A.

Power Supply System

The power supply system for the working model of the project is required to produce a
maximum of 14V at output. We have used the most common power supply circuit to power
the entire model. It generates two voltages at its output – 5V and 12V. The smaller voltage is
used to power the microcontroller system. The larger potential can be used for other
subsystems.
The circuit diagram of the power supply system is given in Fig 4.

Figure 1 Power Supply System

This is the most commonly used power supply circuit for systems employing variants of
the Intel MCS-51 microcontroller. It consists of a transformer that converts a high voltage of
230V/50Hz to a low value of 12V/50Hz that can be handled by the circuits of the station and
the vehicle of the model. The AC voltage is fed to a bridge rectifier consisting of four diodes
that provides 12V DC at its output. This voltage is then passed through two voltage regulators
– one to generate a regulated voltage of 5V and the other to generate regulated voltage of
12V. In addition to these components, two light emitting diodes (LEDs) are also connected
across the output through necessary resistors. This is useful to check that the output voltage is
generated throughout the demonstration.
The circuit is very simple and needs the following components:

1. Transformer – 230V/0-12V AC, 500mA (1 no.)

2. Diode – 1N4007 (4 nos.)
3. Capacitor – 1000μF/25V (1 no.); 47μF/25V (2 nos.)
4. Voltage regulators – LM7805 (1 no.); LM7812 (1 no.)

A brief description of the components follows.

1. Transformer
The transformer is an electrical device that is used to convert the input voltage, called
primary voltage to a higher or lower output voltage, called secondary voltage. A transformer
works on the principle of electromagnetic induction (EMI). When a variable current is made
to flow through a coil, called the primary coil, then a magnetic field is created that causes
magnetic flux to be cut by another coil in close vicinity with the primary coil, called the
secondary coil. This causes an electromotive force (EMF) to be induced in the secondary coil,
thereby resulting in a current flowing through the secondary coil. The transfer of voltage, and
hence power, from one circuit to another is solely by electromagnetic induction. The two
coils are electrically isolated, thereby preventing any flow of power due conduction. The
number of turns in the coil will determine the output voltage. If the number of turns in the
primary coil is less than the number of turns in the secondary coil, then the output voltage
will be greater than the input voltage. If the number of turns in the secondary coil is less than
that in the primary coil, then the output voltage will be less than the input voltage. In the
former case, the transformer is called a step-up transformer and in the latter case it is called a
step-down transformer.
The circuit symbol of a transformer is shown in Fig 5.

Figure 2 Circuit symbol of a Transformer

 In one variety of design of transformers, the two output terminals are taken from the
secondary. In the other design there are three output terminals. In addition to the two
terminals, a center-tap terminal is taken out. This design is therefore called the center-tapped
transformer. This terminal is drawn from the point exactly half-way along the winding of the
secondary coil.
The operation of a transformer is illustrated in Fig 6.

Figure 3 Operation of a Transformer

For our purpose we need an output voltage of about 12V which can be handled by the
electronic circuits of the vehicles. (Any voltage exceeding 15V can damage the circuit of the
vehicle. A voltage of 12V is sufficient to drive the ECU). So we need a step-down
transformer. The supply voltage from an ordinary household plug point is converted to a
voltage that can be handled by the low power electronic components (in this case, the rectifier
diodes), i.e., 12V AC. The supply voltage is 230V/50Hz while the output voltage is a low
voltage of (0-12) V AC at the same frequency. For the sake of simplicity of the circuit design,
a center-tapped transformer is not used, but this comes at a cost of requirement of 4 diodes
instead of only two diodes for the center-tapped case.
 A 230V/1\0-12V AC, 500mA transformer is shown in Fig 7.

Figure 4 A Transformer

2. Diode Assembly
A diode is an electronic device that is made by fusing two semiconductors of opposite
doping, i.e., a p-type material with an n-type material. It is a two terminal solid state device
that allows the flow of current only in one direction. This unidirectional conductivity is the
most important feature of the device that allows it to be used as rectifier, i.e., to convert from
alternating current to direct current. The circuit symbol of a diode is shown in Fig 8. The
figure also shows two images of diodes that appear in practice. The bar depicts the cathode.

Figure 5 Circuit symbol of a Diode

The device has two main regions of operation – a forward biased region and a reverse
biased region. A diode is forward biased when the p-type semiconductor is connected to
positive terminal and the n-type material is connected to the negative terminal of the external
supply. It is clear that in the forward biased region, the diode behaves as a switch in ON
position, i.e., a device with a very low resistance (a virtual short circuit). In the reverse biased
region, a small leakage current flows which remains essentially constant for voltages less
negative than Vbr (the reverse breakdown voltage). Once in the breakdown region, the diode
junction breaks down and the device becomes useless.
The unidirectional current flow in the device is facilitated by the different barrier heights
across the junction. When the junction is unbiased, the electrons from n-type material flow
into the p-type material and the holes flow from the p-type material to the n-type material.
But this leaves immobile charges uncovered near the junction, which prevents any further
flow of charge carriers. This is called the potential barrier. When the diode is forward biased,
the external voltage appears across the junction and lowers the width of the potential barrier.
As a result, flow of current is facilitated or aided. When the diode is reverse biased or back
biased, then the applied potential works to increase the width of the potential barrier and the
flow of current is inhibited. But, when this negative potential is increased, due rise in
temperature and other conditions, the junction breaks down and the unidirectional current
conductivity of the device is lost. The reverse current tends to infinity. In order to be used in a
rectifier circuit, it should be ensured that the applied reverse voltage does not exceed the
reverse breakdown voltage of the device.
The operation of the diodes is clearly understood from the V~I characteristics of the diode.
The V~I characteristics of a typical diode is shown in Fig 9.

Figure 6 V~I characteristics of a typical diode

 The circuit uses 4 diodes for rectification of the output from the transformer secondary.
The diodes used are the 1N4007 general purpose rectifier diodes manufactured by Fairchild
Semiconductor Corporation. This class of diodes has the advantage of [5] a very low forward
voltage drop of 1.1V and a very high surge current capability. This belongs to the most
commonly used diode family 1N4001 – 1N4007.
The features of the device that make it an attractive diode to be use in our circuit are [5]:
1. Average rectified forward current of 1A.
2. Operating junction temperatures of -55°C to +175°C.
3. Maximum full load reverse current of 30µA.
Fig 10 shows a 1N4007 diode.

Figure 7 A 1N4007 Diode

The diodes are used in the above circuit to convert from AC to DC. The arrangement of
the diodes constitutes a bridge rectifier. The operation of the circuit can be described with
reference to Fig 11. As the input is an alternating voltage, its polarity changes after every half
cycle. Let in one half cycle point A is positive with respect to point B. Under such
circumstances diodes D2 and D4 will be forward biased and the current flows from the point
marked + to the point marked – in the output. The diodes D1 and D3 will remain reverse
biased and will not conduct. In the next half cycle, point B will be positive with respect to
point A. This will forward bias diodes D1 and D3 which will conduct current from point
marked + to point marked – in the output. The diodes D2 and D4 will be reverse biased and
will not contribute any current to the output circuit in any direction.
 This circuit uses four diodes. If a center-tapped transformer is used then the rectification
can be achieved with only two diodes, but the circuit will become complicated.

Figure 8 Full - Bridge Rectifier

3. Capacitors
The capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors
separated by a dielectric (an insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) applied
across the conductors, a static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and
produces a mechanical force between the conductors. The energy storage effect is the greatest
when there is a narrow separation between large areas of the conductor, i.e., if the separation
between the conductors is small and the area of the conductors is large. So the conductors of
the capacitors are often called as plates. Capacitors are widely used in various electronic
circuits to block direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks,
for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to
particular frequencies and for many other purposes.
The circuit symbol of a capacitor is shown in Fig 12.

Figure 9 Circuit symbol of a Capacitor

 Capacitors are characterized by their energy storing capacity, which is called the
capacitance of the capacitor. It is denoted by “C”. The unit of capacitance of a capacitor is the
Farad (F). The capacitance is given as the ratio of the charge stored on each of the metallic
plates to the voltage (the potential difference) between the two plates. In certain cases, the
capacitance varies, in which case it given as the ratio of an infinitesimal change in the charge
to the infinitesimal change in voltage that causes the change in the charge. The energy stored
in the capacitor is half the product of the product of the voltage and the charge stored. The
time-varying current in a capacitor is proportional to the rate of change of voltage across the
two plates. Thus, a capacitor opposes a sudden change in the voltage across its terminals. In a
dc circuit, the change in voltage is zero, resulting in a zero current, i.e., a capacitor behaves as
an open circuit in the presence of a dc voltage.
Capacitors have a large variety of applications. They are so commonly used that it is a rare
electrical or electronic product that does not include at least one capacitor for any one of the
purposes. They are most commonly used for energy storage, for pulsed power generation,
power conditioning, such as power factor correction, for signal coupling and decoupling, as
noise filters, motor starters, for signal processing, in tuned circuits, for signal sensing, and the
like. Capacitors can store energy when disconnected from the charging circuit. This way, they
can be used as temporary batteries.
Fig 13 shows the image of real life physical capacitors with a capacitance of 47µF. The
voltage that can be applied across the capacitor is 25V.

Figure 10 47uF/25V capacitors

 The power supply circuit uses three capacitors – one 1000µF/25V capacitor and two
47µF/25V capacitors. All the three capacitors are electrolytic capacitors.
Electrolyte capacitors are those in which an electrolyte, i.e., an ionic conducting liquid is
used as one of the plates. This is done to achieve a larger capacitance per unit volume than
other types. The electrolyte is usually boric acid or sodium borate in an aqueous solution,
together with certain organic compounds such as ethylene glycol to retard evaporation of the
electrolyte. Electrolyte capacitors are capable of providing the highest capacitance values
than any type of capacitor. They cannot be used with AC signals because the voltage that is
applied to them needs to be polarized, i.e., one specified terminal must always have a positive
potential with respect to the other. However, in the presence of an external DC bias, they can
be used with AC signals. In power supply circuits, as is the case here, they are most
commonly used to store the charge needed to moderate the output voltage and current
fluctuations in the rectifier output.
Fig 14 shows a 1000µF/25V capacitor.

Figure 11 A 1000uF/25V capacitor

4. Voltage Regulators
A voltage regulator is a device that is designed to automatically maintain a constant
voltage level. A voltage regulator may be an electromechanical device or an electronic
device. Electronic voltage regulators operate by negative feedback control. First, the device
compares the actual voltage with a fixed reference voltage (which is generated internally in
the device). The difference between the two voltages is amplified and fed back to control the
regulation element. The regulation is done in such a way as to reduce the very difference. DC
voltage regulators like the ones used in the circuit, regulate the voltage by using a shunt
regulator such as a zener diode, an avalanche breakdown diode, or a voltage regulator tube.
These devices begin conducting at a specified voltage and continue conduction of as much
current as required to hold its terminal voltage at the specified voltage. The power supply
circuits are designed with voltage regulators to supply a maximum current that is within the
safe operating capability of the shunt regulating device.
The circuit uses two voltage regulator chips – the LM7805 chip and the LM7812 chip.
Both of them are members of the LM78XX family of voltage regulators manufactured by
Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation. The LM78XX (also referred to as 78XX) series of
devices is a family of self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. A linear
voltage regulator is based on an active device such as a bipolar junction transistor or field
effect transistor, operating in its linear region, or passive devices like zener diodes operating
in breakdown region. The regulating device is made to act like a variable resistor,
continuously adjusting a voltage divider network to maintain a constant voltage.
The 78XX family is a very popular family of 3-terminal positive voltage regulators having
a wide range of output voltages. For the purpose of specifying individual ICs within the
family, the XX is replaced by the two-digit number representing the output voltage of the IC.
The power supply circuit used in our project uses two of these voltage regulators – LM7805
for an output voltage of 5V and LM 7812 for an output voltage of 12V. The features of the
devices in this family that make it very popular choice for use in a number of circuits include
[6]:
1. Output current of up to 1A
2. Output voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24 volts
3. Thermal overload protection
4. Short circuit protection
5. Output transistor safe operating area protection
6. Ease of use
7. Low cost
Fig 15 shows the general pin configuration of the family of the chips.
 Figure 15 Pin Configuration of LM78XX

In addition to these, two light emitting diodes (LEDs) can be connected in parallel
47μF/25V capacitors through suitable resistors to ensure the operation of the system.