CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION

1. Textile industry

The textile industry is primarily concerned with the design, production and distribution
of yarn, cloth and clothing. The raw material may be natural, or synthetic using products of
the chemical industry.

Textile fibres provided an integral component in modern society and physical structure
known for human comfort and sustainability. The desire for better garment and apparel
resulted in the development of textile fibre production and textile manufacturing process.
Primarily the natural textile fibres meet the requirements for human consumption in terms of
the comfort and aesthetic trends. Cotton, wool and silk were the important natural fibres for
human clothing articles.

2. Textile manufacturing process

Textile manufacturing is a major industry. It is largely based on the conversion of fibre

into yarn, then yarn into fabric. These are then dyed or printed, fabricated into cloth which is
then converted into useful goods such as clothing, household items, and various industrial
products. Different types of fibres are used to produce yarn. Cotton remains the most
important natural fibre, so is treated in depth. There are many variable processes available at
the spinning and fabric-forming stages coupled with the complexities of the finishing and
colouration processes to the production of a wide range of products.

Today the textile industry encompasses a significant number and variety of processes that
are adding value in fibre. These processes may range over the yarn making through the
garment stitching, fabric embossing and composite production. However, considering the
textile fibre as the basic building unit of any textile product, the textile manufacturing may
clearly be identified as the conventional and technical textiles.

The conventional textile manufacturing process has a long history of converting the
natural fibre into useful products including fabric, home textiles, and apparel and more
recently into a technical textile through the utilization of special finishing effects.

The synthetic and semisynthetic fibre manufacturing is diversified with the utilization of
monomer, chemical agent, precursor, catalyst, and a variety of auxiliary chemicals resulting
in the formation of fibre or yarn. The innovation in textile manufacturing introduced variety
in raw materials and manufacturing processes. Therefore, process control to ensure product
quality is desired. Monitoring and controlling of process parameters may introduce reduction
in waste, costs, and environmental impact.

All the processing stages in textile manufacturing from fibre production to finished fabric
are experiencing enhancement in process control and evaluation. It includes textile fibre
production and processing through blow room, carding, drawing and combing; and fabric
production including knitted, woven, nonwoven and subsequent coloration and finishing and
apparel manufacturing.

3. Types of textile manufacturing process

Textile industry may be classified in several ways depending on the production

processes, the obtained final products achieved and so on. In case of textile fabrics, the
process starts with the gathering of natural fibres or man-made synthetic production. Then,
after spinning process, continues with the processing into textile flat structures, fabrics, in the
form of woven fabrics, knit fabric, nonwovens fabric, etc. The fabrics are treated in finishing
processes, including dyeing and printing processes, coating, mechanical finishing. These
processes will provide new properties to the fabric before the next stage: “the clothing stage”.

Process flow chart of textile manufacturing process

Yarn Manufacturing
(Spinning)
↓
Fabric Manufacturing
(Weaving)
↓
Wet Processing
(Dyeing +Printing+ Finishing)
↓
Apparel Manufacturing
(Cutting + Sewing)

3.1 Yarn manufacturing

Traditionally, yarn manufacturing comprises a series of processes involved in converting

the fibre into yarn. It was rooted in natural fibres obtained from natural plant or animal
sources. Natural fibres are produced with natural impurities that were removed from the yarn
in subsequent pre-treatment processes. Possibly, cotton is the fibre that has rooted the yarn
manufacturing from fibre bale opening, followed by the series of continuous operations of
blending, mixing, cleaning, carding, drawing, roving and spinning. Yarn manufacturing using
cotton fibres through a sequence of processing stages may be shown by process flow
diagram. All these operations are mechanical and do not require chemical application.

Each processing stage in yarn manufacturing utilized the machine of specialised nature
and provided quality effects in yarn production. The advancement in fibre processing and
machine technology for yarn manufacturing is continuous. The manual picking of cotton
fibre is now replaced with machine picking. However, conventional systems of blending,
carding, drawing, roving, and spinning are indicated important in future. Yarn diameter,
hairiness, linear density, permeability, strength properties, etc. depend upon the end-use
requirement of fabric to be produced for woven or knitted end products (e.g., apparel or
industrial fabrics), sewing thread, or cordage.

3.2 Fabric manufacturing

Textile fabric is at least a two-dimensional structure produced by fibre/yarn interlacing.

The interlaced fibrous structure mainly used is woven, nonwoven and knitted. Traditionally,
the weaving technology was the principal source for fabric production. The important types
of woven fabric produced are the basic weaves, such as plain or tabby, twill, and satin, and
the fancy weaves, including pile, jacquard, dobby, and gauze.

Knitted fabric is the second major type of fabric used following the woven. It has a
characteristic of accommodating the body contour and provided the ease of movement. It is
particularly a comfortable form of fabric structure for sports, casual wear, and undergarment.
Knitted fabrics include weft types and the warp types, raschel and tricot.

Net, lace, and braid are other useful interlaced fabric structures. Nonwoven fabrics are
rapidly increasing in market consumption. These fabrics are finding interesting uses in
industrial and home applications. Nonwoven fabrics include materials produced by felting
and bonding. Laminating processes are also increasing in importance, and fairly recent
developments include needle weaving and the sewing-knitting process.
 Flowchart of fabric manufacturing

3.3 Garment manufacturing

Garment is known as a piece of clothing. Garment design and manufacturing is the

combination of art and technology. Garment manufacturing has seen several advancements in
design development, computer-aided manufacturing (CAD), and automation. However, the
older version of garment manufacturing process is still the main theme today- that is, the
cutting and joining of at least two pieces of fabric. The sewing machine has the function of
joining woven or cut-knitted fabrics. Garments are mostly produced by sewing the pieces of
fabric using a sewing machine. These machines are still based on the primary format used.

Today the important topics in the current garment manufacturing industry range over
product development, production planning, and material selection. The selection of garment
design, including computer-aided design, spreading, cutting, and sewing; joining techniques;
and seamless garment construction are beneficial in meeting the consumer needs. The
development in finishing, quality control, and care-labelling of garment are meeting the
point-of-sale requirements.
4. Value addition in textile manufacturing

4.1 Pre-treatment process

Any of fibre substrate including fibre/yarn, fabric, garment, technical textile, etc. may
require a series of chemical processing to reduce the undesired content from the fibre. The
selection of any pre-treatment process, its composition and methodology depends upon the
end-use requirement of the textile product.

A pre-treatment process is generally required to introduce two important value additions

in textile substrate including:

Removing the undesired content from the fibre mass including dust, coloring matters,
undesired oils, lint, trash, etc.

Imparting the required level of fibre property for subsequent processing of textile
substrate. The required fibre property may include fabric whiteness, absorbency, softness,
strength, weight, width, etc.

The pre-treatment processes performed in conventional textile industry are sizing, de-
sizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerization, washing, and heat setting. One or more of any of
these processes are required for the textile substrate depending upon the end-use of the
textile.

Traditionally, the pre-treatment process is performed on cotton, cellulose fibres, wool,

and the blend of these fibres with synthetics and semi-synthetics. Natural fibres including
cotton and wool have natural impurities, and the purpose of pre-treatment is primarily to
remove undesired natural fibre content.

4.2 Coloration process

Dyeing, printing, and coating are the coloration processes to produce beautiful motif and
color effect on textile. Printing and coating are limited to surface coloration and may be
applied to most of the fibre types, natural fabrics and synthetics. Approximately 10,000
different dyes and pigments are used industrially around the world.
 Dyeing is the coloring effect throughout the cross section of fibre, and this effect can be
produced on any form of textile substrate including fibre/yarn, fabric, garment, and clothing
articles. However, any dyestuff is suitable for a particular type of fibre for dyeing.

Dyeing of textile substrate is performed using any of the dyestuff including reactive,
direct, sulfur, vat, pigment, acid, and disperse, depending upon the dye-fibre system
compatibility. The dyeing method used can be continuous, semi-continuous, and batching.
Continuous dyeing technique is performed for large-scale production in the industry.

Fixation of dyestuff in fabric or garment should be significantly fast during the service
life to provide resistance and durability against washing, heat, chemicals, soaping, rubbing,
sunlight, etc.

Washing of the dyed fabric and the discharge of dye effluent may release 10-50% of
dyestuff to the environment and that is the environmental concern associated with the dyeing
process. Globally, the inefficient dyeing and finishing process may result in the release of
2,00,000 tons of used dyestuff to the environment.

4.3 Special finishing process

Special finishing effects are required in textile fibres. The functional attributes of textile
fibres are limited. Textile products are required to exhibit a variety of performance effects for
end-use. Crease recovery, flame retardant, water repellent, anti-bacteria, anti-static, moth
proofing, softening, and hand-builder are the special finishing effects that can be produced in
textile.

Conventionally, special finishing is performed following the coloration of textile;

however, innovation has shown the possibility of performing special finishing prior the
coloration and special finishing in combination with the coloration process. The subject of
investigating the alternating finishing and coloration processing sequences may offer the
enhanced finish effects or coloration effects.
 CHAPTER-II

COMPANY PROFILE

NAME : BENNWOOD TEKNIC TEXTILES

FACTORY ADDRESS : 381/2, PALLADAM ROAD,

SIDHANAICKEN PALAYAM,

COIMBATORE – 641658

CONTACT NO : 98431 60716 – MOBILE

96558 60716 – FACTORY

EMAIL ID : bennwood55@gmail.com

MANAGING PARTNER : 1. MR. T. GANAPATHI RAJ M.I.E

(TEXTILE ENGINEERING)

2. MRS. B. SUTHAMANI B.COM , M.B.A

NO. OF STAFFS : 15

NO. OF WORKERS : 50

Product manufactured:

1. 2/74 Combed Gassed Mercerized Yarn

2. 2/80 Combed Gassed Mercerized Yarn

3. 2/80 Karded Gassed Mercerized Yarn

4. 2/100 Combed Gassed Mercerized Yarn

Production capacity:

Dry process capacity: 36,000 kgs per month

Machineries : 1. Two for One twister : Total spindles 1296 nos

2. Gassing : 60 drums

3. High Speed Reeling with length device attached : 6 nos

4. Hank to Cone with wet splicer attachment : 120 drums

Wet process : Mercerizing

M/S Bennwood Processors, Tadakalpalli, Hindupur, A.P

Production capacity : 27,000.00 kgs per month

Domestic : Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka

Export : Myanmar, Indonesia, Sri Lanka

Technical and Marketing :

Mr. T. Ganapathi Raj having experience 20 years in spinning and processing field in a
reputed spinning mills.

Overall responsibility for production, quality, marketing.

Commercial :

Mrs. B. Suthamani having experience in accounts and finance about 14 years will be looking
after accounts, ESIC, Banking and GST.
 CHAPTER-III

DEPARTMENT AND ITS FUNCTIONS

Introduction

The textile industry has got various departments for executing different functions. That
would be explained elaborately below:

Types of departments

 TFO ( Two-For-One )
 Gas Singeing
 Reeling
 Mercerizing
 Hank to Cone
 Winding

TFO ( Two-For-One )

Two-For-One (TFO) is a two-stage process where the yarns are doubled and then
twisted. In TFO process two or more single yarns are twisted in order to enhance the
properties of the end-products such as strengthening the yarns. Generally, the wax is applied
to yarns before the first twisting stage in order to reduce the friction on yarns. Here, yarn is
transferred to a cone, then two end yarns are combined (doubled) and wound on a cone
without twisting. Then the yarn is supplied to twister machine where the twist is applied in
such a way that one revolution of rotating disc inserts two round of twist. The twisted yarn is
then wound on a cone.

Functions of TFO Machine:

 To produce long length of knot free yarn of two or more ply, to facilitate better

performance in the subsequent processes

 To insert sufficient amount of twist to the plied yarn to impart strength.

 To wind the yarn onto the Cone.

 To build the yarn package properly.

Operating TFO Machine:

 Creel the required number of yarn packages (Paralleled yarn on cheese) on the

hallow spindle of the protection pot.

 Draw the thread from the package through the flyer and feed through the hallow

spindle with the nylon wire.

 Take out the yarn from the bottom of the hallow spindle and pass the yarn through

guide to the winding head.

 Operate the control switches for starting and stopping of TFO.

 Ensure that the "Tension Mark" and "Tension Weight" are uniform in all the

spindles as instructed.

 Follow the different signal lamps.

 Ensure that the drop wire / stop motion wire are always in action.

 Piece the yarn during breakages.

 Ensure the yarn passes properly to winding head after attending to the breaks.

 View the display panel and identify the reasons for machine stoppages if any.

 Inform the supervisor and maintenance in charge in case of any break-downs.

 If the Spindle Tape is broken, report these spindle nos. to the superiors

immediately and do not allow winding of untwisted ply yarn.

 Carryout cleaning activities in creeling, twisting, and in Winding head.

 Remove the waste while attending breakage/creeling and put them in appropriate

waste collection bins.

 Support for carrying out maintenance activities.

 Always keep TFO machine area clean.

Importance of Colour coding:

The details related to colour coding and relevant information like feeding yarn package
(paralleled yarn cheese) colour, colour of empty cones, count of yarn produced and number
of ply etc., are normally displayed in respective machine’s display board. It is the
responsibility of the machine operator to understand them and work accordingly.

Identifying defects :

 Defects in feeding yarn package (paralleled yarn cheese) like damaged cheese, stitches,
singles, 3ply, 4ply, cuts in yarn etc, are to be identified and informed to supervisor for
necessary action.

 Defects in TFO wound packages like soft packages, stained packages, tail and missing,
back stitches, 3ply, 4ply, untwist, low twist, high twist, flowering, unequal tapering,
uneven and fluff accumulated TFO cones, slough off etc., are to be identified and
informed to supervisor for necessary action.

Creeling

 Bring the correct colour coded paralleled cheese package in the cheese trolley from
storage area

 Identify cheese exhausts and remove the empty cheese

 Before taking empty cheese from inner pot lift the drop wire first

 Take the flyer along with tension variator out and put them on pigtail guide rod and turn
the pigtail otherwise the cut end cheese may be formed

 Clean the inner pot using cloth

 Lift the cheese spindle and properly mount the full cheese

 Now re-fix the tension variator and flyer

 Creel the cheese in the creel stands and ensure the cheese is properly fixed in the cheese
pot

 Take the yarn from cheese and pass through the flyer

 Ensure minimum time is taken for creeling the cheese package during exhaust or cheese
change

Attending yarn breakage in TFO

 Patrol around the machine to ensure proper production of ply yarn

 If there is any break, clean the cone and ensure proper twist

 Lift the drop wire

 Take the flyer and tension variator out and store in a suitable place

 Take the cheese package and identify defects, if any

 Remove defects in the cheese package

 Put the cleaned and defect free cheese into the inner pot

 Fix the flyer and tension variator in correct positions

 Take the yarn from cheese and pass through the flyer

 Stop the spindle by applying brake

 Insert the nylon wire through the tension variator

 Tie the yarn at the piecing wire properly

 Pull out the wire by holding the front end through the reserve disc
 Take the yarn through big tail guide

 Release the brake

 Allow sufficient time for tying/knotting/splicing the yarns, in order to insert required
amount of twist to the untwisted portion of yarn

 Engage the cradle

 Engage the drop wire

 Always knot/splice the ends using knotter/splicer as instructed

 Ensure the size of knot/splice is minimal

 Trim the knotted thread with scissor provided

 Ensure correct yarn passage to avoid high/low twist and defective package

 Always adopt proper procedure for knotting/splicing and trimming the yarn as instructed
by supervisor

 While processing knotless yarn broken ends may be overlapped on the cone if instructed

 Properly handle the cheese and cone packages

 After knotting/splicing ensure proper yarn passage and tension variator position

 Always ensure safety while carrying out creeling, knotting/splicing and trimming
activities

 Keep the work area clean

Doffing the full cones and restarting winding

 Identify the machine ready for doffing

 Follow the procedure as instructed by supervisor to doff the cone package from the
machine

 Before taking doffs take correct colour coded empty cone from empty cone peg stand

 Remove full cone from cone holder, keep doffed cone on the peg trolley

 Check whether the cheese in the cheese pot is running out and is becoming empty for
replacing with full cheese

 Before taking the cheese from empty pot, take out the flyer and tension variator and put it
on pig tail guide rod and turn the pig tail guide, clean the inner pot using cloth then take
the tension variator out

 Take the empty cheese from inner pot, feed the full cheese, take the yarn from cheese in
clockwise direction and pass the yarn through the flyer

 Now in the winding head fix the empty cone tightly on centering disc nose and base side
properly

 Stop the spindle by applying brake

 Insert the nylon wire through the tension variator

 Tie the yarn at the piecing wire properly

 Pull out the wire by holding the front end through the reserve disc

 Take the yarn through pig tail guide

 Release the brake

 Allow suitable time to insert required amount of twist to the untwisted portion of yarn
befor tying the yarn on empty cone
 Engage the cradle

 Engage the drop wire

Storing the doffed cone packages

 Place the doffed cones in the peg trolley and store at designated storage place

 Transport the full cones peg trolley to designated storage area

 Keep the empty cones in the reserve area for next doffing

 Carefully handle the cone packages and put them in the trolleys as instructed

 Always ensure safety while carrying out doffing

Cleaning of TFO & waste disposal

 Carry out cleaning of machine at periodic intervals as instructed and keep the machine
free from fluff and dust accumulation

 Clean the creeling area

 Clean the inner pot using cloth

 Properly clean different mechanisms in TFO machine

 Collect the yarn waste in the waste collection pocket provided and store them at
designated place

 Clean around the TFO machine using proper cleaning equipments

 Keep the TFO department clean

Gas singeing
 Singeing is a process applied to both yarns and fabrics to produce an even surface by
burning off projecting fibres, yarn ends , and fuzz. This is accomplished by passing the fibre
or yarn over a gas flame or heated copper plates at a speed sufficient to burn away the
protruding material without scorching or burning the yarn or fabric. Singeing is usually
followed by passing the treated material over a wet surface to assure that any smoldering is
halted. For yarn, singeing is an operation carried out to eliminate yarn hairiness. The singeing
system consists of a package to package winder and a gas burner. The yarn is passed through
the flame which singes the protruding fibres that cause the hairiness. This is the most
common type of machine used for singeing fabrics as well as yarns. In this gas singeing
machine, both sides of the fabric can be singed at the same time. Normally, two burner are
used for both sides singed.

Singeing of yarn

Both combed and carded spun yarns show many projecting fibres when the yarn is viewed
against light. Thus, it is necessary to carry out the process of singeing.

Singeing or gassing is the process which involves burning of protruding or projecting fibres
from the surface of the yarn for achieving following mentioned objectives:

a. Singeing of yarn makes it more compact and makes the yarn surface lustrous.

b. Singeing or gassing removes the bulk of protruding fibres from the surface of the yarn
smoother and finer.

c. The process of mercerization is more successfully carried out on the singed yarn.

There are different processes for singeing or gassing, the most widely used is the Gas
Singeing process but it comes with its disadvantages. The modern methods includes the
Electrical singeing which has become popular over the years, it has following advantages
over the gas singeing:

a. The heating is more uniform and it can be controlled.

b. The coil has low voltage and hence there is less danger of fire hazards.
c. The surrounding area of coil is enclosed with heat resisting materials which prevent any
heat loss due to radiation.

d. Unlike gas singeing, here discoloration of yarn is less likely to occur.

Following are the defects observed during singeing

a. The yarn gets blackened due to incorrect mixture of air and gas, dirty burners.

b. Unbalanced speed of yarn and ill-proportionate heat or produced by the burner flame
results in over-singeing.

c. Discoloration of yarn is common defects caused by chocked burns, variation in flame

intensity and variation in the gas pressure.

d. Variation in the intensity of heat produced may also results in formation of strips.

Ventilation in singeing room

The gassing or singeing room is very important and ventilation is a serious problem and
hence it is necessary to provide good ventilation. Proper ventilation ensures removal of burnt
gasses and heat produced during process. There are hoods situated over the machine which
carry and burnt gasses and impure hot air provides good solution. The suction fan situated at
the end of ducts coming from different machines throws the foul air.

Conditioning of yarn

The conditioning of yarn is the most important after treatment given to single or doubled
yarn. However, all the yarns produced in the mill are not given this treatment. The main
objects of employing conditioning process are,

a. It allows the stresses developed during the twisting operations to relax.

b. The liveliness of yarn (snaring tendency developed due to twist) is reduced and it
becomes easy to handle yarn in the subsequent weaving preparatory and weaving
operations.

c. Both the strength and flexibility of the yarn are improved due to moisture absorption. It is
carried out by allowing moisture to penetrate in the body of twisted yarn.

A simplest way of conditioning of yarn is to wet it. In the conventional methods and olden
days the skips of cops or bobbins were exposed in conditioning cellars for much longer
period of time, but five to six days to allow the yarn to absorb the moisture. The process was
slow but natural. Other methods used are spraying method and vapour system. In spraying
method, the cop is placed on travelling apron and atomised water sprayed. The fine spray
helps to penetrate the moisture uniformly. In vapour methods, the perforated trays are
arranged along the circumference of a revolving wheel. This is the fastest method out of all
conditioning process and ensures uniform conditioning of the yarn.

Quenching of yarn

a. The singeing of yarn involves burning of fibres but sometimes the burnt out fibres do not
get completely extinguished immediately, at the yarn leaves the burning zones.
b. This can cause continued burning and affect the body of the yarn and hence it is necessary
to quench the yarn as soon as it comes out of the burning zone.

c. In this process, the yarn is simply made to dip inside a water through partially filled with
water. The quenching of yarn thus removes any possibility of body of the yarn getting
damaged.

Reeling

The reeling is a procedure which converts yarn into commercially portable form. The
outcome of reeling is called hanks or skeins. It is normally done after twisting/winding to
wrap yarn carefully for processing in hank form and unwinding it later. The reeled yarn is
carefully tie-banded to control fibres during handling, scouring, dyeing and unwinding. It is
the process of unwinding raw silk filament from the cocoon directly onto a holder. When
several filament strands, either raw silk or synthetic, are combined and twisted together,
produced yarn of a specified thickness, the process is called throwing. The purpose of reeling
process is to improve raw silk quality. The process of conversion of yarn from cone or cheese
to hank is called yarn reeling process.

These machines are used to convert the yarn into hank form. The hanks produced as per the
quality of yarn, further processing facility such as dyeing, drying, hank to cone, winding, etc,.

Main characteristics of hanks are

1. Hank diameter

2. Hank weight

3. Hank traverse

4. Crossing angle such as diamond

5. Formation of hank such as rectangular, trapezoidal, cop built or lea hanks

Main features of a reeling machine

1. Swift and its circumference setting

Hanks of various sizes such as weight, circumference, width and make up are used
depending upon the substrate quality (cotton viscose, silk, wool, acrylic etc), physical and
aesthetic features of the yarn, end use, further processing machinery set up such as
mercerizing, dyeing, hydro extraction, drying and hank to cone winding. Generally 54 “(1370
mm) to 90 “(2286 mm) circumference hanks are used.

In most of the cases the swift of the machine is adjustable to accommodate the different
circumferences or swift sets are available for particular ranges such as in crune luke machines
3 different sets are available.

1. Size 11.350 – 1.524 mm

2. Size 21.500 – 1.905 mm

3. Size 31.800 – 2.337 mm

2. Yarn guide system

The yarn laying system has thread guides which are controlled electronically for changing
the hank features, type of hanks and to select different crossing angles.

3. Hank doffing system

The doffing could be manual or automatic after the completion of hanks.

4. Hank parameter setting or type of hank

Different types of hank formation or lay out can be made depending upon the type of yarn
and further processing machinery such as, rectangular, trapezoidal, cop built, or lea hanks.
5. Hank positions

It is the number of hanks which can be made on the full machine, with a particular set of
parameters. The hank positions are less when the hank width or traverse is more.

6. Leasing system

Leasing is tying the hanks at various places with strong threads or yarns by inserting the
thread throughout the traverse at selected points. Generally leasing in the hanks is done
manually to keep them intact in the further processing such as mercerizing, dyeing, hydro
extraction, drying and to facilitate efficient and trouble free hank to cone winding.

7. Length measuring system

Modern reeling machines are equipped with length measuring devices to keep the yarn
length constant from from one hank to another, to get a uniform hank weight for better results
in further processing such as dyeing and to make uniform size packages in hank to cone
winding.

8. Hank width setting or traverse

 The traverse or width of hanks is important for a particular hank weight to get uniform
results in further processing, generally a range from 80 mm to 380 mm is available from the
different manufacturers.

9. Yarn tension control system

The yarn tension from the feed package is regulated to get the uniform reeling results and
precise winding in all the hanks. Modern reeling machines are equipped with automatic yarn
tension control system.

10. Reeling speed and maximum obtainable hank weight

The reeling speed depends upon the number of factors such as type of yarn and required
hank weight and circumference. The machines are available with a maximum winding speed
up to 1500 m/min. Hank weight is also decided by the set up of further processing machinery
as well as the type of yarn produced. The maximum hank weight as per the different
manufacturers is up to 2.5 kg. For mercerized cotton yarn a weight of 1 – 1.5 kg is generally
adopted.

11. Crossing angle and diamond

 It is distinct characteristic of hank for uniform dyeing and efficient hank to cone
operations. It could be selected in a step less manner or diamond formation from 1:1 to 1:6.

12. Splicing and yarn clearing system

To avoid the manual knotting in case of yarn breakage and yarn faults to be carried
forward in further processing.

Objectives of yarn reeling process

The main objective of yarn reeling process is to reduce yarn dyeing cost. When the yarn
reaches in the fabric manufacturing unit, it is used to weave a fabric. The fabric specifications
are used as per customer needs. If customer asks to weave woven stripe, checks and
chambray fabrics, then weaver need to dye it in desired colour shade. The yarn is dyed by
following two process. The package dyeing is more costly because it requires two time
winding process. The drying cost in package dyeing is also big factor. If the yarn is dyed in
hank form, then winding of yarn is done one time only. The dyeing cost gets reduced. The
most of the yarn dyer dry the yarn in sunlight, so that drying cost gets cut in this process. In
this way we can say that main objective of yarn reeling process is to reduce the yarn dyeing
cost.

Types of yarn reeling machine

1. Single end yarn reeling machine: In this type of reeling machine, one hank or skein is
prepared in one time. This machine is used in handloom and textile testing laboratory.

2. Multi end yarn reeling machine: In this kind of yarn reeling machine, two or more than
two hanks (skeins) are prepared. The productivity of these machines are very high.

Types of reeling machine according to mechanism:

1. Manual yarn reeling machine: In this kind of reeling machine, all machine operations
take place manually.

2. Power driven yarn reeling machine: In this kind of yarn reeling machine, all operations
are performed by electric power. There are two types of power driven yarn reeling machines.

3. Semi-automatic yarn reeling machine: In this machine doffing of hanks of yarn is

performed manually. Yarn length on hank can be varied from desired hank length. The hank
yarn tension on the hexagon gets released manually.

4. Fully automatic yarn reeling machine: In this kind of yarn reeling machine, you can
make a desired length of yarn on hank. The hexagon comes out automatically with the help of
hydraulic arms. The hank yarn tension on the hexagon releases automatically. The hexagon
rats on two stands. Operator can take out the hank easily. Now the hexagon goes back on its
brackets.

Mercerization

Mercerization is a textile finishing process for cellulose fabric and yarn, mainly cotton
and flax, which improves dye uptake and tear strength reduces fabric shrinkage and imparts a
silk-like luster. It is the process of treatment of cellulosic material with cold or hot caustic
conditions under specific conditions to improve its appearance and physical as well as
chemical properties. It is a wet process. The alkaline treatment is a chemical treatment in
which the natural fibres are immersed in aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) for a given
temperature and a period of time. It is the process where cotton is treated with solutions of
55-65° Twaddle scale (20-30%) sodium hydroxide. Treatment with sodium hydroxide
destroys the spiral form of the cellulose with the formation of alkali cellulose, which is
changed to cellulose hydrate on washing out the alkali. Caustic soda concentrations of 20-
26% are used. Effective mercerization requires the use of wetting agents. The improved luster
of mercerized cotton is due to the production of nearly circular cotton fibres under tension.
Another characteristic feature of cotton fibre is untwisting. In dry mercerization, the process
is completed while the fabric is drying on the stenter. The silk-like luster now commonly
associated with mercerizing is produced.
Benefits of mercerization

1. To increase silk-like luster.

2. To improve moisture regain/content.

3. To increase dye absorbency.

4. To improve strength and elongation properties.

5. To increase smoothness and hand feel is good.

6. To stabilized the strength of yarn or fabric.

Mechanism:

A. Maximum swelling in a particular range of alkali concentration is the result of –

i) The attraction of alkali-cellulose on the one hand and

ii) The remaining free alkali on the other.

B. Hydration of cellulose increases with increasing stability of alkalis in solutions of

increasing

concentration up to a certain limit.

C. After which free alkali exerts a dehydrating effect on the alkali-cellulose to a great extent.

Types of mercerization

There are different types of mercerization process used in textile for cotton processing.

1. Mercerization without tension

Mercerized cotton fibres swell without tension which increases in length and thickness.
Swelling is caused by alkaline molecules or radicals entering the amorphous region of the
swollen polymer system.

2. Mercerization under tension

 Mercerization under tension that can only be run over a cotton yarn or fabric causes slight
swelling or fibre contraction. The fibre is grown with increased significance and uniqueness,
albeit a repressive feat. This makes the fibre surface smoother and more regular, enabling it
to reflect incident light more evenly.

3. Chainless mercerization

This method is called roller mercerization. The machine consists of several stainless
rollers and rubber rollers, relatively large in diameter, tiered zigzags in close contact with
each other inside long holes, designed for immersion in alkaline solutions of mercerization
with low levels. Bound to a limited length of this type of fabric. Alkaline penetration and
fabric swelling in these early stages, similar devices are used to remove most of the alkali and
to use an open-width soaping machine for further removal and neutralization.

4. Chain mercerization

To compensate for the defects of the roller mercerizing machine, a clip stenter is used for
the post-mercerization treatment after massaging the stenter, where the widthwise tension is
applied but most of the alkali is removed from the fabric placed on top of the stenter, then the
whole alkali is removed and an open width washing machine is used for neutralization.

5. Cold mercerization

The mercerization process takes place at 15 to 18°C with 31 to 35% caustic soda solution
with a dwelling time of 50 seconds. At this stage, cotton swells best but also swells. Fast
swelling increases the density of the outer edges of the fibres. Caustic soda viscosity hardens
penetration into grey fabrics, resulting in poor disintegration of the core and lack of
uniformity resulting in the reaction being confined to the surface of the yarn or fabric.

6. Hot mercerization

The mercerization process takes place at higher temperatures with 30 to 38% caustic soda
solution, with a dwelling period of 20 to 30 sec. In this process alkali rapidly penetrates the
fabric and improves the core mercerization.
Changes during mercerizing process

A. Fibre level

1. Swelling

2. Cross sectional morphology changes from beam shape to round shape

3. Shrinkage along with longitudinal direction

B. Molecular level

1. Hydrogen bond readjustment

2. Orientation (parallelization) of molecular chains in amorphous region along the

direction of fibre length

3. Orientation of the crystallinity in the direction of the fibre length

4. Increased crystallinity

C. Chemical changes

1. Increased rate of reaction on hydrolysis and oxidation

2. Liberation of heat during the caustic treatment (heat sorption and heat of reaction)

3. Increase in the alkali absorption

4. Increase in the absorption of iodine

Significance of different steps in mercerizing cycle

1. Pre tensioning

This is the first step in yarn mercerizing cycle, which runs to uniformly distribute the
greig yarn hanks on the rollers in combination with reversal of direction of motion of rollers,
without any entanglement. The material should become completely wet in this step.

2. Shrinking
 This is the actual caustic treatment step or the mercerizing step in which the yarn is
allowed to shrink freely, the yarn runs for sufficient time in relaxed state to react completely
with the caustic, higher the shrinkage achieved better will be the mercerizing.

3. Lye tensioning

The lye tensioning is done to stretch the yarn back to original length.

4. Squeezing

To remove the unbound caustic solution from the material, so that the material can be
washed effectively, and quickly to reduce the caustic content. This step also ensure to
minimize the wastage of excess caustic liquor during washing.

5. Washing and tensioning

The stretch applied to get the maximum luster, material is washed along with stretching
beyond its original length produce better luster. The amount of stretch applied depends upon
the luster required and quality of yarn. The washing temperature is kept near boil to make
washing efficient and short. Time or sequence of washing is so adjusted to reach a residual
caustic content below 10% within a shortest possible time.

6. Final caustic content

The final caustic content should be below 10%, because if it is more it will be sufficient
to carry out further mercerizing effect and the material will shrink back. During the shortage
of mercerized material, the water from the exposed areas will evaporate and got concentrated
locally causing mercerizing effect, which is called local mercerizing and will lead to patchy
dyeing. The level of residual caustic in the yarn is achieved less than 3%, if it is on the higher
side, then the washing is not effective.

Tests to be carried out during mercerization

In general following process control tests are carried out in yarn mercerizing,
1. The circumference of the hank

2. The machines settings for shrinkage and stretching and actually achieved values

3. Concentration of the lye and level of contaminants such as carbonate content, bicarbonate
content etc.

4. Temperature of caustic

5. Timings of different steps

6. Washing sequence, timings and temperature,

7. Shrinkage % or wetting power of caustic

8. Residual caustic content of the mercerized material

Wetting agents in mercerizing

Wet ability or wetting power of the mercerizing liquor is measured by shrinkage test. This
test reflects how fast and easily the lye will penetrate the cellulose material. The wet ability
of lye can be improved by adding wetting agents. The wetting agents are specially formulated
for concentrated alkaline solution of mercerizing liquor. The quantity of the mercerizing
liquor is optimized by the shrinkage test to get the maximum possible shrinkage at a given
temperature and concentration. Lower additions of wetting agents will result into less
shrinkage or wetting and will lead to poor mercerizing and higher doses of the wetting agents
will affect the economy of the process.

Properties of wetting agents in mercerizing

1. Generally non crysilic type of wetting agents are used in mercerizing, which gives uniform
wetting and better penetration of caustic liquor of mercerizing and causticizing strength,

2. Improves luster and strength of mercerized cotton,

3. Does not interfere during caustic recovery,

4. Effective over a wide range of temperature,

5. Non-foaming and odor free.