶3 × 5𝐶2 × 6𝐶2 ) + (4𝐶2 × 5𝐶3 × 6𝐶2 ) + (4𝐶2 × 5𝐶2 × 6𝐶3 ) = 2700

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

Proposition
A proposition is a declarative sentence which is true or false but not both. Consider for example the following
sentences-
I. Paris is in France
II. 2+2=3
III. 9<6
IV. 1+1=2
Conjunction: Any two proposition can be combined by the word “and” to from a compound proposition is
called the conjunction of the original propositions. Symbolically p ∧ q. Example-
p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Disjunction: Any two proposition can be combined by the word “or” to from a compound proposition is
called the disjunction of the original propositions. Symbolically p ⋁ q. Example-
p q p⋁q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Tautologies: A proposition p(p,q………) is a tautology if p(po,qo…..…) is true for any statement po,qo…..…
Example-
p ⌉p p ⋁ ⌉p
T F T
F T T

Biconditional: The form “p if and only if q” such statements are called biconditional statements. It is denoted
by p q. Example-
p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Conditional: The form “if p then q” such statements are called conditional statements. It is denoted by
p q. Example-

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F
p q q p
T T
F T
T F
T T

***Verify that the proposition p ⋁ ⌉ (p ∧ q) is a tautology.

Solve: We construct the truth table for the given proposition-
p q p∧q ⌉( p ∧ q) p ⋁ ⌉( p ∧ q)
T T T F T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F T T
Since the truth value of p ⋁ ⌉ (p ∧ q) is T for all value of p and q, the proposition is a tautology.

***Verify that the proposition (p ∧ q) (p ⋁ q) is a tautology.

Solve: We construct the truth table for the given proposition-
p q p∧q p⋁q (p ∧ q) (p ⋁ q)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F F T
Since the truth value of (p ∧ q) (p ⋁ q) is T for all value of p and q, the proposition is a tautology.

***Find the truth table of the proposition [p→(⌉q ⋁ r)] ∧ [q ⋁ (p↔⌉r)]

Solve: We construct the truth table for the given proposition-
p q ⌉q r ⌉q ⋁ r p→(⌉q ⋁ r)
T T F F F F
T T F T T T
F F T F T T
F F T T T T

q p r ⌉r p↔⌉r q ⋁ (p↔⌉r)
T F T F F T
T T T F T T
F F F T T F
F T F T F T

p→(⌉q ⋁ r) q ⋁ (p↔⌉r) [p→(⌉q ⋁ r)] ∧ [q ⋁ (p↔⌉r)]

F T F
T T T

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T F F
T T T

***Find the truth table of the proposition-

I. (⌉p → r) ∧ (p ↔ q)
II. ⌉p ∧ p
III. p ⋁ (q ⋁ r)
IV. (p ⋁ q) ∧ (p ⋁ r)
Solve: I. We construct the truth table for the given proposition-
p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

p ⌉p
T F
T F
F T
F T
r ⌉p → r p↔q (⌉p → r) ∧ (p ↔ q)
T T T T
F T F F
T T F F
F F T F

II. We construct the truth table for the given proposition-

p ⌉p r ⌉p ∧ r
T F T F
T F F F
F T T T
F T F F

III. We construct the truth table for the given proposition-

p q r q⋁r 𝒑 ⋁ (q ⋁ r)
T T T T T
T F T T T
F T F T T
F F F F F

IV. We construct the truth table for the given proposition-

p q p⋁q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

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p r p⋁r
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

p⋁q p⋁r (p ⋁ q) ∧ (p ⋁ r)

T T T
T T T
T T T
F F F

***Show that the following are tautologies-

I. (p ∧ (p → q)) → q
II. (p → q) ↔ (~p ⋁ q)
Solve: a. We construct the truth table for the given proposition-
p q p→q p ∧ (p → q) (p ∧ (p → q)) → q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
So, from the truth table, we came to know that (p ∧ (p → q)) → q is tautology.
b. We construct the truth table for the given proposition-
p q p→q ~p ~p ⋁ q (p → q) ↔ (~p ⋁ q)
T T T F T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
So, from the truth table, we came to know that (p → q) ↔ (~p ⋁ q) is tautology.

***Let p be “it is cold” and let q be “it is raining”. Give a simple verbal sentence which describe each
of statements-
i. ⌉p
ii. p∧q
iii. p⋁q
iv. q↔p
v. p → ⌉q
vi. q ⋁ ⌉p
vii. ⌉p ∧ ⌉q
viii. p ↔ ⌉q
ix. ⌉⌉q
x. (p ∧ ⌉q) → p

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Solve: i. It is not cold.

ii. It is cold and it is raining.
iii. It is cold or it is raining.
iv. It is raining if and only if it is cold.
v. It is cold, then it is not raining.
vi. It is raining or it is not cold.
vii. It is not cold and it is not raining.
viii. It is not cold if and only if it is not raining.
ix. It is not true that if it is not raining.
x. If it is cold and not raining, then it is cold.

***Let p be “He is tall” and let q be “He is handsome” write each of the following statement in symbol
from using p and q.
i. He is tall and handsome.
ii. He is tall but not handsome.
iii. It is false that he is short or handsome.
iv. He is neither tall nor handsome.
v. He is tall, or he is short and handsome.
vi. It is not true that he is short or not handsome.
Solve: i. p ∧ q
ii. p ∧ ⌉q
iii. ⌉(⌉p ⋁ q)
iv. ⌉p ∧ ⌉q
v. p ⋁ (⌉p ∧ q)
vi. ⌉(⌉p ⋁ ⌉q)

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Directed graph
Graph: A graph G consists of a finite set of points V = V(G) together with a prescribed set X = X (G) of
unordered pair of distinct points of V.
A graph with p points and q edges is called (p,q) graph.
Example:

u w

(3,3) graph
The above graph G is V(G) = {u, v, w}
And, X(G) = {uv, vw, wu}

Multigraph: A multigraph contains of a finite set of points V = V(G) together with a prescribed set X = X
(G) of unordered pair of points of V. In a multigraph multiple edges are considerate but not loops are
considerate.
Example:
a b

c d

Pseudo graph: A pseudo graph G consists of a finite set of points V = V(G) together with a prescribed set X
= X (G) of unordered pair of points of V. In pseudo graph multiple edges and loops loops are considerate.
Example:
a b

c d

Directed graph: A directed graph G consists of a finite set of points V = V(G) together with a prescribed set
X = X (G) of ordered pair of distinct points of V.

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a b

c d

Labeled graph: A graph is called labeled graph if points of G are distinguished by names as P1, P2, ……Pn.

P1 P2

P3

***Maximum edge of a graph with P points is-

𝑃 𝑃! 𝑃(𝑃−1)
( ) = 2!(𝑃−2)! = 2
2

Example: Maximum edges of graph with 4 points-

4 4! 4(4−1)
( ) = 2!(4−2)! = 2 = 6
2

Isomorphic graph: Let G1 and G2 be two graphs. We say that G1 ≅ G2. If there is a one-to-one correspondence
between G1 and G2 such that the adjacency relation is preserved. Then G1 and G2 are called isomorphic graph.
a d c b

b c d a

Two graphs G1 and G2 are said to be isomorphic if there is a mapping f: G1 → G2 such that,
i. f is one-to-one and onto
ii. f(u, v) = f(u) f(v) for every u,v ∈ G.

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

Subgraph: A subgraph H of a graph G such that all the points and edges of H are the points and edges of G.
In mathematically, if H and G are two graphs then the graph H is called a subgraph of G if V(H) ≤ V(G) and
X(H) ≤ X(G).
Ex:

G H
Here, H is a subgraph of G.

Spanning subgraph: A subgraph H, if a graph G is called a spanning subgraph of G if V(H) = V(G).

Ex:

G H
Here, H is a spanning subgraph of G.

Walk: A walk of graph G is an alternating sequence of points and edges Vo.x1, V1.x2, ………… Vn-1.xn, Vn
beginning and ending with points in which line is indicate with two points immediately preceding and
following it.
The walk which is denoted by Vo, V1, ………… Vn-1, Vn is known as Vo - Vn walk.
The Vo - Vn walk is known colosed if Vo = Vn is open if Vo ≠ Vn.
Ex: V1 V2 V4 V5

V3 G V4 V3 H V2 V1

Here G is closed and H is open graph.

Trail and path: A walk is called a trial if all the lines are distinct and a walk is called a path if all the points
are distinct.
Ex: V1 – V5 walk V4 V5

V3 G V2 V1

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

Here, V1 V2 V5 V3 V4 V5 V2 is a V1 – V5 walk
V2 V3 V4 V5 V3 is a trail but is not a path
V2 V3 V4 V5 is a path and also a trail.

Connected graph: A graph G is said to be connected if every pair of points is joined by a path.

Complete graph: A complete graph k4 has every pair of its p-points are adjacent.
Example:

G: k4

Diameter of a graph: The diameters of a graph is denoted by d(r) which is defined as the length of the largest
geodesic. [geodesic = U - V]
Ex:

Here d(G) = 2 U

Degree of a point: The degree of a point V in a graph G is the number of lines incident on V and write by
deg(V) = number of lines incidence on V.

̅ contains a triangle.
***Theorem: For any graph G of six points G on 𝑮
Proof: Let V be a point of the graph G of six points. Since, V is adjacent with either G or 𝐺̅ to the other five
points of G. We can assume without less or generally that there are three points u1, u2, u3 adjacent to V in G.
If any two of these three points u1, u2, u3 are adjacent, then they are the two points of triangle whose third
point is V. If no two of them are adjacent in V, the u1, u2, u3 are the points of a triangle in 𝐺̅ .

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u1 u2 u3
𝑷𝟐
***Theorem: The maximum number of lines of a graph G with P points without no triangles is [ 𝟒 ].

Proof: The statement is obvious for small values of P. An inductive proof may be given separately for odd P
and even P.
We shall only for even P and the other proof is similar to that of even P.
Suppose, the statement is true for all even P ≤ 2n.
We then prove it for P = 2n + 2. Thus, G is a graph with P = 2n + 2 points and no triangles. Since, G is not
totally disconnected then there are adjacent point u and v. The sub graph G’ = G – {u - v} has 2n points and
(2𝑛)2
triangles. So, by the inductive hypothesis G’ has [ ] lines i.e. 𝑛2 lines.
4

How many more lines can G have? There can be no w such that u and v are both adjacent to w for then u, v
and w from a triangle on G, then v is adjacent to (2n - k) points of G. Then G as at most 𝑛2 +k+(2n-k)+1 lines,
(2𝑛+2)2 𝑃2
i.e. 𝑛2 +2n+1 = (𝑛 + 1)2 = [ ] = [ 4 ] lines.
4

𝑃2
To complete this proof, we must show that for all even, there exist a (p, ) graph with no triangles such a
4
graph is foemed as follows:
𝑝
Take two points v1 and v2 of 2 points each and join each point of v1 with each point of v2.

***Theorem: The sum of degrees of the points of a graph is equal to twice the number of edges.
Proof: Each edge contributes degree two at its vertices. Hence, the sum of the degrees of the vertices is equal
to twice the no. of edges.
i.e. ∑𝑛𝑖=1 deg(𝑣𝑖) = 2𝑒; where e is the number of edges

Tree: A graph T is called a tree if T is connected and T has no cycles. A forest G is a graph with no cycles,
hence the connected components of a forest G are trees. The three consisting of a single vert ex with no edges
is call the degenerate tree.

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Ex:
v1 v2 v3

a d v x
v4 v5

r
s t y z
v7

v6
v8 v9

Spanning tree: A sub graph T of a connected graph G is called a spanning tree and T includes all vertices of
G.
Ex: The spanning tree T1, T2 and T3 of of connected graph are given by the following figure-

T1

T2

T3

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***Define minimum spanning tree: Suppose G is a connected weighted graph. That is each edge of G is
assigned a non-negative number called the weight of the edge. The any spanning tree of G is assigned a total
weight obtained by adding the weights of edges in T. A minimum spanning tree of G is a spanning tree whose
total weight is as small as possible.

2 3
4 6 2 1
5
1 4

2 3
2 1

1
Minimum spanning tree weight = 2 + 3 + 2 + 1+ 1 = 9.

***Solve the all minimum spanning tree are given bellow.

I.

II.

III.

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

Solve: I. Given tree,

Consider following graph with the help of above algorithm we get-

Edges: cf ef eg bd ec ad be dg de fg bc ab
Weight: 9 8 7 6 5 4 4 4 3 3 2 1
Delete: yes yes yes yes yes yes no no no no no no

Fig: Q
Now the total weight: 4+4+3+3+2+1 = 17
Thus the minimum spanning tree of Q is obtained contains the edges be, dg, de, fg, bc, ab.
II. Given tree,

Consider following graph with the help of above algorithm we get-

Edges: BC AC AF BE CE BF AE DF BD
Weight: 8 7 7 7 6 5 4 4 3
Delete: yes yes yes no no yes no no no

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 DISTRICT MATHMETICS

Fig: R
Now the total weight: 7+6+4+4+3 = 24
Thus the minimum spanning tree of R is obtained contains the edges BE, CE, AE, DF, BD.
II. Given tree,

Consider following graph with the help of above algorithm we get-

Edges: AB EG EB BD EF CD BC DG FG BG
Weight: 6 6 5 4 4 3 2 2 2 1
Delete: no yes yes yes no yes no no no no

Fig: S
Now the total weight: 6+4+2+2+2+1 = 19
Thus the minimum spanning tree of R is obtained contains the edges AB, EF, BC, DG, FG, BG.

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