9124121, 248 PM Nozzle Design ‘The Wayback Machine -htps:web archive org/eb/2011002122814/htp:/wwwk-makris grRocketTechnology/Nozzle_Designnozzle_design him Home |Links | My Job | Airraft- Rocket Technology | Photo Gallery Nozzle Design Superior nozzle design isthe culmination of carefully determined mission needs, established physics parameters and hard-earned experience. Rocketdyne's (now Rocketdyne Propulsion and Power, a part of The Bocing Company) contribution tothe art began with ploneering rocket propulsion and are now being applied to the state of the art in hypersonic fight. Above, the state pressure atthe exit of the ‘Space Shuttle Main Engine nozse is ‘An aerospace vehicle, whether an aerospace plane, otbitl launch vehicle or interplanetary spacecraft, i accelerated by a propulsion system o a velocity dictated by requiremenls specific to the vehicle's mission, In all eases, a nozzle is used to extract the maximum thrust fom high-pressure exhaust gases generated by the propulsion system, The nozzle provides the thrust necessary to successfully accomplish these missions, with high nozzle efficiency translating o greater payload or other mssion-elaied capabilites. Specifically, the nozzle is thet portion ofthe engine extending beyond the combustion chamber. Typically, the ‘combustion chamber isa constant diameter duct ino which propellants are injected, mixed and burned. Its length is suicient allow complete combustion ofthe propellants before the nozzle accelerates the gas products. The nozzle is said o begin athe point where the chamber diameter begins to deoease Decreasing Maw area results in subsonic (Mach number < |) acceleration ofthe gas, Th area dacreases until ‘he minimum or "throat ares is reached. Here the gas velocity corresponds toa Mach numberof one, denoting that the Flow velocity is equal the local speed of sound of the particular gas, Then the nozzle accelerates the flow supersonically (Mach number > 1) by providing a path of increasing flow area. imply sated, the nozzle uses the pressure generated inthe combustion chamber to increase thras by ‘sccclerating the combustion gas toa high supersonie velocity, The velocity that can be achieved is governed by the nozzle area ratio (ic, the nozzle ext area, divided bythe throat area) which intra is determined by the «design ambient pressue-the atmosphere into which the nozle discharges. Low ambient pressute(encouatered thigh altitudes) Teads to high nzale exit area, higher gas exit velocity, and henee, more thrust High thrust, eiieney is achieved asa esl of careful desig ofthe nozzle shape a conto, For an ideal one-dimensionel(1-D) flow where the ges properties (eg. pressure, velocity, et.) re uniform at any point inthe flow direction, thrusts simply the gas momentum at te nozzle exit, minus the influence of pressure Ina vacuum or space application, the maximum therctcal performance would be realized by an ideal moze ‘vith infinite exit area that would expand the combustion gaves to zero pressure thereby attaining the maximum 38 velocity which can be expressed as VMAX. Since the engine flow rat is fixed by chamber pressure, Propellant mixture ratio and the nozzle throat area, the nezze inereases thrust by achioving a much of «MAX. as possible, given practical imittions of size, weight ané operational aude, Low alitade operation, of course limits the amount of nozzle expansion available Because of higher ambient pressure. ambient pressure is excessive, the engine exhaust flo will be separate from the nozzle wall an large nozzle side Toads may develop due tothe random uneven separation ofthe exhaust jet. These loads must be included in the nozzle structural design process, ‘Again, assuming a LD flow of a perfect gas, the, gas properties at any nozzle area ratio can be obtined by ‘sowing a propety ofthe gas called the ratio of specific heat capacities, or garam (g) Using well-known compressible ow equations fora perfect ga, tables of flaw properties have been generated for different ‘aluss ofp. From these tables, gas velocity, Mach number andthe nozlethyustcoeicient (C¥-dafined a8 the thrust divided by the produc of chamber pressute and the throat area) ate obtained asa funeton of nozzle ae ratio and With perfect gas, g remains constant throughout the expansion process. However, whes the engine low is cansiorubly fess than umbena pressure at sea Composed of hot combustion products, real gos effects dominate. So asthe gas expands, z shifts as a result of level a mismatch in presore tat gives rise to changes intemperate and the chemical composition the srking Mach die inthe nozzle exhast “Maximum thrust is obtained if the gas composition isin chemical euiibriam throughout the entire nozzle The “dise"is an extremely strong shock wave EXPANSION POSS. that creates a region of subsonic low and produces a characteristic white luminescent slow. hitpshveb archive.oraweb201110021228 4p Awww k-makri.grRocketTechnolagy/Nozzle_Designazzle_desigh nim For this to occur, the chemical reactions must be infinitely fast allow the gas composition to adjust to apidly ‘changing pressure and temperature conditions inthe nozzle flow field. One-dimensional equilibrium (ODE) ‘thermochemistry codes ate currently used to accurately account for shilling g effects on 1-D nozzle performance. Intealry, however, nozzle flow Feds ate at leas wo-dimensional (2-D) in natute; thai, flow properties vary in ‘ot the axial and radial directions In a conventional bell nozzle, the gus flowing fom the combustion chamber and through the nozzle throat mus be tuned away from the nozle axis in order to accelerate or expand the Dow. ‘Subsequently, the flow must be turned back parallel to the nozzle axis to maximize nozzle efficiency. Throughout the 1960s, Rocketdyne developed an extensive library of computer programs that address the 2-D nature of supersonic flow fields using a computational procedure called the method-ol-characteristics, or MOC. These computer programs, some sil unique inthe propulsion industry, are in curent use for designing and analyzing ‘oth conventional bll nozzles and unconventional types such as arospike and expansion-dfletion (E-D) noes. ‘The MOC technique begins with a series of points deseribng the Now field (i.e, Mach umber and flow rection) along a "slat in.” The start line is generated by a transonic (0.8 = Mach number = 15) flow field analysis of the throat regio. Using these poins and the geometry of the nozzle contour, the solution proceeds ‘Sownstream poin-by-point, thereby creating a network of points and lines ferred to asa characteristic "net." For conventional bell nozzles, loss mechanisms fll nt three eategores (I) geometric or dvergeace loss, (2) viscous drag loss, and (3) chemical kinctics loss. Geometric loss reslis when a portion ofthe vale exit low is Girected away from the nozle axis, resulting in aragal component af momentum, Inan ideal nozzle, the ext flow is completely parallel to the nozzle axis and possesses uniform pressure and ‘Mach number By calculating the momentum or the actual nozzle exit flow end eomparing itt the paalie,912421, 244 PM Nozzle Design _niform flo condition, the geometric efficiency (hgco) is determined. By careful shaping of the nozzle wall, relatively high geometric efficiency can be realized; for example, igeo for the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SME) nozae 56.992 (0.8 percent thrust loss compared to idea). ‘A drag force, produced atthe nozzle wall bythe effets ofa viscous high-speed flow, acts opposite to the ireetion of thrust, and therefore results ina decrease in nozzle eficoney. This viscous drag efficiency is defined A nozzle generates thrust by converting the thermal energy of hot combustion ‘gases (temperanure) to kinetic energy (belocity). Maxioum theoretical thrust ts achieved in vacuum conditions when the mozzle area ratio kine. AC rides =1- Me Cr The drag free i obtained by calculation ofthe momentum deficit nthe wall boundary layer. The predicted value forthe SSME is 0.986 (14 percent Toss due to viscous drag), ‘The third nozzle loss mechanism is due to finite-rate chemical kinties. Mealy the engine exhaust ges reaches chemical equilibrium al any point in the nozzle {ow Feld, instantaneously adjusting to each new temperature and pressure condition In real rms, however, the rapidly accelerating nozzle Mow does not. permit time forthe gosto reach fll chemical equilibrium, The chemical kinetics efficiency is calculated by comparing the one-dimensional kinetics (ODK) olution tothe ODE soltion, or: AC roe New Crrooe [Because the $SME is designed to operate at high chamber pressure (roughly 3,000 psa) and the chemical reactions involving hydrogen and oxygen are not complex, the chemical reaction rate in the SSME are extremely fast; conse- quently, the SSME kinetic efficiency is hgh: Ma = 0.999 ‘The overall nozee efficiency is then given by the combined effects of geometric loss, viscous drag and chemical insti: Mee Mow MMe! ‘The two-dimensional kinetics (TDK) compute program, which has been combined with « boundary layer module (BLM), i the industy standaed JANNAF (Goint Army-Navy-NASA-Ait Force) program which accounts forall Tee noze Toss and is ued to predict hn for conventional bell nozzles. Experience tells the nozzle designer that a long nozzle is needed to ‘maximize the geometric efieieney, but athe same time, nozzle drag is yi cl reduced ithe nozzle is shortened I chemical knetes are an issue, then the acceleration of exhaust gases a the nozzle throat should be slowed by increasing the radius of curvature applied tothe design ofthe throat region. The optimum nozzle contours a design compromise that results ‘na maximum overall nozle efficiency ‘There are several classes of bell4ype nozzles fom which to choose. A nozzle contour designed to produce parallel, uniform exit lv, thercby yielding 100 percent geometric nozzle efficiency, is called an ideal hozae. But this ideal nozzle is exttemely long and the high viscous drag and nozzle weight that result are unacceptable. Some design approaches (Optimus nozle configuration fora particular mission depends upon system trades consid tncaing ideal nozzies until te weight considerations, geo involving performance, thermal issues, weigh, fabrication, vehicle integration and and hdragare optimize. cot, “The mos ase contour tht canbe considered fra nozzle i tuncatod cone Conic naz ld neat uniform exit velocity, bt the low angle vate om Le cose, 7ero atthe xis tothe cone half-angle a the wall, Consequently, flow divergence is Npoteoneay = 9 Fnodueed, which an be expressed 38 “where asthe cone half-angle A 15° halt-angle yes goometic nal efficiency equal to 983 and ie typically swo-hnds he fngth ofan dsl nozzle Forlow-arerati nozles, where simple fabrication methods are deste, 15" cones have hecome an acepted sada. The length of any nozzle ype 8 hitpsiveb archive. oratweb20111002122814ip Awww A-makri.gRocketTechnolagy/Nozzle_Designazzle_desigh.nim 269124121, 248 PM Nozzle Design ‘commonly referenced tothe length ofa 15® cone having the same nozzle area ratio, ihad long been assumed that for a given nozzle area ratio and length, ther existed a nique nozzle coatour that would yield the maximum geometric nozzle ‘ficiency or maximum thrust, Inthe late 1950s, Dr. G.V.R. Rao derived a method for analytically defining this unique contour, His method is widely accepled by the propulsion industy, end any nozzle contour designed for maximum thrust fora given nozzle area ratio and length is refered to asa Rao optiaum contour By shaping the nozzle wal acording to Rao's method, a shorter nozzle and an improvement of over one percent in nozzle eficiency can be obtained Telative toa 1S" cone, Nozzle contours can also he designed for reesons other than for maximum thrust For example, contours can be tilored to yield certain desired pressures or pressure gradients to minimize flow separation concers at sea level. Rocketdyne has a parabolic curve-ft program, generally used to approximate Rao ‘ptimam contour, which ean also be used to generate desired nozzle wall pressures. arly booster engines typically incorporated conical nozes to simply fabrication. Since booster engines perform only at low altitude and are then jettisoned, peak nozzi efficiency has less ofan impact on the total mission. The SSME, however, s used from sea level to orbit insertion Its nominal ras time is eight ‘minutes fr each mission, and efficient use ofthe propellants isa prime consideration, ‘The SSME nozzle is 10.3 inches in diameter at the throat, increasing o 90.7 inches atthe nozzle ext over & length of 121 inches. At 100 percent power level, propellants flow through the nozzle at arate of 1,035 pounds per second. The nozzle accelerates the combustion products to 17,000 feet per second at the nozzle exit, generating 470,000 pounds of trust at vacuum. Because the last one peeent of SSME thrust at a fixed mass flow rate warslates to about 5,000 pounds of shuttle payload, high priority was placed on nozzle desig and performance, ‘The SSME nove configuration was the result of a number of design iterations. Various system studies and mission op ee ratio was critical and the nozzle was configured with an aea rato of 775: and aTength equal to 80 percent of 15" conical nozzle. The task left co the nozzle designers was to specify the shape ofthe nozzle contout from the throat othe nozae endpoint which was dictated by the area ratio and nozzle length, The first choice for an SSME nozzle contour would obviously be one that maximized nozzle thrust; thats, @ Rao optimum contour. However, if Rao ‘optimum contour was used, the wall pressure tthe nozzle ext (pwlexi) would be much lower than the ambient pressure at sea Tevel. Even at 100 percent poser level, carresponding toa chamber pressute equal to 3,000 psi, (pwext) WoUld be 4. psia or 31 percent ofthe ambient pressure at se level Pas, experience showed that nozzle flow separation would likely occur if the wall pressure approached this level. Since nozzle flow seperation is dependent upon a ‘number of variables (boundary-layer thickness, pressure gradient, Mach number, ec.) and is thus difficult to accurately predict, additional margin in exit pressure was Sought. Some margin was also required to permit sea-level tesung of engine toting capability ‘A Rao design resulted in a wall angle of 7.5° atthe nozzle exit By educing ths angle, addtional Now turning is produced, and then, an increase in nozle wall pressure is created. A study was performed by Rocketdyne engineers in which a large number of parablic-shaped contours, wit a variety of different ‘nial wall angles (grax) and exit wall angles (qe), were analyzed. After careful analysis of these contours, it was determined that a parabolic contour with {max-37° and ge-3.3° woul produce the desired wall pressure increase withthe least amount of performance loss. The wall exit pressure was raised 24 percent (from 4.6 psia to 5.7 psa) ata cost of enly 0.1 percent in nozzle efficiency. Validation of the design approach was provided by subsequent testing of ‘the SSME which demonstated thatthe engine can be thotled to below 80 percent power level at sca level withous nozzle low separation Since more ofthe SME operation isa hgh rather than low altitude, ‘yacuim performance isthe overriding factor relating to mission pena performance and high nozale area rato is therefore desirable. However, ra nozzle over-xpansion at ea level docs result ina thrust loss because the ‘wal pressure near the nozzle exits below ambient pressure Ifthe nozzle ‘exit atea could somehow be reduced for launch ad then gradually increased during ascent, overall mission performance would be improved ‘The idea rocket engine would make use ofa continuously changing “rubber” or variable-geometry nozzle that adjusted contour area ratio and length to match the varying altitude conditions encountered during ascent, This feature i referred to as astude compensation, For single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) applications, where performance ‘margins are even more stringent than for the SME, some form of altade compensation in the nozzle is a must An SSTO vehicle relies on 4 single propulsion system that operates from sea level to ost The aerospike engine, bul and rested by Rocketdyne inthe 1960s, is ‘currently being evaluated for potential use with an SSTO vehicle because ofits built-in altitude compensation features and the beneficial mane in ‘which it packages” or integrates with the veicle Tn the annular aerospie nozzle, low issues from an annulus at a ameter located some radial distance fom the nozzle axis, Flaw is sirected radially inward toward the nozzle ais. This concept isthe ‘opposite ofa bell nozzle which expands the flaw away from the axis along diverging norzle walls, In a aerospike, the nozzle expansion process originates a» point on the outer edge ofthe als which is referred tas the "cowl-lip." Because this point is also exposed to {hc ale composting fare otc arco pore oe ae anon abient pressure, the flow turning or expansion is limited bythe proces ihe cco ambien pres High ambien prose ies panna the ou-ip and inlaence ofthe exteral cvironment, Ina andard bell nozzle, ow ‘reves fo rom becoming highly oner-opanded seater Tn ahihanarrato el athe expansion continues regardless of what the ambient pressure i, andthe {lo can over expand the ptt wher the flo sparate fom tent al prong flow ean con tinue to over-expan unl it separates from the nozzle walls, ‘ndsabic tera foes Ate ambient pres decreases wth increasing abide, te nele ‘ohm for both te erate and he bl mele are capa of rater expan. ‘evustelba Noe Eau Plane Gonpcane ‘With an aerospike nozzle, ambient pressure places a limit on the expansion process and the thrust loss associated with nozzle aver-expansion does not ratarilize. In addition, the benefits ofa variable area ratio nozzle are gained without the complexities associated with varable nozzle geometry. Since ambient pressure contol the nozzle expansion, the flow ate atthe end ofthe aeospike changes wit aitide. A Key advantage ofan arospike i hat avery high area ratio nozzle, which provides high vacuum performance, ea also be efieiently operated at sea level. Given the nozze area ratio, which, for an seospike sa function of engine chamber pressure, requited thrust level and vebicle diameter, an idea “spike” entour can be designed by starting with the known I-D exit Mach number - which ia function of area ratio -and performing "reverse expansion” back to the nozzle throat (Mach number), The resulting deal spike contour yields parallel, uniform exit low, buts, however, excessively long. Since wall hitpsiveb archive. oraweb20111002122814hp Awww A-makris.gRocketTechnolagy/Nozzle_Desigivnazzle_design nim 389124121, 248 PM Nozzle Design pressures and projected nozzle area are minimal toward the end of the “spike,” significant length ean be eliminated before the loss in thrast becomes excessive. For example the length ofan ideal spike is about 150 percent ofa 15° cone. Weight versus nozzle performance rads typically re- duce the nozzle engi othe 20 percent range ‘Truncation ofthe fll length "spike" results inthe formation ofa nozzle base region end a performance loss. However, the thrust pro duced bythe discarded portion of the spike isnot enirely lost AC high altitude, the nozzle flow atthe end of the runcated nozzle tuns into the base and surounds a "bubble" of ‘octcuating subsonic flow. Since the wake is closed, no external or ambient influence ean be exerted. The important results that a pressure exists onthe nozzle base that partly offsets the truncation lose. Data generated from a variety of eold-low serospke tests revesld thatthe base thrust sa fied percentage ofthe thrust generated bythe disearded portion of the spike. Knowing the base area (AD), an average bate pressure (Pb) is ths empirically ‘determined forthe closed wake ease High bas pressure is, ofcourse, desirable. One common method used for increasing base pressure is the introduction ofa secondary gas into the base region nas found that by injecting secondaty ow equal about one potcent ofthe primary eine low, engine perfrmasce would be optimized, Use of secondary flow inthe base also elongates the separation bubble, thereby forming an “aro-dynamic™ contour tht resembles the truncated portion of the spike, This aerodynamic spike, formed by use of secondary base flow, isthe Bass forthe er "aerospike [At the nozzle pressure ratio (NPR ~ chamber pressure divided by ambient pressure) where the ext flow ofa ideal serospike sat w uniform velocity and at constant plume diameter (equal to the engine “cowllip" diameter) the engine is sad to be operating at the "design" condition. At Tow NPR or low altitude operation, the high ambient pressure "squeezes" dhe exhaust plume inward toward the nozzle wall. Asa resul, low altitude operation is characterized by the appearance ofa Series of lterating pressure peaks and valley along the nozzle surface ‘The reason for these wall pressure oscillations is found by inspection ofa MOC flow fed analysis, The expansion at the eowl-lip proceeds ntl the How reaches ambien! pressure, creating «series of expansion waves that propagate downstream foward the nozzle wal. Athe point where th last expansion wave in the series intersects the wall, the wall pressure is near the ambient valuc. Further expansion is not posible, but the supersonic exhaust gas continues tobe pradually tumed paral! tothe nozale axis by the contour. This results ina compressive turing region onthe nozzle where the wall pressure ses and eventually exceeds the ambient pressure, in some cases by a considerable amount. The resulting compression waves propagate outward toward the constant preseure plume boundary tate established between the engine exhaust gas and the vehicle slipstream, ‘These compression waves reflect from the plume boundary inthe form ofa series of expansion waves that eventually intersect the nozzle wall dowmstream of| the compression zane. The expansion waves then begin to relieve th high pressure on the wall anda zone of low pressure thus crested downstream of the compression zone. The minimum pressure experienced in this low-pressure zone is typically less than the ambient pressure, When the last expansion wave in the serie interseets the nozzle wal, the wal pressure begins fo rise again due tothe gradual turing caused by the nozzle contour. The proces then repeats ite, seting up an alternating series of high- and low-pressure zones on the nozzle wall Since the average wall pressure is typically greater than tbe ambient pressure, the flo isnot over-expanded, By allowing the influence of ambient pressure tobe transmitted tothe nozzle wal, the aerospike yields net thrust advantage over conventional belltype nozzle, Another important aspect ofthe lw altitude performance of aerospike nozzles relates tothe pressure aetng on the nozzle base. When the nozzle pressure ratio Js Les than roughly one-thicd of the design pressure ratio, the wake that is present in the base ofthe plug is said to be “apes,” meaning tat the base is open the influence of ambient pressure andthe base pressure isa song function ofthe ambient pressure, This condition i disinelly different fom the condition that occurs on the base for high-alitade operation where the wake i "closed," and the bate pressure is independent of the ambient prestue, Dring the 196s, Rocked eed mame scrap engines rag nse fom subscale foldfiow models thi 25000 pnd hat yen lope ete shown tts nd Nevada Theo aide performance adanag fe ape on he conventional el ‘As in the case ofa closed wake, an increas in performance cas be realized by hitpshveb archive.oraweb20111002122814htp Awww k-makris.grRocketTechnolagy/Nozzle_Designazzle_design nim 469124121, 244 PM Nozzle Design bleeding secondary slow into the base of the plug. The addition of mass into the base increases the base pressure and the resulting base thrust contribution. Motes of Cherearetoe Boltion When vehicle is acelerated through the atmosphere, the sewing over the a ‘vehicle can strongly influence te altade-compensating characteristics ofthe Sse ea acrospike. At fight speeds coresponding toa Mach number jst Blow one, Nose Length 5% the vehicle slipstream has bec shown ro improve nozze performance by SRotoaartant concen, ‘al amount However, rors Mach Io abut Mach 3 wind tne ts Sat indicates dopinsozle effiieney det the slipstean tring iat the nozzle region, When ths aces, the local presse into which the engine ‘exhausts étops below embient pressure, ad the nozie low fed ads oan elective higher alte. As esl the pressure peaks on the nozzle surface are reduced, and overall performance sufes. Nevereles, the interval of time thats spent inthis adverse igh regime is short for typical Hight trajectories, andthe oveal performance ofthe trospke nozzle remains wel above that of a conventional belltype nozzle With use of computational uid dynamics (CPD), tremendous opportunities arise to accurataly analyze complex nozzle flow Fields that inthe past could ‘only be resolved by costly experimentation, For example, advaneed nozzle concepts, such asthe serospke, introduce flow field complexities that include . - ‘heoe-dimensional (3D) mip thruster eTets, slipstream interactions and (Computational Fluid Dynamics Solution separated base flows. Design ofa system to contol vehicle Might by adjusting the angle and location ofthe nozzle thrust vetor also relies on CFD analysis. Tat vector contol s often achieved by toting individual thrusters o by injecting gs through the nozzle wall to cause a change in the local pressure distibuion. In either ease, complex 3-D flow fields are generated which can only be analyzed by use of CFD. ‘Static Pressure Distribution on Aerospike 7 0 2 4 6 8 0 ‘Ail Distance rom CowtLi et) bone Tuc Tr aig eo naonl ape Fow FU Tae ae Inthe characteris (MOC) and computation fd dpmanis (CHD). Bath chs ‘Prodi the wal pres xelltios at ar character of naman nh ‘The challenge now facing nozale design engineers is the future development of CED asa design tool. In this mode, CFD would arrive ata nozzle contour that would produce «desited result, such as maximum overall nozzle efficiency ora specified nozzle wall pressure distribution, The key to future development les Inthe ability to use expert or knowledge-based systems to tansform existing CED computer programs into useful nozle design tools Note: This ancl isa reproduction ofthe Bocing Engincering at hp: /twsenpineeringatboeing com, writen by RA. O'Leary and J.B. Beck BackioTue Home | Links | My Job | Aireraft- Rocket Tachnology | Photo Gallery hitpsiveb archive. oraweb20111002122814hp Awww A-makris.gRocketTechnolagy/Nozzle_Desigivnazzle_design nim 56