Table of Contents

1.Introduction ...............................................................................................................................1
2.Types of wind turbine : ...............................................................................................................2
2.1 - Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines [HAWTS] ..................................................................................2
2.1.1 Advantages and Drawbacks of horizontal Axis Wind Turbines : .................................................3
2.2 – Vertical Axis Wind Turbines [VAWTS] ......................................................................................4
2.2.1 Disadvantages of Vertical Axis Wind Turbines..........................................................................5
3. Body section of HAWT ...............................................................................................................5
3.1.Material selection: ...................................................................................................................5
3.2. Manufacturing of Wind Turbine Blades : ...................................................................................5
3.3. Composites for Wind Turbine Blades .......................................................................................5
3.3.1. Fibers ..................................................................................................................................5
3.3.2 Matrix ..................................................................................................................................6
4. Suitable number of blades : ........................................................................................................6
Parameters and Mathematical model for HAWT ..............................................................................7
5.1. Blade element momentum theory ...........................................................................................8
5.1.1. Momentum theory ...............................................................................................................8
5.1.2. Blade element theory ...........................................................................................................9
5.2.Power coefficient................................................................................................................... 10
6. Wake rotation effect of a rotor disc .......................................................................................... 11
7.Wind Turbine Modeling and Simulation ..................................................................................... 12
7.1. FAST/OpenFAST .................................................................................................................... 12
7.2. Simulator for Wind Farm Applications .................................................................................... 13
7.3. Wind-Plant Integrated System Design and Engineering Model .................................................. 13
7.4 QBlade .................................................................................................................................. 13
8.Off shore wind ......................................................................................................................... 14
9.Power curve ............................................................................................................................. 16
10.Atmospheric Boundary Layer ................................................................................................... 17
11.wind farm site ........................................................................................................................ 19
11.1 Block Island Wind Farm ........................................................................................................ 19
12.Calculation of Power Output and Capacity Factor...................................................................... 20
13.Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 21
14.REFRENCES : ........................................................................................................................... 22
1.Introduction
Energy is essential to human civilization development. With the progress of
economics and socialization, there is an expanding demand for renewable energy
resources for securing energy supply, such as solar power, wind power, tide and
wave power, etc. As a clean renewable resource, wind power plays a more and
more important role in modern life.According to the British Wind Energy
Association (BWEA), it was estimated that wind power production met 12.2% of
electricity demand in the UK around the end of 2011, and the government aims to
reach a target of 20% from renewables in 2020.Wind energy comes from the
transformation of the air that is driven by the heat of the sun, which is abundant,
clean and renewable. Being the most popular renewable energy resources, wind
power exploitation is growing rapidly [1].
Wind turbine is used to convert wind energy into mechanical and electrical
energies. The principle behind this energy conversion is that wind moving with
certain velocity produces rotary motion in the blade rotor . Wind turns the
propeller-like blades of a turbine around a rotor, which spins a generator, which
creates electricity.
The movement of the rotor is due to the airfoil section of the blade. The more
efficient airfoil section is, the more is the rotary motion and consequently, more is
the output of the turbine .
Wind is a form of solar energy caused by a combination of three concurrent
events:

1. The sun unevenly heating the atmosphere

2. Irregularities of the earth's surface
3. The rotation of the earth.

A wind turbine turns wind energy into electricity

using the aerodynamic force from the rotor blades,
which work like an airplane wing or helicopter rotor
blade. When wind flows across the blade, the air
pressure on one side of the blade decreases. The
difference in air pressure across the two sides of the
blade creates both lift and drag. The force of the lift
is stronger than the drag and this causes the rotor to
spin. The rotor connects to the generator, either
directly (if it’s a direct drive turbine) or through a
shaft and a series of gears (a gearbox) that speed up
the rotation and allow for a physically smaller
generator. This translation of aerodynamic force to F IGURE1 W IND TURBINE
rotation of a generator creates electricity [2] .

1
 2.Types of wind turbine :
The concept of wind turbine is that The wind turns the blades which are connected to a
generator; the generator then makes electricity (more on this later).
Although there are many different wind turbine designs,they are broadly grouped in
two categories based on the orientation of the axis of rotation: Horizontal Axis Wind
Turbines, or HAWTS, the most common type of wind turbine, and Vertical Axis
Wind Turbines, or VAWTS.

2.1 - Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines [HAWTS]

Horizontal axis wind turbines are what most people picture when talking about wind
turbines— the gigantic, white fans standing along the coastlines or across vast fields.
Due to their high efficiency and large power output, they are the most commonly used
turbines especially on commercial and industrial operation sites.
Horizontal axis wind turbines come with a few distinct physical features :
A- The Rotor and Blades:
The rotor of a horizontal axis wind turbine includes three long blades connected to a
horizontal shaft. Instead of being completely flat, the blades of the rotor are
aerodynamically shaped like airplane wings, so that they can pick up the uplifting force
from wind. The uplift force then generates a driving torque causing rotation. When
receiving wind, the blades rotate like a fan. Typical modern horizontal axis wind
turbines have diameters of 40 to 90 meters long.
B-Nacelle

Connected with the rotor, the nacelle houses the operational components supporting
the electricity generator of a wind turbine. These include the gearbox, the generator,
the brake, and the controller.

C- The Gearbox
The rotor usually rotates at a lower speed. The gearbox, located between the rotor and
the generator, turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more
suitable to drive an electrical generator. On average, while the rotor turns at a 20 rpm
speed, the generator requires 1000 rpm to generate electricity.

F IGURE 2 THE STRUCTURE OF A H ORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINE .

D- The Wind Controlling Unit

On the back of the nacelle, an external anemometer is responsible for measuring the
incoming wind speed and wind direction. The wind speed data will be transmitted to

2
the controller inside the back of the nacelle.

Based on the data received, the controller decides whether to shut down the wind
turbine for safety or emergency concerns. It also determines the orientation of the
rotor, making sure the blades are receiving incoming wind at the optimal angle.

E-The Tower

To capture higher wind speed and avoid turbulent layers of air close to the ground, the
rotor and nacelle of a horizontal axis wind turbine must be elevated and placed on top
of a tower. While there is no definite standard, the tower height is usually somewhere
between two to three times the length of the blades to achieve optimal balance
between energy yield and cost.

F-The Yaw System

Located on top of the tower and connected with the nacelle, the yaw system aligns the
turbines towards the wind. This ensures that the wind turbine always faces the
incoming wind, which is necessary for the rotor blades to pick up wind and start
rotating [3].

2.1.1 Advantages and Drawbacks of horizontal Axis Wind

Turbines :
HAWTs have the following distinct advantages:
1. They are the most stable and commercially accepted design. Today, most of
the large – grid-integrated – commercial wind turbines work on three-bladed
horizontal axis designs.
2. They have a relatively lower cut-in wind velocity and higher power
coefficient resulting in higher system efficiency and energy yield.
3. There are possibilities of using taller towers to tap the better wind potential
available at higher elevations. This would be a distinct advantage at sites with
strong wind shear where the velocity at higher levels could be significantly
higher.
4. There is greater control over the angle of attack, which can be optimized
through variable blade pitching. This results in better system output under
fluctuating wind regimes.
5. There is easy furling by turning the rotor away from the wind direction.
However, HAWTs have some inherent drawbacks as well:
1. HAWTs require yaw drives (or tail mechanism in case of small turbines) to
orient the turbine toward wind.
2. The heavy units of generator and gearbox are to be placed over the tall tower,
which requires stronger structural support. This makes the HAWTs more
complex and expensive.
3. Taller towers make installation and maintenance more difficult and expensive.
4. Again, the taller mast height can make HAWT visible even from longer
distances, which may aggravate problems related to the visual impact of wind
farms

3
 2.2 – Vertical Axis Wind Turbines [VAWTS]
A vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) has blades mounted on the top of the main shaft
structure, rather than in the front like an aircraft rotor. The generator is usually placed
at the tower base. IT have two or three blades and in which the main rotor shaft runs
vertically.

The Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) is the most popular of the turbines that
people are adding to make their home a source of renewable energy. While it is not as
commonly used as the Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine, they are great for placement at
residential locations and more.

Vertical Axis Wind Turbines are designed to be

economical and practical, as well as quiet and efficient.
They are great for use in residential areas whereas the
HAWT is best for use at a business location. There are two
different styles of vertical wind turbines out there. One is
the Savonius rotor, and the second is the Darrieus
model. The first model looks like a 55 gallon drum that is
been cut in half with the halves placed onto a rotating
shaft. The second model is smaller and looks much like an
egg beater. Most of the wind turbines being used today are
the Savonius models. We will take a look more in- depth F IGURE3 TYPES OF VAWT
at both of these types of turbines available [4].

A wind turbine secures air into a hub, which them turns into a generator. The air that
passes through the blades of the wind turbine is spun into the generator through
rotational momentum. The VAWT, as the turbines are oftener shortened, feature the
following qualities [5]:

• Two to three blades with a vertically operating main rotor shaft – the more
blades that you have on the unit, the more wind energy it will receive and the
more efficiency it will offer
• Used less frequently than a horizontal wind turbine
• The position of the blades is different in the VAWT. On this model, the base
of the tower holds the generator, and the blades then wrap themselves around
the shaft. People use the VAWT because they can be placed closer to the
ground, which makes them acceptable and effective for use at a residential
location.
• With the vertical axis wind turbine, the rotor shaft is arranged in a vertical
pattern
• The VAWT are easier and more affordable to maintain than horizontal units
• One complain that some users have with the VAWT is that is creates less wind
energy, which may cause a number of different noises to be heart. Turbulent
air flow is also a possibility that can shorten the life of the system.
• Installation of the VAWT onto the roof will cause the wind speed to double
for maximum wind turbulence and wind energy usage.

4
2.2.1 Disadvantages of Vertical Axis Wind Turbines
• Decreased level of efficiency when compared to the HAWT. The reason for
the reduced amount of efficiency is usually due to the drag that occurs within
the blades as they rotate.
• You are unable to take advantage of the wind speeds that occur at higher
levels.
• VAWT’s are very difficult to erect on towers, which means they are installed
on base, such as ground or building

3. Body section of HAWT

3.1.Material selection:
Materials that are typically used for the rotor blades in wind turbines are composites,
as they tend to have a high stiffness, high strength, high fatigue resistance, and low
weight.Typical resins used for these composites include polyester and epoxy, while
glass and carbon fibers have been used for the reinforcing material.
Composite materials are used typically in blades and nacelles of wind turbines.
Generator,tower, etc. are manufactured from metals. Blades are the most important
composite based part of a wind turbine, and the highest cost component of turines [6]

3.2. Manufacturing of Wind Turbine Blades :

During the first decades of the wind energy development, wind turbine blades were
often produced using the wet hand lay-up technology, in open molds. The glass-fiber
reinforcement was impregnated using paint brushes and rollers. The shells were
adhesively bonded together/to the spars. This technology was used mainly to produce
small and medium size blades (up to 35 and 55 m,respectively). For larger blades, the
same technology was used, but the web were inserted and adhesively bonded between
two sides, and the plies with more fiber content were used [7] .

3.3. Composites for Wind Turbine Blades

3.3.1. Fibers
Glass and carbon fibers. The stiffness of composites is determined by the stiffness
of fibers and their volume content. Typically, E-glass fibers (i.e., borosilicate glass
called “electric glass” or “E-glass” for its high electric resistance) are used as main
reinforcement in the composites. With increasing the volume content of fibers in UD
composites, the stiffness, tensile and compression strength increase proportionally,
yet, at high volume content of fibers (after 65%), there might be dry areas without
resin between fibers and the fatigue strength of the composite reduces [8] . Typically,
the glass/epoxy composites for wind blades contain up to 75 weight % glass.

5
 F IGURE 4 M ICRO MECHANICAL MODEL OF HYBRID GLASS /FIBER MODEL

3.3.2 Matrix
Typically, thermosets (epoxies, polyesters, vinylesthers) or (more seldom)
thermoplastics are used as matrices in wind blade composites.
Thermosets. Thermosets based composites represent around 80% of the market of
reinforced polymers [9]. The advantages of thermosets are the possibility of room or
low temperature cure, and lower viscosity (which eases infusion and thus, allowing
high processing speed). Initially,polyester resins were used for composite blade

4. Suitable number of blades :

Most wind turbines operate with three blades as standard. The decision to design
turbines with three blades was actually something of a compromise.Because of the
decreased drag, one blade would be the optimum number when it comes to energy
yield. However, one blade could cause the turbine to become unbalanced, and this is
not a practical choice for the stability of the turbine.

Similarly, two blades would offer greater energy yield than three, but would come
with its own issues. Two-bladed wind turbines are more prone to a phenomenon
known as gyroscopic precession. This would place stress on the component parts of
the turbine, causing it to wear down over time and become steadily less effective.

Any number of blades greater than three would create greater wind resistance,
slowing the generation of electricity and thus becoming less efficient than a three
blade turbine.For these reasons, turbines designed with three blades are the ideal
compromise between high energy yield and greater stability and durability of the
turbine itself.

Despite the fact that three-bladed turbines have become the standard model of clean
energy production in recent years, that doesn't mean they always will be.

6
Engineers are still working on better, more efficient designs for future energy
generation efforts.One of the most popular proposed designs is a bladeless turbine.
Though this might seem counter to the resistance needed in order to convert the
wind's energy into electricity, there are actually a number of benefits to creating a
turbine without blades.One benefit is cost and maintenance. Current turbines are put
under a great deal of strain in their operation. They can perform up to twenty rotations
a minute and reach speeds of 180 mph (289 km/h) which results in an enormous
amount of force. Added to the erosion they suffer under hostile weather conditions
offshore, it's easy to understand why turbine blades deteriorate significantly in quality
over time.

Companies like Vortex Bladeless have created prototype bladeless turbines that
actually utilize gyroscopic motion to generate wind energy. The production of their
design could potentially cost up to 50% less than traditional turbines, and wouldn't
deteriorate as much over time.While three-bladed turbines are definitely the most
effective solution for now, that might not always be the case. Until bladeless turbines
become the norm, we have the efficiency of three-bladed turbines to thank for the vast
majority of our wind energy production [10] .

Parameters and Mathematical model for HAWT

The production of wind power depends on the interactions between the rotor and
wind. The wind can be considered as a mixture of average wind and turbulent
variations in the mean flow . The main aspects of the power coefficients of wind
turbines are determined by the aerodynamic forces produced by the mean wind.
Practical wind turbine designs with horizontal axes use airfoils to transform the
kinetic energy in the wind to usable energy .The wind turbine rotor performance is
generally characterized by its power coefficient CP :

The maximum Cp is then calculated from the power coefficient derivative with
respect to a and that is equated to zero

7
Similar to the power, a non-dimensional thrust coefficient is used to describe the
thrust of the wind turbine

5.1. Blade element momentum theory

We can calculate either the shape of the rotor in the absence of any performance
parameter definitions or the performance of the rotor if the blade shape is given. This
method is used to connect the blade design to the ability of the rotor to generate power
using wind . The momentum theory applies to the evaluation of the volume of control
forces at the blade, which is dependent on the conservation of linear and angular
momenta. The blade element theory refers to evaluation of the forces at the blade
segment as a function of the blade geometry [11] .

5.1.1. Momentum theory

Considering momentum conservation by force being the rate of momentum change,
the forces on the blade of the wind turbine and results of the flow at the blades can be
calculated .The energy formula can be used to derive the difference in pressure across
the blades ; U, velocity of undisturbed air; a, induction factor; r, radius .

The resulting thrust on an annular element, dT is given as

Then, the expression for rotor torque can be obtained by introducing angular
momentum conservation. For an incremental annular area element

8
5.1.2. Blade element theory
The force on the wind turbine blades can also be described as a function of the lift and
drag parameters as well as the angle of attack. In the present analysis, the blade is
assumed to be separable into N elements Fig. 5; c, airfoil chord length; dr; radial
length of element; r, radius; R, rotor radius; O, angular velocity of rotor [12]

F IGURE 5 GEOMETRY OF ROTOR ANAKYSIS

F IGURE 6 SCHEMATIC OF BLADE ELEMENT

Note also that the angle of the relative wind is the sum of the section pitch angle and
angle of attack

where the rotor has B number of blades, and the total normal force on the section at a
distance r from the center is

The differential torque due to the tangential force operating at a distance r from the
center is given by

9
The analysis begins with the four equations for the momentum and blade component
theories. The blade chord and twist distributions are assumed to be established. The
angle of attack is not known, but additional relationships can be used to solve the
angle of attack and performance of the blade. The forces and moments resulting from
the momentum and blade element theories are equal. Equating these, the flow
conditions for the turbine design are obtained [13] .

5.2.Power coefficient
The overall rotor power coefficient can be determined from the following equation :

10
6. Wake rotation effect of a rotor disc
The exertion of a torque on the rotor disc by the air passing through it requires an
equal and opposite torque to be imposed upon the air. The consequence of the
reaction torque is to cause the air to rotate in a direction opposite to that of the rotor;
the air gains angular momentum and so in the wake of the rotor disc the air particles
have a velocity component in a direction which is tangential to the rotation as well as
an axial component Figure 7.
The acquisition of the tangential component of velocity by the air means an increase
in its kinetic energy which is compensated for by a fall in the static pressure of the air
in the wake in addition to that which is described in the previous section

F IGURE 7 AIR PASSING THROUGH ROTOR DISC

The flow entering the actuator disc has no rotational motion at all. The flow exiting
the disc does have rotation and that rotation remains constant as the fluid progresses
down the wake. The transfer of rotational motion to the air takes place entirely across
the thickness of the disc. Upstream of the disc the tangential velocity is zero.
At the middle of the disc thickness, a radial distance r from the axis of rotation, the
induced tangential velocity is Ωr𝑎𝑎̀ . Because it is produced in reaction to the torque the
tangential velocity is opposed to the motion of the rotor. An abrupt acquisition of
tangential velocity cannot occur in practice. the separation of the blades has been
reduced for effect but it is the increasing solid blockage that the blades present to the
flow as the root is approached that causes the high values of tangential velocity close
to the root [14].

FLOW VELOCITY ACROSS DISC 8 F IGURE

11
7.Wind Turbine Modeling and Simulation
Wind turbines are unique devices that are typically anchored to the ground but operate
in the atmosphere, which subjects them to a variety of torques and loads as weather
conditions change.

Modeling this behavior for land-based wind turbines is difficult enough, but the issues
become even more complex for floating offshore wind turbines that may respond to
such conditions by moving and can be subjected to rolling seas that may affect their
performance.

The important elements of a wind turbine, which must be analyzed, modeled and
simulated, are: wind source; blades pitch and yaw movement; wind turbine and
gearbox with brake; AC generator and controller, All these elements are positioned
inside a nacelle placed on a high tower.
The wind turbine can be considered as a system with the block diagram from fig.9

F IGURE 9 WIND TURBINE BLOCK DIAGRAM

The wind model has as output an uncontrollable wind speed v, which moves the
blades of the turbine rotor. This movement produces a mechanical power Pm. The
output of the turbine is the mechanical torque MT. In order to have maximum
efficiency in terms of wind stream capture, the nacelle can have a yaw movement and
the blades a pitch movement with the angle θ .

Researchers have developed a variety of computer modeling and software simulation

tools to support the wind industry with state-of-the-art design and analysis
capabilities.

7.1. FAST/OpenFAST
AST is an aeroelastic computer-aided engineering tool for horizontal-axis wind
turbines. FAST is computer-aided engineering tool for simulating the coupled
dynamic response of wind turbines. It enables the analysis of a range of wind
turbine configurations, including:

• Two- or three-bladed horizontal-axis rotor

• Pitch or stall regulation
• Rigid or teetering hub
• Upwind or downwind rotor
• Lattice or tubular tower
• Land-based or offshore
• If offshore, fixed-bottom or floating substructures

12
7.2. Simulator for Wind Farm Applications
The Simulator for Wind Farm Applications (SOWFA) employs computational
fluid dynamics to allow users to investigate wind turbine and wind power plant
performance under a full range of atmospheric conditions and terrain. The tool
allows researchers and wind power plant designers to examine and minimize
the impact of turbine wakes on overall plant performance [14].

7.3. Wind-Plant Integrated System Design and Engineering

Model
The Wind-Plant Integrated System Design & Engineering Model (WISDEM®)
is a set of models for assessing the overall cost of energy of a wind power
plant. The models use the wind turbine and plant cost and estimated energy
production, as well as financial models, to estimate cost of energy and other
wind power plant system attributes. WISDEM models include:

• Rotor Aero
• Rotor Structure
• Nacelle Structure
• Tower Structure
• Turbine Costs
• Plant Balance of System Costs
• Plant Operating Expenses
• Plant Energy Production
• Plant Finance.

7.4 QBlade
QBlade is open-source wind turbine calculation software, distributed under the GNU
General Public License. The software is seamlessly integrated into XFOIL, an airfoil
design and analysis tool. The purpose of this software is the design and aerodynamic
simulation of wind turbine blades. The integration in XFOIL allows for the user to
rapidly design custom airfoils and compute their performance curves, extrapolating
the performance data to a range of 360°Angle of attack, and directly integrate them
into a wind turbine rotor simulation. The integration of QBlade into XFLR's
sophisticated graphical user interface makes this software accessible to a large
potential user community.
QBlade is especially adequate for teaching, as it provides a ’hands-on’ feeling for
HAWT rotor design and shows all the fundamental relationships between blade twist,
blade chord, section airfoil performance, turbine control, power and load curves in an
easy and intuitive way. QBlade also includes post processing of conducted rotor
simulations and gives deep insight into all relevant blade and rotor variables.

13
8.Off shore wind
Wind energy is one of the fastest growing renewable energy sectors, with levelized
costs of wind energy now comparable to the cost of electricity generated by thermal
power stations such as coal and gas. Wind can be defined as the movement of air over
the surface of the Earth. Because air is a fluid, the movement of air and water (in the
ocean) follow the same principles. A pressure gradient in the air (or ocean) leads to a
flow from regions of high pressure to regions of low pressure. Variations in pressure
that lead to pressure gradients are due to uneven heating of the Earth’s land and sea
surfaces—particularly the differences in heating between the tropics and high latitude
regions. Wind is, therefore, an indirect form of solar energy.
Recently, wind energy is a rapidly growing industry, and can compete with fossil
fuels at similar levelized costs of electricity. Fig. 10 shows the global trend of wind
power capacity since 2002. Wind energy, along with solar energy,can be regarded as
the fastest growing renewable energy sectors [16] . So far,the majority of wind farms
have been installed on land (over 90%), whilst the offshore wind industry is also very
popular in many countries such as the UnitedKingdom and Germany.
In general, offshore wind farms are more expensive and challenging to build
compared with their onshore counterparts due to several factors: the foundation and
supporting structure of offshore wind turbines, grid connection installation of
turbines, and the operation and maintenance of offshore wind projects are all more
expensive and complicated. However, due to lower surface roughness (absence of
building, mountains, trees), the wind energy resource is better offshore. Further, the
visual impact and noise of offshore wind projects are much less than onshore projects.

F IGURE 10 G LOBAL INSTALLED CAPACITY OF WIND POWER , 2002–16 [16].

14
A major consideration in the design and construction of offshore wind farms is water
depth. Up to now, the majority of wind farms have been built in relatively shallow
waters—typically less than 30m water depth. The substructure of offshore wind
turbines can be considered as the most limiting factor in the development of offshore
wind projects. Fig. 11 shows the trend in the design of substructure for offshore wind
turbines. In shallow water zones, simple monopile support structures can be used. As
water depth increases to transition zones (less than 60m in depth), more complex
supporting structures such as Jacket or Tripod are required (Fig. 12). In deep waters
(more than 60 m), floating structures are used to support wind turbines. Whilst
building a substructure for offshore wind turbines in shallow water is a proven
technology

F IGURE11 O FFSHORE WIND TURBINE SUBSTRUCTURE DESIGNS

F IGURE 12 HORIZONTAL AXIS TURBINES IN THE B LOCK ISLAND WIND FARM

15
9.Power curve
The efficiency, or power coefficient, of wind turbines is not constant, and depends on
the wind speed. A power curve shows how the power of a wind turbine varies with
the wind speed. A typical power curve is depicted in Fig. 13

F IGURE 13 A TYPICAL POWER CURVE FOR A WIND TURBINE

F IGURE 14 T HE POWER CURVE AND POWER COEFFICIENT OF A 6MW TURBINE

16
Wind turbines cannot generate electricity for very low (insufficient torque to
overcome friction) or extremely high velocities (they will be damaged). Therefore,
cut-in (around 3.5 m/s) and cut-out (around 25 m/s) speeds are specified on power
curves. As the wind exceeds the cut-in speed, the power output increases rapidly.
However, around certain speeds, known as rated wind speed (12–14 m/s), the power
output reaches a limit that is called the rated power output. This is the maximum level
that the electrical generator can still work. When wind speed is higher than rated
output wind speed, the power is kept almost constant by a method, for instance by
adjusting the blade angles (pitch system)[17].
Using a power curve, it is also possible to plot the power coefficient as a
function of wind speed. Fig. 14 shows the power curve and power coefficient
of a 6MW turbine with a rated output wind speed of 12.5 m/s. As this figure shows,
the maximum efficiency of the turbine (i.e. around 47%) is achieved at wind speeds
between 7 and 8 m/s.

10.Atmospheric Boundary Layer

Above certain heights, it can be assumed that the wind speed is not influenced by the
Earth’s surface (ocean or land). At these high altitudes, the wind is mainly driven by
synoptic air pressure gradient and Coriolis (Earth’s rotation) forces.
Synoptic air pressure gradients are associated with weather systems that have the
scale of days (e.g. high- and low-pressure systems), and can be predicted by
numerical weather models. The wind (air flow) that is free from surface effects is
called ‘geostrophic wind’. At lower altitudes, the roughness of the surface and thermal
effects such as air-sea interactions significantly affect the wind speed. This zone is
called the atmospheric boundary layer. Assuming that the wind is strong enough to
sufficiently mix the boundary layer, the wind speed is mainly controlled by surface
roughness; in so-called neutral stability the surface heating/cooling does not affect the
wind profile. The distribution of the wind near the surface of the ocean or land can be
simply represented by a logarithmic profile:

in which u* is the shear velocity, τo is surface shear stress, κ is von Karman’s

constant (about 0.41), and zo is the surface roughness. ψ is a stability term and is
considered zero in neutral stability condition. Typical values for roughness range from
0.7m for forests to 0.0001m in the ocean. For more accurate estimation of surface
roughness in the ocean, waves should be included. Assuming that the velocity of wind
(ur) at a reference height above the Earth (zr) is given (e.g. by a meteorological
station),

17
which can be used to estimate the wind velocity at other heights, such as the hub
height of a wind turbine. Alternatively, the power law has also been used to
characterize the vertical distribution of wind velocity,

If the wind velocity is measured/modelled at a particular height above the ocean/land

surface, the velocity of wind at the turbine height can be estimated using the previous
equations. For instance, Fig. 15 shows the distribution of wind velocity using a
logarithmic distribution (assuming two values for the bed roughness) and power law.
If the average measured velocity 10m above the ground is 11 m/s, the estimated
velocity at 90m above the ground is about 13.5–15 m/s.

Figure 15Vertical distribution of mean wind velocity based on power law and logarithmic distributions. For this
example, the average measured velocity 10m above the ground is 11 m/s, and
the estimated velocity at 90m above the ground (e.g. turbine hub-height) is 13.6–15 m/s, depending
ON THE SURFACE ROUGHNESS .

18
11.wind farm site

11.1 Block Island Wind Farm

The Block IslandWind Farm is the first offshore wind farm in the United States and
was constructed in 2016 by DeepwaterWind as a demonstration project. The farm
includes five turbines, each with a rated power of 6MW (Haliade-150 6 MW), and
therefore the total capacity of the project is 30MW.
Long-time series (e.g. covering a decade) of hourly wind data should be used for wind
resource assessment to capture interannual and seasonal variability of wind energy for
a location. In some cases, wind data are collected at the project site, but if the period
of data collection is not long, other datasets should be combined. For instance,
collected data at a site can be used to find the correlation of wind speed with other
nearby stations that have longer records. Then, longtime series of wind data can be
generated using those stations. In order to conduct the resource assessment for the
Block Island Wind Farm, the hindcast wind data provided by Wave Information
Studies (WIS)[18].

F IGURE 16 L OCATION OF THE B LOCK ISLAND OFFSHORE WIND FARM AND A NUMBER OF NEIGHBOURING WIS
STATIONS . S TATION 63095 WAS USED FOR RESOURCE ASSESSMENT HERE .

were used. WIS is a project sponsored by the US Army Corps of Engineers (see
wis.usace.army.mil). It provides more than 30 years of hindcast wind and wave
information at thousands of nodes along the US coast, based on numerical models.
These models have been validated using observed data. Fig. 16 shows a number of

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WIS stations, along with the location of the Block Island wind project. Here, we
assume that the wind speed that is estimated at Station 63095 is representative of the
wind speed at the project site. In studies that were carried out by Deepwater Wind,
other meteorological stations at Block Island and Buzzard Bay were used.

12.Calculation of Power Output and Capacity Factor

The frequency distribution of the hourly wind speed has been determined for this site.
This distribution can be represented by a relative frequency histogram or the Weibull
distribution. By combining the power curve for the wind turbines and wind
probability distribution, the power output can be estimated. Consider a typical year
that has 365 days or 8760 h. Based on our calculations, we can predict how many
hours the wind blows with a certain speed, and compute the power using the power
curve. Then, we can do calculations for all wind speeds and add the total power. Fig.
14 shows the power curve of a 6MW turbine representing (approximately) the
Haliade-150 wind turbine.

F IGURE 17E NERGY PRODUCTION DISTRIBUTION FOR A TYPICAL YEAR IN THE BLOCK ISLAND W IND FARM PROJECT
(30MW CAPACITY ).
Fig. 17 shows the distribution of the energy output. As we can see, the majority of
power is produced when the wind blows with a speed of 11 m/s at this site. According
to a report published by Deepwater Wind [19], the overall energy production (on
average) is 124,799 MWh, and the capacity factor is 47.5%. The average wind speed
is reported 9.69 m/s.

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13.Conclusion
HAWT’s in general produces more energy as compare to vAWT mainly due to the
additional drag that VAWT have – as they rotate into the wind. Both VAWT and
HAWT might differ in their appearance and mode of operation, but they generate
electricity by converting the wind energy into electrical energy by using a rotating
shaft. This is vital information for those looking to install HAWT in their home.
Whether they are looking for turbines that will be ideal for when they’re sleeping,
playing games or entertaining guests, HAWT is the better choice. In other words,
wind turns the blades of the wind turbine around the turbines rotor. That rotor is
connected to main shaft which in turn is connected to electric generator, which
generates the electricity.

If you are looking for a great source of renewable energy that you can use at your
residence, it is worth considering a vertical axis wind turbine. These turbines are
designed to be used at homes, and while there are both pros and cons, for the most
part those who use them appreciate and enjoy the energy that is produced. Before
investing into either type of wind turbine, however ,The wind turbine is one of the
most effective sources of renewable energy that you can find and you are sure to
appreciate all of the wonderful benefits that it is sure to offer to you

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