PHY 411 / 412 / 436

QUANTUM OPTICS
Prof. Mark Fox

A sub-module of the
ASPECTS OF MODERN PHYSICS module
Spring Semester
10 lectures
 Module Synopsis
I. Laser Cooling & Bose-Einstein Condensation
(Lectures 1-5)
II. Photon statistics (Lectures 6-9)
III. Quantum Information Processing
(Cryptography) (Lecture 10)

Course text:
Fox, M.
Quantum Optics, an Introduction
Oxford University Press, 2006
 Part I: Laser cooling & BEC
Topics to be covered
• Techniques for laser cooling of atoms
• Theoretical limits on the temperature
• Bose-Einstein Condensation of atoms

Reading: Fox, Quantum Optics, Chapter 11

Other useful books

Foot, Atomic Physics, Oxford, 2005, Chapters 9-10
Demtröder, Atoms, Molecules and Photons, §12.1
Haken & Wolf, Physics of Atoms & Quanta, § 22.6, 23.11
 Useful resources

Web resources for laser cooling & BEC:

http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1997/
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2001/
http://www.lkb.ens.fr/recherche/atfroids/tutorial/index2.htm *
http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/bec/
http://bec01.phy.georgiasouthern.edu/bec.html/
* in French !
 Atomic temperatures
Principle of equipartition of energy:
½kBT per degree of freedom
1 2 3
mv = k BT 3− D
2 2
1 1
mv x = k BT
2
1− D
oven, temp T 2 2

atomic beam
3k BT
vmp =
m
vmp = most probable velocity
 Doppler cooling mechanism
(a)
absorption

v • absorption only for case (b)

δ
• laser must be tuned below
the transition
νL′ ν0 frequency • frequency must be tuned as
νL′ (b) atoms cool
absorption

v atom laser beam

ν0 frequency
velocity = vx νL = ν0 + δ
absorption

(c)
vx
2δ δ = − ν0
v c
νL′ ν0 frequency
Absorption-emission cycles
1. Laser photon impinges on atom

t=0
2. Atom promoted to excited state
at t = 0

t=τ 3. Atom re-emits at mean time τ

in a random direction

Average momentum kick of (−h/λ) in time τ

dp x ∆ p x h
Fx = ∼ =−
dt τ λτ
 Limits on Doppler cooling
initial p x mu x
N stop ≈ ≈
∆p x per cycle h / λ Number of absorption
2mu x λτ - emission cycles to
tmin ≈ N stop × 2τ = stop atom,
h time to do so, and
mλτ u x2 distance travelled
d min ≈
h

k BTmin ~ h∆v • Doppler limit temperature

• ∆ν = 1 / 2πτ (natural linewidth)
Tmin = • Factor of 2 from stimulated
2k Bτ emission
 Sisyphus Cooling

Sisyphus

• Laser cooling experiments using counter-

propagating beams worked better than expected !
• Tfinal < TDoppler
• Caused by the Sisyphus cooling effect
 Mechanism of Sisyphus cooling
excited state: J = 3/2

Energy

absorption
emission
• counter-propagating MJ = +1/2
beams create
interference pattern MJ = −1/2
• Atomic levels shifted ground state: J = 1/2
by the AC-Stark x
effect Position

http://www.lkb.ens.fr/recherche/atfroids/tutorial/index2.htm
7. LE REFROIDISSEMENT D’ATOMES PAR LASER
 Recoil limit temperature

Photon recoil ultimately

limits T while atom is
undergoing absorption-
∆p = h / λ emission cycles

1 ( ∆p )2 h2
k BTrecoil = =
2 2m 2mλ 2

h2
∴ Trecoil =
mk Bλ 2
 Magneto-optic traps
z • Magnetic quadrupole:
B ∝ (x2 + y2 – 4z2)1/2
i • Atomic energy shift:
y ∆E = gJµBBMJ

x
• attractive for MJ > 0
• repulsive for MJ < 0
i

Optical Molasses
6 counter propagating beams
+ magneto-optic trap
 Experimental cooling kit
camera molasses
region
pre–cooling region
40 µK
~2.5 K toms
n g a
a p i
sodium e sc
probe
oven pulse
cooling beam
600 °C
tapered solenoid

• Lasers tuned to sodium D2 line (3s 2S1/2 → 3p 2P3/2, 589 nm)

• Use tapered solenoid to tune atoms as they cool
• Further details in Dr Phillips’ Nobel Prize lecture:
see http://www.physics.nist.gov/News/Nobel/1997nobel.html
 Temperature achieved
600
Temperature (µK)

400

200 Doppler limit

0
0 10 20 30 40
Laser detuning (MHz)

• Sodium D2 line at 589 nm: τ = 16 ns

• Tmin (Doppler) = 240 µK
• Tmin (recoil) = 2.4 µK
 Ion traps
magnetic field • Ions easily trapped by
electric & magnetic fields
• Two common designs:
+ +
Penning & Paul traps
– –
• Use laser to cool ions to
trapped ions Doppler limit temperature
– – • Can trap and control single
Cooling ions: used for quantum
+ + laser information processing

Penning trap: B field traps in (x,y)

plane & E field traps in z direction
 Bose-Einstein Condensation

Main reference
Fox, Quantum Optics, Chapter 11

Other useful reading

Mandl, F., Statistical Physics, 2nd Edition,

Wiley (1988), Section 11.6

Web resources:
http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/bec/
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2001/
http://ucan.physics.utoronto.ca/
 Basic concepts of BEC
4
7/2 kB

CV per molecule / kB
vibrational
Heat capacity 3
motion
of gas of 5/2 kB
rotational
diatomic 2 ? motion 3/2 k
molecules B
1 translational
motion
0
1 10 100 1000 10000
Temperature (K)
• Classical result: CV = ½kB per degree of freedom
• Classical motion freezes out when kBT 1 Equant
Quantization of translational motion
• Third law of thermodynamics: CV → 0 as T → 0
• Translational motion must eventually be quantized
at sufficiently low T
• Most gases liquefy and solidify before quantum
effects observed for the translational motion.
(Helium is the exception.) Atoms/molecules in liquid
or solid phase are not “non-interacting”.
• Need to get to very low temperatures but with “non-
interacting” atoms/molecules. ie need to cool a gas
to very low T without it liquefying.
 Bose-Einstein condensation
“From a certain temperature on, the molecules
‘condense’ without attractive forces, that is, they
accumulate at zero velocity. The theory is pretty, but
is there some truth to it.”
A. Einstein, letter to P. Ehrenfest, 29 Nov, 1924

Examples
- superfluid liquid helium TC = 2.17 K
- cold atom gas TC 1 10−6 K
- Cooper pairs in superconductors, neutron stars
- excitons
 Transition temperature
2
p2
1 ⎛ h ⎞ 3
λdeB = ⎜ ⎟ ~ kBT
2m 2m ⎝ λdeB ⎠ 2
1/ 3
h ⎛V ⎞
∴ λdeB ~ ~⎜ ⎟
3mkBT ⎝ N ⎠
2 2/3
h ⎛N⎞
∴ TC ~ ⎜ ⎟
3mkB ⎝ V ⎠
 Statistical mechanics of BEC
• BEC = accumulation of particles in the ground state
• Fermions (e.g. spin ½ particles) subject to Pauli
exclusion principle. Can only put one particle in the
ground state.
• Hence only bosons (i.e. integer spin particles) can
undergo BEC.
2 2/3
h ⎛N⎞ Condensation
TC = 0.0839 ⎜ ⎟
mkB ⎝ V ⎠ temperature
3/ 2
⎛T ⎞ Fraction in
f (T ) = 1 − ⎜ ⎟
⎝ TC ⎠ condensed phase
 Atoms: boson or fermion ?
• Ions no good for BEC because they repel, so
that high densities are not possible. Hence need
to use neutral atoms.
• Electrons, protons, and neutrons are spin ½
fermions
• Satom = Selectrons + Snucleus
• Nelectron = Nproton in neutral atom.
• Hence boson for Nneutron even.
• Examples: 4He, 23Na, 87Rb
 Recipe for BEC
• Use laser cooling to cool atoms to near Trecoil
• Confine atom cloud by using a magneto-optic trap
• Turn off laser and reduce potential of trap to
instigate evaporative cooling.

magnetic trap
potential

reduce magnetic field most energetic

atoms escape and
temperature goes
x down
 Observation of BEC
shadow of atomic gas
t=0 on screen / camera
free reso
expansion nan
t las
er l
igh
t
t = te

D ~ vte atomic
gas

Measure velocity distribution by time of flight

expansion and shadow image technique
 Experimental Results
• BEC first observed in 1995 for 87Rb and 23Na
• Now observed in many other atomic gases
7Li, 1H, 85Rb, 4He, 41K, 133Cs, 174Yb, 52Cr, …

• Details of experiments from

http://ucan.physics.utoronto.ca/
• Significant differences between:
BEC in free space BEC in harmonic trap
2/3
h ⎛N⎞2
ω
TC = 0.0839 ⎜ ⎟ TC = 0.94 N 1/ 3
mkB ⎝ V ⎠ kB
3/ 2 3
⎛T ⎞ ⎛T ⎞
f (T ) = 1 − ⎜ ⎟ f (T ) = 1 − ⎜ ⎟
⎝ TC ⎠ ⎝ TC ⎠
 BEC experimental data
• 87Rb
• 5S1/2 → 5P3/2
transition at
780nm
50 nK • Cooling with
laser diodes
nK
20 0 •N / V ~
0.2 2.5×1018 m-3
0 nK mm
40 • TC ~ 170 nK

See Anderson et al, Science 269, 198 (1995)

http:/jilawww.colorado.edu/bec
 Atom lasers
• Trap is attractive only for MJ = +1/2 states
• Apply RF pulse to tip the spin: trap becomes
repulsive and ejects pulses of atoms
• Interference between two atom pulses proves
coherence 1.8 mm
1 mm
• 23Na 3.9 mm
• 200 Hz rep rate
• 105 – 106
atoms / pulse
Durfee and Ketterle, Optics Express, 2, 299 (1998)

See Ketterle, Rev. Mod. Phys. 74, 1131 (2002)

http://cua.mit.edu/ketterle_group/Projects_1997/atomlaser_97/atomlaser_comm.html