Engineering

Topic 4: Power Transfer in transmission lines

Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this topic you will be able to:
Calculate the active and reactive power at the receiving
end of the transmission line from the voltage-current
equations.
Describe the conditions that affect the power carrying
capability of a transmission line and calculate the
practical power carrying capability.
Describe the effect of surge impedance loading at the
receiving end on the sending end active & reactive
powers.
Describe the effect of open circuit on the receiving end
voltage.
Derive the equations for the voltage and current at any
point on a line when the RE of the line is terminated by a
general impedance ZR. Define the forward and backward
voltage components at the sending end.
Derive the receiving end voltage in terms of the fixed SE
voltage and the apparent power at the receiving end.

Introduction to the Topic

In Topic 3, we considered the voltage current relationships in a
line. The ultimate purpose of transmission lines is to transmit
large amount of power from one end to the other end. In this
chapter we will consider the power transfer capabilities of
transmission lines and the factors that influence the power
transfer.

Background Skills and Knowledge

Models of transmission lines, active and reactive power
calculations from the known voltage, current phasors.

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Session 4.1 Summary of two-port equations

Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this session, you will be able to:
• Recall the hybrid 2 port model of the transmission line
relating the voltages and currents at the sending and
receiving ends in terms of A, B, C & D constants.

Let us start with the voltage current relationships we established

in Topic 3. The two-port hybrid model is summarised below.

IS IR
A B
VS VR
C D
Figure 1: Two-port Model of a Line

Line Constant Exact Nominal Π

ZY
A = D = cosh ( γl ) 1+
2

B = ZC sinh ( γl) Z

⎛ ZY ⎞
C = YC sinh ( γl) Y⎜ 1 + ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠

z = series impedance per metre Ω/m

y = shunt admittance per metre S/m
l = line length in metre.

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Here Z = zl Ω and Y = yl S
z y
γ = zy ZC = YC =
y z

⎡ VS ⎤ ⎡ A B⎤ ⎡ VR ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ IS ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ C D⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ IR ⎥⎦
A, B, C, D -are called generalised line constants.

Let A = A∠α (α is closeto zero) and B = B∠β ( β is closeto900 )

.

In a loss less line z = jLω aud y = jCω

γ = zy = α + jβ = j LC .ω i. e. α = 0 and β = LC .ω

A = cosh( γl) = cosh( jβl) = cosh(βl) ≈ 10

. ∠ 00 when βl is small.

B = zl
sinh( γl)
= jLωl
sinh( jβl) j sinh(βl) Lω
= = j
(
sinh LCωl Lω )
γl jβl β ω LC

B=
L
C
( )
sinh ωl LC ∠ 900 ≈ Lωl∠ 900 for small βl.

Activity 4A

Problem: A, B, C constants of a lossless line

The series inductance and the shunt capacitance
of a 500 km long line is 1.0 mH/km and 11.2 nF/km
respectively. Calculate the A, B, C, D constants of the line
at 50 Hz.
Answer to this problem is provided at the end of Part C

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Session 4.2 Receiving end Active and Reactive

Power

Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this session, you will be able to:
• Calculate the active and reactive power at the receiving end
of the transmission line from the voltage-current equations.

Our objective here is to have expressions in terms of the

receiving and sending end voltages.

VS = AVR + BIR (1)

Let us assume that VR = VR ∠00 and VS = VS∠ δ

δ is the angle between the receiving end and the sending end
voltages and is called the load angle or power angle.

IR = (VS - AVR)/B (2)

VS AVR
IR = ∠δ − β − ∠α − β (3)
B B
VS AVR
I*R = ∠( β − δ ) − ∠ ( β − α ) and S R = VR I*R = PR + jQ R
B B
V V AVR2
∴ SR = R S ∠(β − δ ) − ∠(β − α ) (5)
B B
V V AV 2
PR = R S cos(β − δ) − BR cos(β − α) (6)
B
V V AVR 2
Q R = R S sin(β − δ) − sin(β − α) (7)
B B

A, B, β & α are constants for a given line.

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It is clear that both PR and QR change with δ. However,

considering the differentials of the equations (6) & (7), it is
observed that,
(i) the changes in PR are most affected by changes in δ,whereas
(ii) the changes in QR are most affected by changes in voltage
magnitude.

In fact, this effectively decouples the active and reactive power

flows and the decoupling is used to advantage in developing
power flow control strategies.

Activity 4B

Tutorial Problem Power angle

The A, B constants of a 500 kV line are A = 0.951∠0.3o and
B = 90.0∠85o Ω. When the line supplies 500 MW at 0.95 lag
at 500 kV.
(i)Calculate the power angle and the sending end voltage.
(ii) If the power angle is increased by 5% while the voltage
magnitudes are kept at the same level as in (i), calculate the
increase in active and reactive power at the RE.
(iii) If the voltage magnitude at the sending end is increased
by 5%, while the power angle is kept the same as in (i),
calculate the increase in active and reactive power at the
RE.
Answer to this problem is provided at the end of Part C

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Session 4.3 Power Transfer Capability

Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this session, you will be able to:
• Describe the conditions that affect the power carrying
capability of a transmission line and calculate the practical
power carrying capability.

For a given VS and VR, PR takes a maximum value when

cos(β−δ) = 1 and under normal operating conditions VS and VR
will be maintained close to 1 pu with in about 5%.
(1.05>V>0.95) and δ is kept below 300-350 to maintain stability.

The thermal limit of a line is determined by the current carrying

capacity of the line. The current carrying capacity depends on
the area of cross-section of the conductor and does not depend
on the length of the line.

In long lines, the power transfer limit is reached well before the
thermal limit of the conductors is reached. In this case the power
transfer capability is determined by the line constants rather
than the current carrying capacity of the conductors.

In lines shorter than 80 km, thermal limits may be reached

before the line reaches its stability limit.

Activity 4C

Problem: Power transferring capability

The A, B constants of a 500 kV line are A = 0.951∠0.3o and
B = 90.0∠85o Ω. When the line supplies 500 MW at 0.95 lag
at 500 kV.

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Assuming that the voltages at both ends are to be limited to

1.05 pu and the power angle is to be limited to 35o ,
calculate the maximum power that can be transmitted over
the line.
Answer to this problem is provided at the end of Part C

Session 4.4 Lossless Lines

Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this session, you will be able to:
• Derive the voltage and current relationships in a lossless line.

A lossless line is a line which has negligible resistance both in

the conductor and the earth return path.

z = jLω and y = jCω

γ = zy = α + jβ propagation constant
γ = jω LC. ∴α = 0 & β = ω LC
z L
Zc = = called surge impedance Z0 and it is is resistive
y C
A = cosh (γ l ) = cosh ( jβ l )
Noting that cosh ( jθ ) = cos (θ ) and sinh ( jθ ) = j sin (θ )
A = cos ( β l )
L L
B = ZC sinh (γ l ) = .sinh ( jβ l ) = j .sin ( β l )
C C
L
∴B = .sin ( β l ) ∠900
C
VS = AVR + BIR

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VS = cos ( β A ) VR + jZC sin ( β A ) I R

When β A = 2π VS = VR and I S = I R
2π
if A= , VS & I S are exactly in phase with VR & I R
β
In a lossless line there is no attenuation.

Session 4.5 Wavelength

Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this session, you will be able to:
• Calculate the wavelength.

This special value of l at which VS and VR are inphase, is called

the wavelength -λ at the power frequency.
2π 2π 1
λ= = = (8)
β ω LC f LC

1
or λf = = velocity of electromagnetic wave
LC
1
For overhead lines C0 = ≈ 3 × 108 m / s
LC
3 × 108
f = 50 H Z → λ= ≈ 6000 km
50

Typical power-line lengths are only a small fraction of the

wavelength, λ at 50 HZ. The phase shift and the standing waves
in a typical 500 kV line is shown in Example 5.2. The graphs
clearly show that the quarter wavelength (900 phase shift) at 50
Hz is around 1500 km.

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Session 4.6 Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)

Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this session, you will be able to:
• Describe the effect of surge impedance loading at the
receiving on the sending end active & reactive powers.

IS IR

VS Vx VR RL = Z0

SE RE
x

Figure 2: Surge Impedance Loading

When the load is a pure resistance RL equal to the surge

impedance Z0,
VR
= Z0
IR

Vx = [cos(βx ) + j sin(βx )]VR = e jβx . VR

If VR = VR ∠00 Vx = VR ∠β x (9)

That is the magnitude of V along the line is the same; but there is
a phase shift of β radians per metre length. Thus at the SE where
x= l VS = VR ∠β l .

Therefore, at SIL the voltage profile is flat as shown in Fig.4. i.e.

all along the line there is no change in voltage magnitude.
When the receiving end load is equal to the surge impedance of the line

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VS = VR = Vrated

V 2 (V ) 2
PR = R = rated & QR = 0 (10)
RL Z0
P S = PR & QS = 0

Activity 4D

Tutorial Problem
A 500 kV line has a surge impedance of 350 Ω. Calculate
the surge impedance loading of the line.
Answer to this problem is provided at the end of Part C

Session 4.7

Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this session, you will be able to:
• Describe the effect of open circuit on the receiving end
voltage.

When the line is open-circuited at RE there is no current at the

RE, i.e. IR = 0
VS VS
VS = AVR giving VR = =
A cosβl
On no-load, the receiving end voltage is greater than the sending
end voltage and there is voltage rise as we move along the line
from the sending end.

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Although the current at the receiving end is zero, it is interesting

to note that there is some current further up the line due to
shunt currents.

Session 4.8 Voltage Profile along a line

Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this session, you will be able to:
• Derive the equations for the voltage and current at any point
on a line when the RE of the line is terminated by a general
impedance ZR. Calculate the forward and backward voltage
components at the sending end.
• Calculate the forward and backward voltage components
when the load at the receiving end is an open circuit. Use
these components to calculate the voltage profile along the
line.
• Calculate the forward and backward voltage components
when the load at the receiving end is on short circuit. Use
these components to calculate the voltage profile along the
line.
• Calculate the forward and backward voltage components
when the load at the receiving end is the characteristic
impedance. Use these components to calculate the voltage
profile along the line.
• Calculate the reactive power compensation required at the
receiving end.

In the above section we considered an ideal case of a loss less

line. A similar behaviour can be expected on a real line with
slight deviations on account of the losses. To study the voltage
changes along a line under various conditions of loading at the
receiving end, let us keep the voltage at the sending end
constant.

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Now, for convenience let us measure the distance x from the

sending end, as shown below.
IS IR

VS Vx VR ZR

SE RE
x

Figure 3: Line with a general impedance loading

The voltage and current at a point x metres from the sending

end are given by:

Vx = VfS e− γx + VbS eγx

( )
(11)
I x = YC VfS e− γx − VbS eγx

where VfS and VbS are integration constants given by

VS + Z CIS V − Z CIS
VfS = and VbS = S (12)
2 2

The above equations express voltage and current at any point

along the line in terms of the sending end voltage and current,
VS and IS.

Let us consider a general case of load impedance ZR at the

receiving end.

VR
VS = AVR + BIR but IR =
ZR
Let us express VR and IS in terms of VS
VS
∴VR = (13)
A + B / ZR
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⎛ A ⎞
IS = CVR + AIR = ⎜ C + ⎟ VR (14)
⎝ ZR ⎠

Substituting the expression for VR in equation (14), we have

⎛ A + CZ R ⎞
IS = ⎜ ⎟ VS (15)
⎝ B + AZ R ⎠

⎡ Z ( A + CZ R ) ⎤ VS
VfS = ⎢1 + C ⎥
⎣ (B + AZ R ) ⎦ 2
Thus, (16)
⎡ Z ( A + CZ R ) ⎤ VS
VbS = ⎢1 − C ⎥
⎣ (B + AZ R ) ⎦ 2

Vx = VfS e − γx + VbSe γx

( )
and
Ix = YC VfS e − γx − VbS e γx

VfS is called the forward voltage component and VbS is called

the backward voltage component at the sending end.

Open Circuit at Receiving End

In this case ZR =∞ and the general expressions (16) for the

forward and backward components reduce to:

⎛ Z C⎞ V ⎛ Z C⎞ V
VfS = ⎜ 1 + C ⎟ s and VbS = ⎜ 1 − C ⎟ s (17)
⎝ A ⎠ 2 ⎝ A ⎠ 2

Short Circuit at Receiving End

In this case ZR = 0 and the expressions for the standing wave

components reduce to:

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⎛ Z A⎞ V ⎛ Z A⎞ V
VfS = ⎜ 1 + C ⎟ s and VbS = ⎜ 1 − C ⎟ s (18)
⎝ B ⎠ 2 ⎝ B ⎠ 2

Surge Impedance loading on Receiving End

In this case ZR = ZC and the expressions for the standing wave

components reduce to:

V V
VfS = (1 + 1) s = Vs and VbS = (1 − 1) s = 0 19)
2 2

Above equations can be used to obtain the voltage at various

points along the line for various loading conditions at the
receiving end.

Activity 4E

Voltage Profile
Consider a 400 km long 500 kV line whose series impedance
is (0.030+j0.300) Ω/km and shunt susceptance is 3.65
µS/km. For this line:
γ = zy = 5.23x10−5 + j1.05 x10−3
α = 5.23x10−5 nepers/km β = 1.05 x10−3 radians/km
Characteristic impedance,
Z C = z / y = 287.05 − j14.32 = 287.41∠ − 2.86o Ω

A = D = 0.9137+j0.0085= 0.9137∠0.530
B = 11.31+j116.56 = 117.11∠84.460 Ω
C = -4.190E-6+j1.418E-3 = 0.0014∠90.170 S
The sending end voltage is held at 500 kV.
Obtain the voltage profile of the line when the receiving end
is
1. Open Circuited,
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2. Short Circuited,
3. Terminated by the Characteristic Impedance of the
line and
4. A load of 303.17∠14.04o Ω ,
( That is a load of 652.1 MW and 163.0 MVAr lagging at 500
kV).

Answer to this problem is provided at the end of Part C

Activity 4F

Voltage Profile
A 765 kV line has the following constants.
A = D = 0.9313∠0.2090
B = 97.0∠88.60 Ω
Characteristic impedance, ZC = 266.1Ω∠0o .

Calculate

1. The surge impedance loading.

2. The theoretical maximum power that can be

transmitted when
VS = VR = 765 kV.
3. The practical line loadability when
VS = 1.0, VR = 0.95 pu and δ = 350

4. Under a certain loading condition, the receiving end

load is 3000 MW at 0.95 pf lagging and the RE
voltage is 765 kV. What kind and how much reactive
power compensation is needed at RE in order to
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maintain SE voltage at 765 kV?

Answer to this problem is provided at the end of Part C

Session 4.9 Receiving End Voltage Profile as a

function of Power Transfer

Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this session, you will be able to:
• Derive the receiving end voltage in terms of the fixed SE
voltage and the apparent power at the receiving end.
• Use the equation to calculate the voltage at RE for various RE
power at a fixed power factor. Identify the maximum power
at which the voltage collapse begins.

In section 4.8, we considered the voltage variation along the line

when the sending end voltage and the load impedance at the
end of a given line are held constant. Of course, given line meant
that the length is constant and consequently all the A, B & C
parameters are also constant.

In real situations constant impedance loads are not common.

Further more, it is interesting to study the power transferring
capabilities of a line by pushing the receiving end load close to
the maximum possible value. In this section we will study the
physical limitations of a line by looking at the behaviour of a
given line under varying active power at the receiving end. In
order not to cloud the issues, we will hold the power factor of
the load constant.

To summarise, the problem we are looking here is to find the

receiving end voltage of a line when we hold the sending end

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voltage constant. The active and reactive power are varied so

that their ratio remains constant; i.e. constant power factor.

In terms of the mathematical symbols, for a given A, B of the line

and the magnitude of VS, what should be the magnitude of VR to
receive a particular power of PR + jQR at the receiving end?

To derive an expression for the magnitude of VR , let us start

with the phasor equation

VS = AVR + BI R

In this equation all the quantities are phasors and in our usual
manner let us represent the phasors by the following polar
forms, taking VR as the reference phasor:

VS = VS∠δ, VR = VR ∠ 0, A = A∠α and B = B∠β

At the RE, PR + jQ R = VR I*R .

For a given PR and QR, the receiving end current IR is therefore

given by

P − jQ R
IR = R (20)
VR
Substituting (20) into the equation for VS,

P − jQ R
VS = AVR + B R (21)
VR
In terms of the real magnitudes and angles, (21) becomes

VR VS∠δ = AVR2 ∠α + B∠β( PR − jQ R ) (22)

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Writing (22) in rectangular form, we have,

VR VS (cos δ + j sin δ) = AVR2 (cos α + j sin α ) + B(cos β + j sin β)( PR − jQ R )

Grouping the real and imaginary terms on the LHS we have,

VR VS (cos δ + j sin δ ) =

[ AVR2 cos α + B(PR cos β + QR sin β)] + j[ AVR2 sin α + B(PR sin β − QR cos β)]

Defining KP and KQ such that

K P = B( PR cos β + Q R sin β) and K Q = B( PR sin β − Q R cos β)

(23)

[
VR VS (cos δ + j sin δ ) = AVR ] [
2 cos α + K + j AV 2 sin α + K
P R Q ] (24)

Since we are not interested in δ and our interest is to find VR we

equate the magnitudes of quantities on either side of equation
(24), we have,

( ) (
VS2 VR2 = A 2 VR4 + 2 A K P cos α + K Q sin α VR2 + K 2P + K Q
2
) (25)

From the definition of KP and KQ in (23) it is clear that

K 2P + K Q
2
( )
= B2 PR2 + Q 2R = B2S2R (26)

SR is the apparent power at the RE and is defined by

(
S2R = PR2 + Q 2R ) (27)

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Our objective here is to find VR such that it satisfies equation

(25).

Rewriting equation in a quadratic form of VR2 , we have,

( ) − [ VS2 − 2A(K P cos α + KQ sin α)](VR2 ) + B2S2R = 0

2
A 2 VR2 (28)

Since (27) is in a quadratic form of VR2 , the solution for VR2 can
easily be obtained using the well known formula.

For simplicity of writing the expression, let us define the

coefficient of VR2 as b; i.e..

[ (
b = VS2 − 2 A K P cos α + K Q sin α )] (29)

The solution for VR2 is then given by

1 ⎧
b ± b 2 − ( 2 ABSR ) ⎫⎬
2
VR2 = 2⎨
(30)
2A ⎩ ⎭

Obviously, VR2 has two possible solutions and therefore VR has

four possible solutions. Since we are interested in magnitude of
VR, we can ignore the negative solutions leaving us with two
possible solutions only.

1 ⎧
b ± b 2 − ( 2 ABSR ) ⎫⎬
2
VR = 2⎨
(31)
2A ⎩ ⎭

Of course, if 2ABSR > b , then the solutions become complex

numbers indicating that there is no real solution. In other words,
when the power is large enough to cause

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2ABSR to exceed b there is no real solution to VR indicating that

it is not possible to transmit this amount of power. Let us
consider an example to illustrate this point.

Activity 4K

Power transfer
Consider the 400 km long 500 kV line whose A & B
constants are:
A = 0.9137∠0.53o and B = 117.11∠84.46o Ω.

Taking 500 kV and 1000 MVA as base quantities, Zbase =

250 Ω.

The constants in per unit quantities are

A = 0.9137∠0.53o and B = 0.4684∠84.46o pu.

The sending end voltage is held constant at 1 pu (500 kV).

1. Calculate the receiving end voltage VR when the

receiving end load is 500 MW at 0.9 power factor
lagging.

2. Calculate the VR for various active powers ranging

from 100 MW to 1500 MW at the same 0.9 power
factor lagging and draw a graph of VR versus PR.

3. Repeat (2) with unity and 0.9 leading power factors.

Answers are provided at the end of part C.

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Review problems
Power Transfer
Answers are provided within parenthesis.
1. The A, B, C & D constants of a 132 kV transmission line
are:
A = D = 0.936 ∠1.0o,
B = 141.4 ∠83.1o Ω,
C = 0.906∠83.1o mS
The characteristic impedance of the line at 50 Hz is 395.0
Ω.
Calculate
(a) the surge impedance loading of the line.
(Ans: 44.1 MW)

(b) the theoretical maximum power that can be

transmitted when both ends are at the rated voltage.
(Ans: 107.5 MW)

(c) the load at the receiving end of the line is 30 MW at

132 kV with a power factor of 0.9 lagging.
(i) find the sending end current, voltage and the load
angle, δ.
(Ans: 132.6 A, 146.4 kV, 12.70 )
(ii) the voltage at the sending end is to be maintained at
132 kV under the same loading condition by injecting
reactive power at the receiving end. What should be the
rating of the reactive power compensator?
(Ans: 14.4 MVAR capacitive)

2. The circuit constants of a 50 Hz, 500 kV transmission line

are:
A = D = 0.8695 ∠0.87o,
B = 139.9 ∠84.4o Ω and C = 1.754 ∠90.3o mS

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The load at the receiving end of the line is 900 MW with a

power factor of 0.9 lagging. The line to line voltage at the
load end is 500.0 kV.
(i) Find the voltage, the load angle, δ, the current, the
average and reactive power at the sending end.
(Ans: 630.4 kV, 22.90, 912 ∠5.2o A, 947.7 MW & 302.7
MVAR )

(ii) The voltage at the sending end is to be maintained

at 525 kV under the same loading condition by injecting
reactive power at the receiving end. How much reactive
power should be injected at the load end? Is the injected
reactive power capacitive or inductive?
(Ans: 442 MVAR capacitive)
(iii) With the above loading conditions and the above
compensator connected at the receiving end, calculate the
sending end voltage, angle, current, active & reactive
power.
(Ans: 525.0 kV, 29.40, 1043 ∠30.3o A, 948.5 MW & -15.4
MVAR )

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Summary and Outcome Checklist

Starting from the hybrid 2-port equations of a line, we

developed equations for active and reactive power transfer in
terms of voltage magnitudes and power angle. The factors
which limit the power transfer capability of a line are identified.
We learnt how to calculate the voltage profile of a line under
various loading conditions. Finally the voltage collapse due to
increasing load at the receiving end is considered.
Tick the box for each statement with which you agree:
I am able to
Recall the hybrid 2 port model of the transmission line
relating the voltages and currents at the sending and
receiving ends in terms of A, B, C & D constants.
Calculate the active and reactive power at the receiving end
of the transmission line from the voltage-current equations.
Describe the conditions that affect the power carrying
capability of a transmission line and calculate the practical
power carrying capability.
Derive the voltage and current relationships in a lossless line.
Calculate the wavelength
Derive the equations for the voltage and current at any point
on a line when the RE of the line is terminated by a general
impedance ZR. Define the forward and backward voltage
components at the sending end.
Calculate the forward and backward voltage components
when the load at the receiving end is a an open circuit. Use
these components to calculate the voltage profile along the
line.
Calculate the forward and backward voltage components
when the load at the receiving end is on short circuit. Use
these components to calculate the voltage profile along the
line.
Calculate the forward and backward voltage components
when the load at the receiving end is the characteristic

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impedance. Use these components to calculate the voltage

profile along the line.
Calculate the reactive power compensation required at the
receiving end.
Derive the receiving end voltage in terms of the fixed SE
voltage and the apparent power at the receiving end.
Use the equation to calculate the voltage at RE for various RE
power at a fixed power factor. Identify the maximum power
at which the voltage collapse begins.

If you are unable to tick all of the above, you must revise the
relevant section or talk to the tutor/lecturer.

07-11-2003 Rev 1.0

Electrical Energy Systems 132