MICROBIOLOGY

SAFETY
SAFETY ON
ON THE CLINICAL
THE LABORATORY
CLINICAL
MICROBIOLOGY
MICROBIOLOGY LABORATORY
NAME OF LECTURER
NAME OF LECTURE
LECTURER
DATE OF
DATE OF LECTURE

o Sensor that is sensitive to a stimulus.

● Control Center
OUTLINE
o Receives and process information
I. Laboratory Safety B. Sterilization
A. Possible Routes for C. Disinfection o Integrating center that receives information from
Infection D. Antiseptics sensor or receptor.
II. Exposure Control Plan E. Biocides o Initiate the response in order to maintain
III. Universal and Standard F. Liquid Decontaminants homeostasis.
Precautions VIII. Fire Safety o Ex. Hypothalamus
A. Safety Guidelines for A. Type A ● Effector
the Laboratory B. Type B o Cell or organ that responds to the control center
IV. Personal Protective C. Type C o Ex. Involuntary muscle contraction, goosebumps of
Equipment D. Type D the hair
V. Engineering Controls E. Class K ● Response
A. Biosafet y Levels IX. Chemical Safety o Change in the body to maintain homeostasis
B. Biosafety Cabinets A. Material Safety Data
VI. Postexposure Plan Sheet C. Negative & Positive Feedback
VII. Disposal of Hazardous B. Hazardous Chemicals ● Negative Feedback
Waste o A mechanism reduces output or activity to return an
A. Autoclave
organ or system to its normal range of functioning.
o Ex. Blood pressure regulation, temperature
I. INTRODUCTION regulation
● Positive Feedback
A. Homeostasis o A mechanism in which an output is enhanced in
● The state of steady internal chemical and physical conditions order to maintain homeostasis.
maintained by living systems. o Designed to accelerate or enhance the output
o “Balance with equilibrium” created by a stimulus that has already been
o Ex. Temp and PH activated and to push levels out of normal ranges.
● The theory of homeostasis was first introduced by Claude o To achieve this, a series of events initiates a
Bernard, a French Physiologist in the year 1865. cascading process that builds to increase the effect
● The term was first used in 1926 by Walter Bradford Cannon of the stimulus.
o Bradford derived Homeostasis from the ancient o This process can be beneficial but is rarely used
Greek words “homoio” which means similar to and because it may become uncontrollable.
when combined with the greek word “stasis”, o Ex. Blood platelet accumulation and aggregation.
meaning stand still.
● Body systems are interdependent II. CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
o They work together to maintain this stable internal ● Cell
environment. oThe basic structural and functional living unit of all
o Body system are the following: organisms
- Integumentary ● Brief Historical Background
- Skeletal o Robert Hooke (1665)
- Muscular ▪ British scientist, observed mass of tiny
- Endocrine cavities from thin slices of cork with his
- Nervous self-made microscope.
- Circulatory ▪ He named these structures “Cells” since
- Urinary these structures reminded him of the small
- Cardiovascular rooms in a monastery.
- Lymphatic o Rudolf Virchow (1858)
- Respiratory
▪ Austrian pathologist concluded that all
- Digestive
cells must come only from pre-existing
- Reproductive
cells.
● Organ systems work together
▪ The three principles of modern cell theory
o To keep within the range around the set point (the
evolved directly from Virchow’s
level or point at which a variable (dynamic; statements.
temperature) physiological state tends to stabilize. ● CELL THEORY
o Ex. Blood Pressure (depends on the age, condition o The observations and conclusions of Schleiden
and etc) (1838), Schwann (1839) and Virchow (1858)
established the Cell Theory.
B. Components ▪ Every living organism is made up of one or
● Stressor more cells.
o Environmental change that signals the body. ▪ The smallest living organism are single
o Ex. Change in temperature cells, and cells are the structural and
● Receptor functional unit of organisms.
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 ▪ All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
● Functions of the cell
o Cell metabolism and energy use
o Synthesis of molecules
o Communication
o Reproduction and inheritance
● Cell size and shape
o Most cells are small, ranging from 1-100
micrometers (millionths of a meter)
o Smallest cell, a bacterium known as Mycoplasma, is
0.0001 mm in diameter.
o Largest cells are the nerve cells in a giraffe’s neck,
3.0m in length.
o In human, variety of sizes, from small red blood cells
that measure 0.00076 mm to liver cells that maybe
10x larger.
o Ideal shape of an isolated cell is spherical.
o The shape of the cell is related to its functions:
- Long for contraction
- With protoplasmic processes for
conduction of impulses
- Concave disc for distribution of oxygen
A. Morphology and Physiology of The Cell
● Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane)
o The outermost component of a cell.
o Encloses the cytoplasm and forms the boundary
between material inside the cell and materials
outside it, hence it is called the “gatekeeper of the
cell”
o Structure of the Plasma Membrane
▪ Molecular bilayer of phospholipids and
with the proteins arranged at random outer
half, inner half of the lipid, or extend
entirely through the bilayer.
▪ Called as the Fluid-Mosaic Model, was
developed by cell biologists S.J. Singer
and G.L Nicholson in 1972.
▪ According to this model, a membrane
when viewed from above, looks something
like a lumpy, constantly shifting mosaic of
files. A double layer of phospholipids forms
a viscous, fluid “grout” for the mosaic;
assorted proteins are the “files”, which can
move about within the phospholipids
layers.
▪ The phospholipid consists of 2 very
different parts: a polar, hydrophilic head
which forms the outer borders and non-
polar hydrophobic tails which “hide
inside”
▪ The proteins embedded within or attached
to the surface of a membrane’s
phospholipid bilayer regulate the
movement of substances through the
membrane and communicate with the
environment.
● Many of the proteins in plasma
membranes have carbohydrate
groups attached to them,
especially to the parts that stick
outside the cell. These
membrane proteins and their
attached carbohydrates are
called Glycoproteins.
o 3 Major Categories of Membrane Proteins
▪ Transport protein
- Channel
- Carrier
▪ Receptor protein
▪ Recognition protein
● Transport Protein
o Regulate the movement of hydrophilic molecules
through the plasma membrane.
o 2 Types:
▪ Channel Proteins - form pores or
channels that allow small water-soluble
molecules to pass through the membrane.
▪ Carrier Proteins - Have binding sites that
can temporarily attach to specific
molecules on one side of the membrane.
The protein then changes shape. In some
cases through the use of cellular energy,
and move the molecules across the
membrane.
● Receptor Protein
o Trigger cellular responses when specific molecules
in the extracellular fluid, such as hormones or
nutrients, bind to them.
● Recognition Protein
o Serve as identification tags and cell-surface
attachment sites.
o Ex. cell of our immune system recognize a
bacterium as a foreign invader and forget it for
destruction.
● Structure of the Plasma Membrane
o Semi-fluid in nature allowing mobility of the lipids
and proteins within the membrane.
o Also contains cholesterol, cholesterol affects
membrane structure and function in several ways.
o Gives the membrane added strength and flexibility.
o Less permeable to water-soluble substances such
as ions or monosaccharides.
● Functions of the Plasma Membrane
o Selectively isolates the cell’s contents from the
external environment.
o Regulates the exchange of essential substances
between the cell’s contents and the external
environment.
o Allows communication with other cells.
o Gives strength, shape, and protection to the cell.
● Movement through cell membrane
o Cell membranes are selectively permeable, meaning
they allow some substances, but not others, to pass
into or out of the cells.
- Solute - a substance that is added to a solvent to
form a solution.
- Solvent - a substance that dissolves the solute
particles during the formation of a solution.
B. Types of Transport Mechanism
1. Passive Transport
o Diffusion
o Osmosis
o Facilitated Diffusion
2. Active Transport
3. Bulk Transport
o Endocytosis
o Exocytosis
● Passive Transport
o Substances move into or out of cells down
concentration gradients (from higher concentration
to lower concentration)
o Requires no expenditure of energy
o Ex. Diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion
● Active Transport
o Also a carrier-mediated process.
o uses active transport-proteins which span the width
of the membranea and have two active sites:
▪ Recognition site – may be either on the
face of the plasma membrane in contact
with the cytoplasm or the face in contact
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 with the extracellular fluid; binds a
particular molecule or ion, such as Ca+
▪ ATP-binding site – always on the inside
of the membrane; binds an energy-carrier
molecule usually ATPP. The ATP donates
energy to the protein, causing it to change
its shape and move the calcium ion across
the membrane.
C. PARTS OF A CELL
● Organelles
o Physiologically active, permanent sub-cellular
structures performing metabolic functions.
● Cytoplasm
o Consists of all materials inside the plasma
membrane and outside the nucleus.
o The ground substance of the cell composed of
protein, carbohydrates, and lipids dispersed in a
watery medium resulting in a colloidal solution.
o The most active region of the cell because most of
the cell’s metabolic activities – the biochemical
reactions that support life – occur in cell cytoplasm.
● Nucleus
o The most distinct (usually the largest) organelle
usually situated at the center of the cell, bounded by
a double membrane (nuclear membrane).
o Function:
▪ Controls and regulates the functions of
other organelles, thus called the
“governor or the control center of the
cell”
o 3 distinct parts of the Nucleus
▪ Nuclear envelope/membrane
● Double membrane that isolates
the nucleus from the rest of the
cell and allows selective
exchange of materials.
● Perforated with tiny membrane-
lined channels called nuclear
pores.
● Enclose a colloidal solution, the
nucleoplasm (karyoplasm)
▪ Nucleolus
● Diffuse body with no surrounding
membrane that is found at the
center of the nucleus.
● Function:
o Ribosome synthesis or
the site of ribosome
assembly.
▪ Chromatin Materials
● Contains DNA, the genetic
material of all living cells.
● Eukaryotic DNA and its
associated proteins form long
strands called chromosomes.
During most of cell’s life,
chromosomes are loosely
called and collectively called
chromatin.
● Ribosomes
o Spherical bodies that may be attached to the ER
(attached ribosomes) or free in the cytoplasm (free
ribosomes)
o Aggregates of RNA and protein which serve as site
of protein synthesis in the cell.
o Proteins synthesized from free ribosomes are
released as enzymes; proteins from attached
ribosomes are for use within the cell.
▪ Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
● A series of interconnected
membrane-enclosed tubes and
channels in the cytoplasm.
● The ER membrane is
continuous with the nuclear
membrane.
▪ 2 types of endoplasmic reticulum
● Smooth ER (Without
ribosomes)
o Ezymes embedded in
the membranes of the
smooth ER synthesize
lipids, including the
phospholipids and
cholesterol used in
membrane formation.
o Therefore functions are
for transport by vesicle
formation and synthesis
of lipids.
● Rough ER (With ribosomes)
o The ribosomes on the
outside of rough ER are
used to synthesize both
proteins and
phospholipds, and can
produce new
membrane that
becomes new
membrane
incorporated into the
ER.
o Therefore functions are
for transport by vesicle
formation and synthesis
of proteins.
● Golgi Apparatus/Complex
o Named for the italian physician and cell biologist
Camilo Golgi, who discovered in the late 1800s.
o Membrane-bound vesicles of flattened sacs and
stacks parallel to each other derived from
endoplasmic reticulum.
▪ Function:
● Separates proteins and lipids
received from the ER according
to their destinations.
● Modifies some molecules – For
instance, it adds sugars to
proteins to make glycoproteins.
● Packages these materials into
vesicles that are then transported
to other parts of the cell or to the
plasma membrane for export.
● Secretory Vesicles
o A small, membrane- bound sac that transports or
stores materials within cells.
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 o Secretory vesicles pinch off from Golgi apparatus ● Medium-sized intermediate
and move to the surface of the cell. Their membrane filaments – provide mechanical
then fuse with the cell membrane, and the contents support to the cell.
of the vesicles are released to the exterior of the ● Thick microtubules – hollow
cell. structures formed from protein
● Lysosomes subunits.
o Membrane-enclosed vesicles formed from golgi o Variety of roles: support
apparatus containing numerous digestive enzymes. the cytoplasm of cells,
o Containing hydrolases, which catalyse the digestion assisting in cell
of proteins, nucleic acids, some carbohydrates and division, and forming
fats into their component subunits. essential components
o Serve as the cell’s digestive system and known as of certain organelles,
the “suicide bags”. such as cilia and
o Functions: flagella.
▪ Intracellular Digestion ● Cilia and flagella
● Digest food particles, which o Slender extensions of the plasma membrane.
range from individual proteins to o Consists of microtubules arising from the basal
complete microorganisms. body.
● Also digest excess cellular o Each cilium and flagellum contain microtubules
membranes and defective and arranged in an outer ring of nine fused pairs of
malfunctioning organelles. microtubules surrounding a central unfused pair
▪ Note: Vesicles formed by endocytosis may (9+2 arrangement)
fuse with lysosomes. The enzymes wihtin o Function:
the lysosomes break down the materials in ▪ Structures used for locomotion
the endocytotic vesicle. (movement) of the cell.
● Peroxisomes o Difference between cilia and flagella:
o Are small, membrane-bound vesicle containing ▪ Main differences between cilia and flagella
enzymes that break down fatty acids, amino acids, lie in their length, number, and the
and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) direction of the force they generate.
o Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and ● Cilia
amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to a cell. o Shorter (about 10-25
The enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen micrometers long)
peroxide to water and oxygen. and more numerous.
● Mitochondrion o Provide force in a
o Plural: mitochondria direction parallel to
o Double-membrane organelle, smooth outer the plasma
membrane and folded inner membrane (cristae) membrane, like the
found in almost all living cells. oars in a canoe
o Commonly called as the “powerhouse of the cell” (“rowing motion”)\
o Function: ● Flagella
▪ Site of cellular aerobic respiration o Longer (50-75
● (convert energy stored in sugar micrometers) and
to ATP): usually fewer in
▪ Major site of ATP synthesis number.
● Found in large number of o Provides force
metabolically active cells. perpendicular to the
o Structure of Mitochondrion plasma membrane, like
▪ Pair of membranes enclosing two fluid the engine on a
compartments: motorboat
● The intermembrane ● Centriole
compartment between the outer o Present in animal cell only.
and inner membrane. o Short barrel-shaped ring consisting of nine
● Matrix within the inner microtubule triplets, with no microtubules in the
membrane. center (9+0 arrangement)
▪ The outer membrane is smooth, but the o Functions:
inner membrane forms deep folds called ▪ Move to the plasma membrane and
cristae. provides a center for the formation of cilia
● Cytoskeleton or flagella (formation of basal body).
o Network of protein fibers that support the cell, hold
organelles in place, and enables the cell to change III. CELL CYCLE & MITOSIS
to shape.
▪ Functions:
● Cell support
● Cell shape
● Cell and organelle movement
● Cell division
▪ Types of Cystoskeleton
● Thin microfilaments – small
fibrils formed from protein
subunits that structurally support
the cytoplasm. Some involved
with cell movements.