Optical Communication: Basics

BITS Pilani RAHUL SINGHAL

Pilani Campus
Why fiber optics?

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Too Much information

“The internet lives on beams of light.

One hair thin glass fiber can carry as much data as thousands of copper wires.”
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Fiber Characteristics

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Optical Bands (Telecom)

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Advantages of Optical Fiber
• Bandwidth - The amount of information that can be transmitted per unit time
of fibre over other transmission media is its most significant advantage. With
the high performance single mode cable used by telephone industries for long
distance telecommunication, the bandwidth surpasses the needs of today's
applications and gives room for growth tomorrow.
• Low Power Loss - An optical fibre offers low power loss. This allows for
longer transmission distances.
• Interference - Fibre optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference.
• Size & Weight - In comparison to copper, a fibre optic cable has a cross
sectional area that is much less. Fibre optic cables are much thinner and
lighter than metal wires. They also occupy less space with cables of the same
information capacity. Lighter weight makes fibre easier to install.
• Safety - Since the fibre is a dielectric, it does not present a spark hazard.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Advantages of Optical Fiber
• Security - As physically tapping the fibre takes great skill to do
undetected, fibre is the most secure medium available for carrying
sensitive data. As they do not radiate electromagnetic energy, emissions
cannot be intercepted.
• Flexibility - An optical fibre has greater tensile strength than copper or
steel fibres of the same diameter. It is flexible, bends easily and resists
most corrosive elements that attack copper cable.
• Cost - The raw materials for glass are plentiful, unlike copper. This
means glass can be made more cheaply than copper. Cables are
expensive to install but last longer than copper cables.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Optical System

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Light Transmission

Speed of propagation in a medium

v c
n 
• Photon Energy
E  hc

• Frequency
  2f  2c 
c = 299 792 458 m/s
h= 6.62606957 × 10-34 m2kg/s
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 Index of Refraction
Speed of EM waves in a medium depends on
interactions with Electric Field and Magnetic Field

cvacuum
n   
cmaterial
ε = εrε0, εr is the relative permittivity of the
material, and ε0 = 8.8541878176 × 10−12 F/m is
the vacuum permittivity

μr = μ/μ0, where μ0 = 4π × 10−7 N A−2.

Permeability is measured in henries per meter
(H·m−1), or newtons per ampere squared
(N·A−2).
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 Snell’s Law

n2 φ2

n1
φ1

n1 sin( 1 )  n2 sin( 2 )
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Refractive Index

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 Snell’s Law, n1 sin 1  n2 sin 2
c
Refractive Index, n
v
Critical Angle,
n2
sin c 
n1

n2 φ2 Φ2=90
n2
n1 n1
φ1
φ1=φc

n2
n1 Total Internal Reflection

φ1>φc φ1
Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection

Critical Angle (Φ1) occurs at Φ2=90˚

critical  sin  n2 n 
 1 
• For angles larger than the critical angle, have total
internal reflection (TIR)

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Total Internal Reflection

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Meridional Ray

Skew Ray

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Critical Angle, Acceptance Cone, NA

By Snell’s Law, na sin  m  n1 sin  m  n1 cosc

Numerical Aperture,
(n12  n22 )1/ 2
NA  na sin  m  n1 cosc  (n  n ) 2
1
2 1/ 2
2
Since, cosc 
n1
n12  n22
Relative Refractive Index Difference,  
2n12
Therefore, Numerical Aperture may be rewritten as, NA  (n12  n22 )1/ 2  n1 2
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DISPERSION 1. Modal/Multipath Dispersion
2. Material Dispersion
3. Waveguide Dispersion
4. Chromatic Dispersion (1+2)
Multipath Dispersion

θm
θm

L / cos m Ln1 Ln1 Ln1 Ln12

t1 
L Ln1
 t2     
v c v c cos m c sin c c(n2 / n1 ) cn2

Ln12 Ln1 Ln1  n1  n2  T n1  n1  n2 

T  t 2  t1        
cn2 c c  n2  L n2  c 

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G.652 https://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-G.652/en
Propagation modes

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

For Graded Index Fiber,
1/ 2
   r   for r  a


 n1  n0 1  2  
n( r )     a  

n2  n0 1  2   nc for b  r  a
1/ 2

To appreciate ray propagation in GI Fiber,

visualize fiber as been made up of several
coaxial cylinders where RI of central cylinder is
highest and decreases for every successive
cylindrical layer.
Meridional ray takes a curved path due to
multiple refractions at successive RI interfaces.
Multipath dispersion in GI fibers is less than SI
fibers.
Rays near core axis travel shorter paths.
Parabolic profile (α = 2) ensures minimum
multipath dispersion.
For Graded Index Fiber, NA  (n12  n22 )1/ 2
1/ 2
 2 r
2
 2 
 n0 1  2    n0 1  2 
  a  
1/ 2
  r  2
 n0 21  2 
  a 

• The velocity of rays near axis will be less than

that of Meridional rays because axial rays
have to travel trough high RI region (v = c/n).
• If refractive index profile is chosen such that
time taken by Axial and Meridional ray are
same, then multipath dispersion will be
negligible.
• Parabolic RI profile reduces dispersion
considerably.
Phase velocity, v p

phase  max 2 2  
vp   
 
time t T T
phase  2  1 
vp    .  2f . 
time T T 2 k k
d 2
Group velocity, v g  where,   2f ; k 
dk 
Material Dispersion
The ratio between the speed of light c
and the phase velocity vp is known as the
Refractive index,
& Phase velocity v  vp  c / n refractive index

vp   /  where,   2f Angular frequency in radians per sec.

2 
&  where, m 
m n
β is propagation constant ; λm is wavelength of light in medium; λ is free space wavelength
c
Thus,
vp  c / n   /  or, n

Any signal superposed onto a wave does not propagate with phase velocity but travels
with a group velocity.
1
Group Velocity, v g  d / d 
d / d
In non-dispersive medium, v p  vg as v p  
But in dispersive medium, vp is a function of ω.

1
vg 
d / d

Thus, a light pulse, will travel with vg in core of fiber.

Group index, ng  c / vg

Group index, in terms of phase index or ordinary refractive index,

d d n d
ng  c c ( ) (n )
d d c d
dn
 n 
d
 dn dn d
Since,  .
d d d
2c
&, 

d 2c
 2
d 
We have,

dn 2c dn  2  dn
ng  n    n     n  
d  d  2c  d
Thus,
c c
vg  
ng (n   dn )
d
A light pulse will travel through core a length L in time t,

 dn 
n   d  L
t  L / vg 
c
If light source has a wavelength spread of Δλ, the pulse will spread over a time Δt.

dt L  dn dn d 2n 
t        2  
d c  d d d 
L d 2n
   2 
c d

Relative spectral width, 

L 2 d 2n
Pulse broadening due to material dispersion,  
in terms of half power width, τ. c d2
   d 2
n
Pulse broadening per unit length,  2

L c d2
The material dispersion of
optical fibers is quoted
in terms of the material
dispersion parameter, Dm
given by
λ = λZD = 1.276 μm

 1  d 2n
Dm  
L  c d2
Combined Effect Of Multipath & Material Dispersion

τ0 τ

τ1 τ2

      
2
0
2
1 2 
2 1/ 2

1/ 2
    2 2 2
    0
2
1
2
2
2
L L L L 
In terms of rms width of received pulses,
1/ 2
    
2 2 2
   0
2 
1
2
2
2
L L L L 